lJNIT-11

M]~'I'EOROLOGY

Effects of meteorology on Air Pollution -

Fundamentals, Atmospheric stability,
Inversion, Wind profiles and stack plume
patterns- Atmospheric Diffusion Theories-
Dispersion models, Plume rise
 -.. ·,·
• ~ : »» • ,· : ...

METEOROLOGY

2.1. INTRODUCTION

Meteorology is the branch of science concerned with the

processes _and phenomena of the atmosphere, especially as a
means of forecasting the weather.
The factors which change the concentration of air
pollutants in a particular area are called Meteorological
Factors of air pollution.
The concentration of air pollutants in a
particular area from various sources depends
...
oi:: highly on the local weather conditions .
:t

2.1.1. Objectives of Meteorological Factor

Study

The degree of air pollution may vary, even though the total
emissions into the atmosphere in a given area remain same
from day-to-day, due to changes in meteorological conditions.
Meteorological data is very essential for air pollution studies.
Various objectives of studying the meteorological factors
are as follows.
1. To identifythe source of pollutants
2. To predict pollution events such as high
concentrationdays
 ·-
'· ·::_.·.::. 2~~~:'.: '' A.i;_P~u~ii'on anC!c~~o!Engineeting Meteorology 2.3
~~~..;._~..;.._~-~-,-~~~~~~~--~~~~~~~~----

3. To. simulate and to predict the air quality (using 3) Establishing air monitoring surveys.
computer models)
4) Carrying out research in air pollution control
4. To determine the stack height methods.
5. To evaluate the intensity of air pollution etc.
2.1.3. l\{eteorological Factors
2.1.2.·Effects of Meteorology on Ait· Pollution The important meteorological parameters that influence air
Meteorological factors are highly influencing the quantity pollution can be classified as,
of pollution in the earth's atmosphere from the following (a) Primary Parameters
ways .
1. Wind Speed arid Direction
./ Solar radiation and temperature affect the quantities
- 2. Temperature
of pollutant emitted, by their influence on the
3. Atmospheric Stability
amount of space heating required.
4. Mixing Height
./ Sunshine is the reason for photochemical production
of oxidants forming smog. (b) · Secondary Parameters
,.---~~~~~~~~~-.
./ The wind velocity, turbulence and stability affect the 1. Rainfall and
The meteorological
transport, dilution and dispersion of the pollutants. Precipitation
factors highly depend
./ The rainfall has a scavenging effect in washing out 2. Humidity on the latitude, season
(rainout) particles in the atmosphere. 3. Solar Radiation and the topography of
./ The humidity is a frequent and important factor in 4. Visibility the area .
determining the effect that concentrations of
I. Wind Speed and!Direction
pollutants have on property, vegetation and health.
The speed and direction of wind changes the concentration
In view of these effects, meteorologists are involved in the
of pollutants, especially near the ground levels. The high
following aspects of air pollution control.
speed of wind carries away the pollutants at or near the point
1) Forecasting air pollution potential, so that air
of emission.
pollution control agencies may alert industry to
The emitted air pollutants easily get diluted with high
carry out temporary abatement action.
volume [Link] air, The speed of dilution process
2) Selecting sites and designing emission systems for
highly depends on the speed and direction of the wind.
large industrial sources.
 2.4· .
.2.5
. . . ..
•. Alternatively, when the · wind . speed is low, pollutants u0 Wind Speed at z~
concentrate thearea at or near the-pointof discharge.
K Wind Speed Constant
Gustiness is an important 1
characteristic of surfaces wind~ for larger lapse rates
9
The concentration of
that determines the · extent to 1
pollutants is inversely
which the pollutants are diluted ·• 3 for marked inversions
proportional to the wind
and mixed with surrounding air.
speed. - ~ Normally taken as ( ~)
It is directly proportional to the
wind speed. II. Atmospheric Stability and Inversions
!
1
In plain (or rough) terrain, the wind speed and direction Atmospheric stability is defined as the measure of
near the source decide the subsequent movement of the atmospheric tendency to encourage or discourage the vertical
pollutants. motion and the vertical motion is directly related to the
-......:.:)

In hilly terrain, hills may deflect the air flow either · different types of weather conditions and its severity.
horizontally, vertically or both and the quantity of deflection The degree of atmospheric stability is determined by the
depends on the vertical stability of the atmosphere. temperature difference between the air parcel and the air
Wind speed can be measured by using an Anemometer, surrounding in it.
and let the Height of Anemometeris z0• For every 1 OOOft increase in altitude, the
By measuring the wind speed, (u0) at anemometer height temperature decreases by about 3.5° F (about
z o. the wind speed (u) can be calculated at any other height· 6.4° C/km). The rate at which the atmospheric
(z) by using the following formula temperature decreases with increase in altitude is
called Lapse Rate.
I u ~ u.[*r I When the Reverse (or Negative) lapse rate occurs, a
where, dense-cold stratum of air at ground level gets covered by
Anemometer Height lighter-warm air at higher levels. This concept is called
z - . Height, where the wind speed ts to be inversions.
measured
 ~
s, '"::.~~ "'._·_-_ .· .
. ..:
.-
• c 2~7
,-

air anti-<~yclones.
The air circu1ating around the area descends
During [Link] air movement rs stopped and
slowly at the rate of about 1000 m per day. ·
pollution will be concentrated below the inversion layer
\Ai~ti-Cyclones are .high pressure areas
(dense-cold air and ground level). Due to this temperature
inversion, the atmosphere is. stable, and every little mixing of ~rrounded by low ..::.p_re_s_s_u_r_e_ar_e_a_s_._'-------~

air with air pollutants takes place. This is called atmospheric HI. Mixing Height
stability and at this condition, pollutants in the air do not ~ixinig height is defined as the height above the earth's
dilute.· surface to which related pollutants will extend, p~arily
Occurring of inversions is very common in winter and through the action of atmospheric turbulence. It is ~~ually
autumn (the season before winter and after summer) seasons. related to one or more of the other three factors.
At the time ""o{ inversions, visibility is highly reduced and
(a) Wind direction
pollutants are at maximum.
(b) Wind speed
Types of Inversions (c) Wind turbulence
(i) Radiation Inversions IV. Precipitation and Rainfall
Inversions occur at night, when the earth loses heat by Rainfall or Predpita1tion is the secondary meteorological
radiation and cools the air, in contact with it is called factors that exert a two-fold cleansing action on. the
pollutants, discharged into the ·atmosphere. Rainfall
Radiation inversions.
accelerates the deposition of particulate matter on the ground
In radiation inversions, the cool air stratum is covered by
and hence, its concentration of gaseous ~·-------.
lighter-warm air and the vertical air movement is stopped,
until the sun wanns the lower air, in the next morning. pollutants which are soluble in water. . Humidity is
Rainfall can be estimated by using the quantity
Radi,ation inversion is very common in winter than
various rain gauges. representing
summer, (due to the reduced daytimes). Due to the restriction
of horizontal air movement by surrounding high ground, V. Humidity the amountof
radiation inversions may occur frequently in Valley areas. The moisture content of the water vapour
atmosphere influences the corrosive in the
(ii) Subsidence Inversion
action of air pollutants and represents the atmosphere.
Inversion occurring at moderate altitudes and often potentiality for fog fonnation.
remains for several days, caused by sinking or subsiding of
 I:, , ,Me@rofogj',
. mechanism and it is called Prevailing or Ambient or -
VI. Radiation (Solar Radiationl_
Environmental Lapse Rate (ELR)
Solar radiation induces the chemical reactions between
the atmospheric air components and pollutants in the air and '•,

the reaction rate depends on the location. - ~12500 '···.. ,

- ..........
2000 -,

The application of all the above (/J ~

-,

m A.L.R •••
meteorological factors may be Solar radiation . ~ 1500 '
E '•,
c ~
considered in the control of pollution is the main heat · ~ 1000 -
C)
---------~---------------------r~:: : I '-I

source and it is ~ :: ~
from an industrial plant, in the selection
of its location, in the design of
absorbed at the
:I:
500
.. .
:
: -,
: <,
''

ground level and 25 30

0 5 10 15 20
equipment and its regular operation. hence, the Temp in °C
Also, these meteorological factors temperature.
~- 2• J . ,.Ia)
.rlg. '.I Sub Adiabatic Lapse Rate
are used in the layout of zones for
industrial use, in identifying casual factors in existing
pollution problems and in establishing air quality criteria.
2500
''
' . ' -,
2.2. LAPSE RATE ··.,~ A.L.R

The temperature of the ambient air (Surrounding air) 1en

Cl>
2000
'-..._ E.L.R
-,
...,,...
-,<,
i
decreases with increase in the altitude (height). The rate at E
1500
··. -,

::c 1000 - -·----,-----'--:..--------. ' ..:"•,

which, the temperature changes with increasing height of the s:;
~
:c
:
• '
:
...
~\~...
atmosphere is called Temperature Lapse Rate. 500
I
:
'
-.
: -, ,
I '

The lapse rate changes with respect to time and place.

5 10 15 20 25 30
0
Even at the same place, the rate changes with time. However,
Temp in °C
the lapse rate cane be determined by raising a balloon
Fig. 2.2. (b) Super Adiabatic Lapse Rate
(attached with a thermometer), by the digital self-recording
:l.1U
Meteorology
. ..---.

When a pocket of heated air is released from. an

l
2500 automobile or a stack to the environment, it rises up, expands.
2000 E.L.R · becomes lighter and gets cooled. The height upto which the
<I>
Q). air packet moves, depends on the density and temperature
~ 1500
-E--- decrease rate.
c
:E
CJ)
1000
As· fhe · air packet moves up, its temperature decreases as
"(i)
I
its heat is expanded, clue to increase in the volume of air
pocket.
0 5 10 15 20 25
2.2.1. Dry and Wet Adiabatic Lapse Rate
Temp in °C •·
'
Dry air, expanding and cooling adiabatically -c~ols at the
[Link] - Varying between 9.8° C/Km to 6° C/km
rate of 9.8°C per kilometer, is called Dry-adiabatic lapse
T
H - Varying between 9.8° C/Km to 6° C/km
rate. In wet air, the expanding and cooling is calculated to be
Fig. 2.3. (c) Environmental Lapse Rate 6°C per kilometer and, is called Wet-adiabatic lapse rate.

The lapse rate of a parcel of dry air, when it lifts upwards When the Environmental Lapse Rate (ELR) is rriore than

in a hydrostatically-stable environment and expands slowly. to the adiabatic lapse rate it is called Super-adiabatic lapse

the lower environment pressure without exchange of heat is rate, and the environment is an unstable, i.e., at an unstable

called Adiabatic Lapse Rate. environmental conditions, the rising parcel of hotter-lighter
air will continue to rise up and the downing cooler-denser air
The figure 2.3 shows various lapse rates and their
parcel will continue to come down.
relationship.
When the Adiabatic Lapse Rate (ALR) is greater than the
- Under the prevailing environmental conditions, when a
Environmental Lapse Rate (ELR), the environment is said
pocket of air having less heat and density; released to the
to be stable, and this is called Sub-Adiabatic Lapse Rate.
atmosphere, it tends to rise up to reach a point at which the
When the ALR is equal to the ELR, the environment is a
temperature and density equal to the temperature and density
neutral one and this is called Neutral Adiabatic Lapse. Rate.
of the surrounding air.
2.12 Air Pollution and Control Engineering _
. -, .- --::-~----- .-- ....
When the teniperatur~· .of:the· eni~mb.~nt
inh~dS¢~ ~th: . .:
.

In air pollution, the diffusion of air pollutantsinto the

altitude, then the lapse rate becomes inverted and this is environment is depending on the environmental
called negative lapse rate.
lapse rate and adiabatic lapse rate.

The factors influencing the plume behaviour are as

lsothennal
{no change in follows..
1. temp. with ht.)
1. Stack Height
2.. Diurnal Variationjjn the atmospherestability)
3~ Seasonal Variation (long-term variation)
·Negative
lapse rate lapse rate Stack Height
Emissions from the tall stacks, are generally allowed to
mix with the atmospheric air (at higher levels) in order to
..
:: ·.~
Temp. in °C increasethe rate of dilution. ,
Fig. 2.4. Negative Lapse Rate Ground Level concentration of the emission highly
Negative Tapse rate occurs under conditions is generally dependson the,
·.,
called inversion. Temperature inversionsrepresent a highly 1. Height of the Stack
stable environment.
2. Height of the plume rise above stack.
2.3. PLUME AND PLUME RISE The actual stack height (H) is easy to determine while
. Plume is defined as. the path and its extension in the ·effective stack height (He) is quite [Link] estimate with
atmosphere of .the emitted gas from a source. The source is high degree of accuracy. The increased stack height is
generally referred as stack. In general, plume is an air consideredto diffuse the pollutantsbetter.
column, in which one air is movingthroughanother. Immediately above the stack. the rise of pollutant is
Plume Rise is defined as the distance of the hot plume proportional to the emission -velocity of gases and to the
temperature differences between the gases and the
from the stack into the atmosphere,due to the buoyancy and
momentum. - surroundingatmosphere.
 2.14 . -.
.. Air Pollution and Control f;nginc~~ing.
- z . . . ; ... : .~ . :, . . . . . .: - . ·. : •. . .·.. . : . . ' "• - ·__ -: ; ~ . : '.. ·:--.:-... .. ·'. [Link] <, : -~

For a given stack height," ·th~ ~once~tr~tion at groundlevel It has been reported that in the direction of wind, the
decreases with increase in wind 'velocity, However: there is a maximum concentration is attained a! a distance Xm, ranging
c~tical velocity, when the ground concentration attains its from 10 to 40 times the stack height.
maximum value. The empirical formula for the stack height emitting
Maximum Concentration (Cm) of pollutants on ground maximum concentration of pollutants emission, developed by

. -Ievel is given as, USSR, isgiven as,

M·K:Q~ ~ ~~m- ( i:t )t

H2 -\L~i_J

Where, Where,

H A Coefficient
Height of the stack (in m)
K depends upon atmospheric condition
Constant
M 200 for Indian conditions
Mass of the pollutant gases discharged per unit
ti~ . F .Coefficient

V - 'Volume of the pollutant gases discharged per depends upon dust precipitation efficiency
unit time .: varies from 0.8 to 0;95
AT - Difference m temperature of stack gases and M - Coefficient
surrounding air depends upon velocity of flue gases

The constant value K depends on the following. H Heightof stack or chimney (in m)

(a) Horizontal and vertical mixing of pollutants m n Number of emitting sources

the air V Volume of gases leaving the chimney

in m3/s.
(b) Settling velocity of polluting substances
t - Temperature difference between gases 'and
(c) Discharge characteristics of the gases from stack.
temperature at the top of the stack

M - Quantity of flue gases in g/s

 . -·
. ;;:. / ~ . . ·:,[Link], [Link]:tiq,, qkd:C,oriiroi .f;iiffi~~r,fiig =: : _: ,• . ·<~·#<_' e_J,..;.;iio_:r_;v_.;.lo~gy..-;.'....c,.;.~ .............,--''---'~-__,..-.....,;....,..._ __ _;,.__.,.,--,-,.-..,.--'-;-~-· . "'-2_.: 1_7; ",: c:_. ,-_ :

vs Stack gas velocity (m/sec)

D Inside exit dia of the stack (in m)

u ~ Wind speed (in m/sec)
H p Atmospheric pressure (in millibars)
h Chimney
i----- Stack gas temperatures (in ~K)
T0 Air temperature, (in °K)

. 2.3.1. Design of Stack Height

The following two formulae are given by the Central
H == h + Ah
where,
Board for Prevention and Control of Air Pollution based

h - actual heightof stack in m

on various assumptions, are used to calculate the minimum
.D..h - Plume height in m height of the chimney for Indian Conditions . ..
·:·.1
..
Fig. 2.5. Effective Stack Height (1) -':~

The value 'H', used [Link] above equation is the .effective where,
height of the Stack (or Chimney) and the actual height of the h Chimney height ·
Qp - PM emissions in tonnes/hour
Stack is not to be used. This effective height consists of
actual height (h) with the height to which the plume rises
c2) Ih = 14 <Qs)027 I
above the Stack before levelling out. where,
·h 'Chimney height
I H=h+tih I
Qs - S02 emission in kg/hour
Holland's equation is also used to calculate the plume
height (tih) The maximum of two heights calculated by the above
equations snould be considered for design.
From the above two [Link] subjected to the
following minimum values.
Where;
1. Chimneys adopted for industries in general - 30 m
M Rise of the plume above the stack (in 91) 2. For Thermal power plants - 220 to 27 5 m
2.3.2. Objectives of Study of Plume Behaviours upward movement of plume will continue, till the plume
· Plume behaviour observations are used, density equals the air density.

1. To determine the locations of air sampling 3. Coning Plume

Coning Plume is the plume behaviour in the shape of the
2. To identify the invisible pollutants
cone above the plume .line; which occurs at a slight stable
3. To change the plume pattern according with the environment. When the wind velocity is more than 32 km/h,
seasonal. variations
coning plume occurs in a near neutral atmospheric (adiabatic
2.3.3. Types of Plume (Plume Pattern)
Various types of plume behaviour are described below.
I condition). In this, the plume reaches the ground at greater
distances than the looping plume.

l. Looping Plume ~ 4. Fanning Plume

2. Neutral Plume Fanning plume is the horizontal plume pattern for a long-
distance, occurs when there will not be a vertical mixing.
3. Coning Plume
Fanning plume occurs, under extreme inversion conditions
4. Fanning Plume
due to the negative environmental lapse rate from the ground
5. Lofting Plume to certain: heights.
6. Fumigating Plume It may extend even above the top of the stack, the
7. Trapping Plume emission will spread only in the horizontal direction, due to
the high atmospheric stability.
1. Looping Plume
Looping plume is defined· as, the behaviour of plume
which has wavy character and it occurs at a highly unstable
atmosphere, due to the rapid mixing.
2. Neutral Plume
Neutral Plume is the upward vertical rise of the plume
from the stack, which occurs, when the environmental lapse
rate is approximately equal to the adiabatic lapse rate. The
 r ,..-,,. ~ ~.~.'!!' er 5-."[Link] ~ .\, #"~ t;:_:·~~ f

N
z . iv
0

~ K
(a)
Looping Strong Lapse
Plume Condition ' ~ . r,.fJ,t~.lffe)
'.:t'1 ; . . ', . . :~q '\~:"fjf
~-z·
. - I. . \ ..

N
u -x
?--
z
(b) Neutral Normal Lapse
.,~ Plume Condition
~·
c;
~
;::
/ u -x s,
::: z :;;·
.
~
. ..,,
b:i
(c) Coning Weak Lapse -,
C)
:::::
...~ Plume Condition ',. ~
~
-: ·',,,
s·;:s
s·;:: u §
i:! z -x Cl..

-~
(d) Fanning ~
Inversion -,
-, Q.

.r·.~~I ..
Plume Condition ' t?'J
',,
'
I I I I u -, . (

-~
------r--i----.-. :~
.:

. :. C)
. '""I
·, z ...
.:!·'. ~C'
C)

Inversion
Lofting below ..... ./
(e)
Plume Lapse Aloft
.,..
... ---f
. '' ··1·:1' '
.
··:''i
~
~· "
tr -x
N
N I

~ Lapse z

. ~~ [''=<·-------
E - ---~
"'I
s·
a
~
~
(f)
Fumigating
I Plume
below
Inversion
Aloft
u
. ... . . '',,, . .. "~-: ~\~~~~gH{(
-x
~

.- ::-~
~
-: z
s·
;::
. i:! Trapping Between
(g) I Plume .:::i··:· ·
Inversions •••:•••1t•••••·· ·,.1·;,
-x ·'I'
~ ...
: I I
u
I I I I '~
·.,·,· 1N

-·~. - ~(/' t ·.:~ i' ~~-; fi. /

 ;'};J,-2<' - . -· ~ - : .: .- - - ... ·.,
·-AfrPotiiitfrm;afidControtEn@'ni!~zwf - __ -- '·fti~i~-"orold'&,~< --;-- -- __ - .._•

'
:
----2.23.
5. Lofting Plume
2.a.4. Wind Rose-
Lofting plume is the plume pattern, occurs when there is a - ' Wind rose at a ]ocation is defined as the pictorial
strong super adiabatic lapse rate above the surface representation of distribution of wind 'direction at the given
inversion. In this pattern, diffusion is rapid in the upward
location over the observation period. Wind rose is used to
direction and the diffusion does not penetrate the inversion
show the prevailing wind direction. It is used to view how the
layer in the d~vmwai-d. In this case, emission will not reach
the surface.
wind speed and - direction are - typically distributed .at a
particular location.
6. Fumigating Plume
It is essentially used in the construction of airport:-
Fumigating plume pattern occurs, at a short distance
runways, as aircraft perform their bestlanding and take-<:ffs
above the stack height and a strong lapse rate prevails below
pointing into the wind.
the stack. Because of the inversion layer, the emissions
cannot move above the top of the stack. In general, a wind rose diagram consists of eight or sixteen
emerging - lines from a circle, and - each emerging line
Fumigating is the worst case of plume pattern because
they are brought down near the ground, due to the turbulance indicates the wind direction. The length of each line specifies
in that region. the frequency of the wind from that direction. The frequency
7. Trapping Plume of calm condition is entered at the centre of the diagram.
A wind diagram can be drawn based on various factors.
When the inversion layer exists above the emission source
and below the source, the plume lies between the two Some of them are drawn by considering only the wind
inversions. In this case, the dispersion cannot go above a direction and some of them are by considering other
certain height. important meteorological factors, based on the purpose of the

From the above, it is clear that the lofting plume is the best wind rose diagram.

plume pattern due to the minimised air pollution. The Wind roses may be drawn from the data obtained over the
trapping and fumigating plumes are the critical plumes from given time, the time interval may be several months or a year
the point of ground level pollutant concentrations. or a season. In wind roses, the meteorological factors are to
 < ~;' _-;; ,, AJr. f.i?lllfl.~9n afi4 Cr>ntr(J/E;°ng{ji¢,/:r.:fng:>: ,', , Met~PfOlogy .: : - 22?-:
~-:-'--'-'-_,.-'"'"""".'_,..~.,......~-'--~-,-:-.:--'-------'-'--'--~---'---'-...--;-----'--;-'-'--,.
<:::;:': ,_-::·>-_(
- be converted into wind direction that refers to the direction Wind speed ofless than 1 km/h is mentioned as calm.in_
from which the wind is blowing. the wind rose diagram. Following are the special types of
10% wind roses.
1. Precipitationwind rose
,4. • Smoke wind rose
3. S02 wind rose

5% 4. HC wind rose

2.3.5. Pollution Roses:

3%
Pollution Roses are defined as the wind rose-diagramand
10%
5% in which, various parameters of precipitation, smoke,
Scale: I cm - 4% sulphur-di-oxide, hydro carbons etc. are attached with the -·.
._,
-

wind direction, instead of wind speed.

Index: ®aim >------1 ~- Wind Speed 2.3.6. Types of Wind rose
•' % '----=~~-"'""-""-""-"=~~ In Km/h
6-10 11-20 21-30
1. Type I wind Rose (showing direction and duration
,, Fig. 2.8. Wind Rose Diagram ofwind)-

The frequency of winds blowing from the north is - 2. Type II Wind Rose (showing direction, duration
indicated by a line or bar extending to the north on the wind and intensity of wind)
rose diagram. 2.3.7. Plume Rise and Dispersion Theories

Wind rose diagram is prepared using an appropriate scale The dilution of atmospheric wastes from elevated stacks is _
to indicate the percentage frequencies of wind direction and considered to occur in two stages,
appropriate index shades, lines etc., to represent various wind I. Plume rise and
speeds. 2. Dispersion
In the first stage, the hot plume from the stacks goes up to
a certain distance (defined as 'plume rise') into the
 L..Lo Air P ollution, ~nd 9on,irol£~indiri
1~ Wind Tunnel Method
· · .. atmosphere, due to buoyancy and momentum. Subsequently'
. . Wind Tunnel Technique is another method used to
in the second stage, the plume spreads both vertically and
estimate the effectiveness of the diffusion of the atmospheric
horizontally by the dispersion process.
waste. In this method, a model of the stack and the adjoining
The phase of pollutant dispersion can be described by the
area of interest are constructed in a wind tunnel, and the
mathematics of diffusion, and has been the subject of,
diffusion experiment conducted on the stack jets in that
considerable: theoretical and experimental work by many
tunn el , satisfying the usual .geometric and dynamic scaling
workers ·in this field. On the other hand, all the plume rise ·
parameters.
equations are mostly empirical in nature, and none
The formulas which are available and used to estimate or
uniformly accepted. ·t ..

predicting the pollutants are generally obtained from uniform·

The available theoretical and empirical equations can ~··.
topographic and meteorological conditions. These problems
effectively utilized, to estimate the concentration of pollutants ·
can be eliminated by the Wind Tunnel Method. This method
downwind from an emission source.
functions, based on the method of similitude between the
These theories and equations involve,
~ tu a 1 flow condition and corresponding model in the
. wind
1. Plume temperature
.
...
2. Rate of emission.
tunnel.
"

In this case, a strong wind when turbulent mixing keeps

3. Stack parameters the lapse rate in almost adiabatic condition _andit may not ~e
(a) Height and diameter difficult to obtain the usual geometnc and dynamic
(b) Meteorological factors (wind speed, direction · Ilitude
Slllll l · ·s·ut the simulation
. of scales and intensities of
etc.) turbulence, and the variation of mean wind velocity with
( c) The atmosphericstability height, is extremely difficult.
(d) The parameters representing the topogral'~ Tlllrbulence is defined as the gas (or a fluid) flow,
of the region. differentiated by its properties, changes with respect to time,
The above parameters have been employed successfully. which is formed due to the rapid variation of pressure,
many stack design and pollution control problems. velocity etc.
 ·228 .. . ' ....Air: . Poliution-and
: ..• ·.
.;. . .
ControlEngineering
. ..·. . ~ ...
·., . ~ . . .' .
,. ' ,.-: 2.29 .
. ·. ~--·. ·' .. :.

Conventional tunnels fail - in correct prediction when the The atmosphere may be considered to be adiabatic, except
atmospheric lapse rate. controls the plume behaviour, as the near the surface where air exchanges heat. For the adiabatic
temperature within the model is essentially isothermal. Many arrangement; the lapse rate yd, = 1 °C per 100 metres of
works are in progress to develop suitable simulation methods,
height..
which shows that the Wind Tunnel Method is the suitable
· These conditions correspond to the neutral equilibrium in
method for solving the atmospheric diffusion problem.
which a quantity of air can be displaced without showing any
[Link] of Dilution tendency to return to its original height or to move further
Before entering into the detailed description of plume rise away from it. The value of 0 < y < Yd refers to a stable
.. and . dispersion equations, it is important to consider the condition. By a stable arrangement, a quantity of air when
. process of dilution of the atmospheric wastes-from the high
"' displaced from one height to another is forced back to its
""• level stack effluents, and also the principle meteorological original. position. When the displaced air tends to move
factors influencing potential air pollution. farther away from its . original position, the condition is
The temperature of the atmosphere decreases with increase known as unstable, i.e., y >Yd·
in height and the temperature gradient is closely interlinked The lapse rate can be negative so that the temperature
with the stability for air masses and in the study of pollution increases with height and this condition is exceedingly stable
e: in atmosphere, the temperature gradient (lapse rate) is of and the meteorologists call such a distribution an inversion, ,, . :-'·-
.":
special significance. The temperature lapse rate y is defined .i.e., Yd< 0.
by, Humidity has an influence on the distribution of
-dT
y = temperature in the atmospheric air which is in general mixed
dZ
with water vapour. If the water is in a gaseous state in air, its
Where,
presence in small quantities makes little difference in the
T Temperature
behaviour of the air mass as regards its stability. If, on the
z Vertical distance
other hand, water vapour condenses, it affects the behaviour
The negative sign indicates drop in temperature and often of the air since there is a great amount of heat release due to
this sign is neglected. condensation.
 230.·· :::.·.: ~~eqr:~lQf!J1 ,
·. ,: '-:.

_ The lapse rate, which may vary widely even in normal day ·elevation z1, and u can 'be the mean wind at any elevationz,
u can be expressedasfollows as given by Sutton:
~-=·
conditions, plays an important role in the case of dilution of
stack effluents in the atmosphere. The negative lapse· rate or
temperature inversion (the inversion layer may. begin at
U [~ J n/(2-n)

·~I Z1

ground level and extend. up to a few hundred metres) may

Where, n is the turbulence parameter, 0 ~ µ.< 1.
occur on clear nights with light winds when the air next to the
The approximate value of n for a large lapseTate is 0_20
surface is cooled by the cold ground" surface. A low-level
and for marked inversion is 0.50. Other meteorological
inversion always acts as a barrier to vertical dilution or the
factors which affect the turbulence or mixing of pollutantsare
pollutants even in an unstable surface layer and thus leads to
humidity, vertical gradient in humidity, etc.
an increase in the intensity of air pollution near the ground.
It is apparent that the form of stack emissions depends on
Gustiness of wind plays an important role in the dilution
of atmospheric wastes. Gusts are the manifestation of the wind profile, . turbulence of the wind, temperature
atmospheric turbulence and a quantitative measure of distribution, etc.
gustiness gives the magnitude of turbulence. In other words,
[Link] Rise andits Estimation
gustiness, g', is the measure of the fluctuation of the mean
velocity of a turbulent wind in a particular direction. Plume rise is defined as the rising of the emissions (or
"..
~t plume) to a certain distance into the atmosphere due to the
'.J . ·- If u is the mean wind velocity in the x-direction, and v' is
the component fluctuation of the mean wind in j--direction, velocity and temperature.
then, the gustiness in they-direction, g~ is given by, The level of pollution at a location highly depends on the
, l_~ height of the stack. The 'effective height' of a stack is the
g y = -- -\I (v')3
u sum of total height of the stack and the rise of the plume
beyond the stack exit. The plume rise depends on many
Another important factor, wind-speed profile . in the
factors as follows.
vertical plane, is a good measure of the degree of turbulence
1. Exit velocity
and atmospheric stability. In an unstable atmosphere, the
variation in wind-speed profile with height is much less than 2. \Vind speed
3. Diameterof the stack
under stable condition. If ~ is the mean wind at a particular
 : ,2..32 .', - 4 i':; J'.ol/71(io~and Cqntroljf,ngin_e¢ring · ..
· Meteorb/dgy·, . . . . · · .' .. · :--:- .:·---·_:--.-: ·.

4 .. · Temperature of the plume

5. Lapse rate, etc. Wind Speed (fh/sec)

The plume rise can be calculated by. using number of d Stack diameter (in m)
formulas and one of the formula is given below; Heat emission rate (K 0 cal/ sec)
Plume rise regression co-efficients
depends on the atmospheric stability
Where, In the above formula, the first term evaluates the vertical
a, p andK Constants momentum of the gases leaving the stack. The second term
Tm Mean Temperature during measurements evaluates the buoyancy force of the plume, which is a
- function of heat content of the plume. Hence, the magnitude
In Canadian Combustion Research Laboratory, the

., values of a, P and Kare estimated as !, 1, 66.4 respectively.

of the plume rise is inversely proportional to the wind speed,

.,,
$' directly proportional to the sum of mass ejection rate, and
Q is expressed in K cal/sec and u is in terms of m/sec, square root of heat content of the gases.
.. where K is the function of height of the source emission. The BIS has suggested that the following Brigg's
In another method, the plume rise can be computed by the formula, be used to compute plume rise for practical use.
theory of buoyancy and momentum. (a) For hot effluents with heat release of the order of
f Afz = Mi buoyancy + !)..h momentum I 1 Q6 cal/sec or more.
Q l/4.
Moses and Carson 'introduced the following formula for H
0.84 (12.4 + 0.09 h)
plume rise height.
u
Where,
u u Heat release in calories per second
Where, Height of the stackin meters

Plume rise in m u - wind speed (in m/sec)

Vs Stack exit velocity (m/sec)
' ,- '2.34 - - .·. >A}~folludon imd Control El1gineering .: ·. '[Link]~ol<-,gy
~~.4.1. \Vind Dir~ction Recorder
ii), For low heat releases and which can be mounted as
momentum sources above.

Where,
W0 Efflux velocity of the same units as~
D Stack exit diameter
·It may be noted that, even though the available plume rise
formulae, predicts well in a particular place for some
particular conditions, nothing can be completely accepted due
to the empirical behaviour- The lack of a complete theory
concerning the rise of plumes in the atmosphere is probably a
barrier to the environmentalists m the prediction of ;'
' Fig. 2.9. Wind Direction Recorder
downwind pollution levels.
Wind direction recorder of the NEERI for measuring ~ind
2.4. METHODS OF MEASURING METEOROLOGICAL direction employs the conventional wind vane to sense the
VARIABLES wind direction. It is automatic and operated mechanically

The instrument which is used for meteorological -factors without any power supply. The instrument continuously
should have higher degree of accuracy and sensitivity. Also, records the wind direction on a chart attached with the
it should be simple and' durable. The National instrument.
Environmental Engineering Research Institute (NEERI)
L Surface Wind Oiiredion
has developed some devices for measuring the
There are. four main types of wind vanes for measuring
meteorological factors. The devices are,
direction
1. Wind Direction Recorder 1. Flat plate vane
· 2. Wind Speed Recorder 2. Splayed vane
3. Temperature Measurement 3. Aerofoil vane

4. Solar Radiation Measurement 4. Running average anemograph

 Air Pollution and Control Engineering A{eteorol~g;y- , ····-' -:. - __ .:.-_- ·: ..

• ··1'o·Fl~tPkiteV:~tie·,_:_• •- ·-<~),PiI~t brN100D.s.·(Pi6als)

In the flat plate v~e type, the sensing element which In this method, a small ballooa inflated with hydrogen or
governs the azimuth angle- of a vertical shift specifying the helium is left aloft and the direction of the , wind aloft is .
wind direction is a vertical plate which js mounted at one end determined by tracking the balloon by means of one or· more
of a horizontal rod. On the otherend of the horizontal rod a theodolites on the ground. The average wind direction is
' obtained using triangulation techniques at successive height
counter weight is located. The rod is fastened to the vertical
intervals. The pilot balloon technique of determining wind
shaft. Wind pressure acting on theflat plate keeps the counter
·aloft isof limited value because the balloon may be lost with
weight heading into the wind. low cloud, fog or smoke.
2. Splayed vane (b) Tetroons
In this instrument, two flat. plates which arc joined at a A tetroon is a constant volume Mylar balloon in the shape
small angle at one end of a horizontal rod act as the wind of a tetrahedron which is kept in a zero lift condition and
direction sensor. - carried by the wind in an almost horizontal direction. Zero lift
3. Aerofoil vane balloons are produced by filling pilot balloons with a mixture
of two gases, one is more dense and the other less dense than
In this instrument the vane has an aerofoil cross section
air. As the mixture of gases leaks from the balloon, the loss of
with the span often being three or four times the chord.
the heavier gas causes a decrease in its weight. Thus an
4. Running average anemograph approximate mixture of gases will keep the balloon in a zero
It is always better to measure the average wind speed and lift or balanced condition for lengthy periods of time. Such a
direction, if possible. While averaging the wind direction, a balloon, when accurately tracked, acts as a sensor for wind
problem occurs from the process of differentiating 0° - 360° direction. The advantage of this type of balloon lies in the
as the wind direction fluctuates around north. fact that it can indicate wind trajectories near cities, over
An anemograph which automatically produces the running shorelines and in valleys where complicated patterns of
averages of both wind speed and direction has been airflow are commonly observed. If substantial distances are
developed. · to be tracked, a radar installation with a transponder
suspended from the tetroon will be required, which is an
II. Wind Direction Aloft
expensive method.
The wind direction at the height of a plume from one or
(c) Kite balloons
more stacks is important in some investigations. All the
A kite balloon is an elongated captive balloon with fins at
available methods are discussed, below.
one end.
 .:::_::.::;.,···

It acts..:..~s an-ordinary captive spherical balloon ir~/light anemometer. The-rate of rotation. of the shaft to which the
winds and <is .a kite in stronger winds, thus maintaining . cups are attached indicates the wind speed and this is
altitude under both conditions. The azimuth angle of the transmitted to a recorder or an indicating panel by either
horizontal projection of the tethering cable is measured at the
mechanical,opticalor electrical means.
ground to determine the wind direction at the height of the
balloon. The inflating gas lost by slow leakage is replaced by In the instrumenta four cup rotor is employed to sense the ,
refilling it at intervals. wind. The motion of the cup is transferred after reducing its
(d) Radio and radar speed by a gear system, to the pen which makes a continuous

In the radio method, a small radio transmitter is carried rise and fall impression on chart paper. This rate of rise or fall
aloft by a freely rising balloon and is tracked. With the radar is proportionalto the wind speed.
system,. pulses of electrical energy emitted by the radar are
reflectedback to it by a target carried by the free balloon. The
distance to the target as well as azimuth and elevation angles
is measured by the system. This gives more accurate results
than the radio direction finder. However, operation and
maintenance costs of radio and radar theodolites are
prohibitivelyhigh.
(e) Smoke trails
Information on wind directions aloft may be obtained by
finding at intervals the position in space of smoke trails
released above the ground by a rising rocket or an aeroplane.
However, observations in fog, smoke, or at night, are not
possible. Also, this method requires more operating personnel
than the pilot balloon method.

2.4.2. Wind Speed Recorder

Anemometer is the instrument used for measuring wind
speed. Tf they are recording instruments they are known as Fig. 2.10. WindSpeed Recorder
anemographs. The most common type is the cup ·
•2.40,
Working of Mercury thermometers is based on thermal
The instrument gives a 24-hour record in one setting.
expansjon while bimetallic thermometers are . based on the
Wind speed at a particular time and the average wind speed
can be found out from this record. - differential expansion of two metals.
The electrical resistance thermometer is based on the ·
2.4.3. Huntldity Measurement
variation in electrical resistance · of a metallic wire with
(Whirling Psychrometer)
change in temperature and a thermo- couple is based on the
One of the simplest and II?-ost reliable instruments used to
electrical current which flows when two electrical conductors
measure the humidity is the whirling psychrometer. Two
made of two different metals are joined together. All four
thermometers, one with a wet cloth surrounding the bulb, are
types are used.
whirled in the air. The temperatures of both dry bulb and wet
bulb thermometers are noted. To obtain accurate readings, the thermometer must be
shielded from radiant energy. Proper aspiration is also
From the temperature difference between the dry bulb and
. ~ecessary to· avoid the stagnation of the air inside the
wet bulb thermometers,the relative humidity of the air can be
radiation shield. A motor aspirated radiation shielded
found by referring to psychrometric table. - .
· temperature sensor for temperature inversion studies
Other instruments that can be used for measuring humidity
are: developed by NEERI is described.

1. Infra-red hygrometer In this temperature probe, a glass probe· bead type

2. Hair hygrometer thermistor is used. The constructionaldetails of the probe are
shown in Fig. 2.11.
2.4.4. Temperature Measu rerne rrt
A common instrument for measurement of temperature is
thermometer. Following four types of thermometers are used.
1. Mercury thermometers
Brass Tip

G~~f;~;;:::::::::::::p:::~ Ji
Steel body Shockabsorbing PVC Cap
Material
2. Electrical resistance thermometer
3. Bi-Metallic thermometer · Fig. 2.11. Probe Details
4. Ordinary digital thermometer
 . Meteorology. .·.·:·:· ,•. __

I-
::) Two core shielded electrical contacts are taken from the
0 -
thermistor leads. The thermistor is first wrapped in a shock
absorbing material and is put into an exactly fitting stainless
steel tube.
. A thin walled conical shaped metallic tip rs fixed at one
end of the stainless steel tube. The thermistor is pushed until
its sensitive point makes a positive thermal contact with the
thin walled metallic tip. The open end of the stainless steel
tube is closed with a PVC cap and the joint is made
watertight with some adhesive. -
Figure 2.12 gives the details of the radiation shield. It
consists of two concentric PVC pipes A and B separated from
each other by an air layer and supported at two positions by
two polyvinyl chloride (PVC) rings R1, and R2. PVC is
preferred as it is a good heat insulator and at the same time is
also a light material with sufficientstrength.
<(-O::Z
The temperature probe (TP) is positioned on the axis of
the inner pipe with the help of a PVC sheet (S) and clamps C1
and C2• The tip of the probe is kept 5-8 cm inside from the
edges of the outer pipe and about 2.5 cm from the edges of
the inner pipe.
The outer surface of the outer pipe and the ends of the
inner and outer surfaces of both the pipes are covered with
Fig. 2.12. Motor Aspirated Radiation Shielded
Temperature Sensor aluminium foil having good eIEissivity.
 -,Air P.ollz1tiofz
and. Coruroi. Engineering> .·_.··'2AS: -: ·
. ., ·. . ,.... . •: . . ..
_ .· . .':.
. :::·,····
··.: .. .-·
.:

A fan assembly-is fixed at the other end of the pipes. A .;. Stack height
small fan (F) driven by a motor (M) _working on 9-12 volts .;. Exit velocity of the gas
(DC) and mounted in a funnel shaped support, aspirates the .;. Exit temperature of the gas
air over the probe. .;. Stack diameter
.;. Meteorological Conditions
2.4.5. Solar Radiation Measurement
.;. Wind velocity
Knowledge of sunlight intensity is important especially in
places where photochemical smog formation takes place. .;. Wind direction
Instruments used to measure the radiant energy from the sun .;. Ambient temperature
are, .;. Atmospheric stability
1. Pyrheliometer
2.5.2. Dispersion Equations
2. Solarimeter The dispersion of pollutants is due to the turbulent flow of
3. Chemical actinometer etc. the wind. It is depending on the atmospheric stability,
zustiness etc. Generally dispersion is a three dimensional
2.5. DISPERSION OF POLLUTANTS b •

approach, and the solution for that approach is

When the air pocket, containing air pollutants, released to ·mathematically difficult. Hence three dimensional equations
the atmosphere from a source, it gets dispersed into the are required to get the solution. These equations (or models)
atmosphere to various directions, depending upon the estimate the concentration of pollutants in the plume at any
prevailing winds, temperature and pressure conditions in the distance x, y and z in the horizontal down-wind direction,
...... environment. Under the normal environmental conditions, cross-wind direction and vertical wind direction respectively.
when a packet of air (which is hotter and lighter than the The turbulent diffusion models for atmospheric pollutants
surrounding air) is released to the atmosphere, then it tends to are based on Fick's law of molecular diffusion. Assuming
rise up and reaches a level, at which its temperature and x., ~ and x, are Eddy-Diffusivity Co-efficients in three
density becomes equal to the surrounding air. directions and applying the continuity in the atmosphere, we
2.5.1. Factors affecting dispersion of pollutants get,
Various factors affecting dispersion of pollutants in the ac J + cya [ ~ . ac
axa [ K, . ax ay J
atmosphere are, ac
.;. Source Characteristics rt { +-a. az [ K_~ .-aacz J +Qx , >' ---
.;. Emission rate of pollutant
 .~·.;
.. ::·:·:, .. : . ··1···. ··;:

}'vf eteorology
Where,
Table 2.1. Pas(/Hill:_s Stability Categories
~.y._z Source or Sink expressed in appropriate terms
Day Nizht
Surface
. In the above equation, the value I<~, KY and K, will vary Ioci>mingSolar Radiation Thin ;

Wind Speed <

overcast or
with respect to location and time and hence, the equation will (m/sec) (3/8)
Strong Moderate Weak (4/8) Low
be comprehensive. atz=lOm cloud·
cloud
On the basis of the Ficks law, Gaussian developed a <2 A A-B B E F
statistical equation called Gaussian Dispersion Equation, 2-3 A-B B c E F
4-5 B. B-C c D E -
and is given as,
Concentr~tion l . Q [ 2
5-6 c C:D D D n
of pollution
C
1= 2n0yazu·-_exp -t(~~) J >6 C° - D D D D
-
The horizontal and the vertical =--di$Eersion coefficients m
horizontal Gaussian plume calculations can be approximated as,

{ [ -2l(z-H)
exp ~ 2]
+exp l(z+H)
l- -2~ 2]}

'Where,
ay(x) = ax0.894 and az(x} = cx« +f

vertical
x - Downwind distance, in kilometer (km)
Where, C -· Concentration of Pollutant (in gm/m-')
a, c, d and/ -Constants, given in the table below,
Q Emission rate of the pollutant (gm/sec)
-,.., 1· cry= axil' and b. is always ~ 0.894 I
Mean wind velocity (in m/sec)
Table 2.2. · Constants for calcuJatill!J, Dispersion Coefficients
x - Downwind horizontal distance (in km)
y - Crosswind distance (inm) Stability x<l km x> 1 km
a
cry - Plume's Standard Deviation m cross-wind Category c d f c d f
A 213 440.8 1.941 9.277 459.7 2.094 -9.6
direction (in m)
B 156 106.6 1.149 3!} 108.2 1.098 2:0
(J
z - Plume's Standard Deviation in' vertical
c 104 61.0 0.911 0 61.0 0.911 0
direction (in m)
D 68.0· 33.2 0,725 -1.7 44.5 0.516 -13.0
H - Effective stack Height
E 50.5 22 .. 8 0.678 -1.3 55.4 0.305 -34.0
F 34.0 14.35 0.740 -0.35 62.6 0.180 -48.6
 ~
... · ...- ~--- . · · "; Meteqf:ofogy'.,
. ---

Numerical Valuesfor Horizontal Diffusion (cry)

In the downwind horizo_:italdirection along the centerline
of the plume, (When concentration is required only along
3 x 103 - I )
2

.I
"v
x - direction) then y ~ 0. ,J- I;

-----=e - 2 (~- ,- - ,~22) I

103 ~
- """"
r---c,,o-Q

t
./
/ /

I_ [Link] . 5
I
/
v
v
~ ... "

When the smokes are emitted at ground level, the effective

E ., / '--"v ./
t->

stack height (Hjis zero.

.S
-E"
-2
II v v v
v ~~
~~
i.-
Q) j ,;' i- [.....-
102
'zs ,
The maximum ground level concentration occurs, where
1E
0
0
Q)
,,,.
-- -
c 5
II'
/
v "' V/
/
""
cr, = 0.707 H, provided (::)is constant with downwind
0
·c;;
- / V- v
/
v v v v ""'
v v Vi,. .
(i) 1,1.- ~

distancex.
0.
(/)
'5
co
2

101
0 / v ,;' . v A • Extremely unstable
(_)

104 t
~
N
5 /
/

/
"
/
v
,
,, - B - Moderately unstable
A - Slightly unstableA
D - Neutral

t
" V/ E - Slightly stable
5 / b F - Moderately stable
/ / v y 2 v
2 / Vv v v
YVj vv t>v v"
v ~/
v

, , " 5 1a3 2 5 104 2 5 105

/ , , /
Downwind! distance (x) from source in m ----
/ v I//
/ / I/ ~ /
c
V/ v Vi;~ Fig. 2.14.
0 2
-~
Q)
a. v~ ~
v )/'y I/
Numerical Values for Vertical Diffusion (cry)
B 102 ~ I/
, , ,
ro
c0 /
, / / Values of crx and oy are the function of downward
N 5 / / /
"§ / v_,.. v /
A - Extremely unstable -
distances (x) and atmospheric stability. Values of cry and crz
I B·- Moderately unstable_r-
V/_,.. v ~v A • Slightly unstableA
b /,,
2
v~ r- vv /
D -Neutral
E - Slightly stable
F - Moderately stable
-~

-
for various values of x and different types of atmospheric
stabilities are also given in figure 2.13 and 2.14.
,,, , ,
J I Example 2.1 I On a summer afternoon with a wind
2 5 103 2

Downwinddistance (x) from source, in m

Fig. 2.13.
5 104

---
2 5
speed of 3. 20 m Is the concentrationof particulate matter was
found to be 1520 µg!m3 at a point 2 km down wind and 0.5
 . · .. ·
-. 2.50.· '. :::.-':, ', ,: '·.. 2 ..51
•· • ).fe,[Link], :' · . '•, '' ~:..:.-
._;;__,~__.:.__.:.--...:--;o--,--'-:~_;_;_~~~-,,-------,-

km perpendicular to. the plume centerline from· a coal fired Substituting,

power plant. Determine-the particulate emission rate of the 123~
!)..h ·5 [ 1.5 + (2.68 x IQ-3 x 1000 x ~ .5
power plant, given the following:
Stack Parameters Atmospheric Condition
Height : 75.0 m Pressure : 100 Kpa x [5955;;01 ]) J'
Diameter : 1.50 m Temperature : 28° C
Sh = 5.625 (l.5+1.986)
Exit Velocity : 12 mis
Temperature. : 322° C Afz = 19.61 m
Make any assumption, iffound necessary. Effective Height, [- H = h + !}..h
(Nov/ Dec 2011) (May/ June 2012) (Nov/ Dec 2012) H = 75m+l9.6m = 94.691 m
Solution:.... ·":" Gaussian Dispersion Equation
Holland's equation for plume height (flh), Concentration }
ofpollution =--Q_= exp
[ 1 (
-2 ~
) 2 J
Vs·D [ 1.5 + 2.68. . . (Ts-Ta)]
x 1 o-3 PD C 2na/3zU
I tlh u Ts
centre line . horizontal
Where,
bh Rise of the plume above the stack (in m) {exp [ -~e~zH) 2 ]: exp [-it ==H) 2- J}
Vs Stack gas velocity or Exit Velocity (m/sec) vertical
= 12 m/s VVhere,
-·- D Inside exit dia of the stack (in m) = 1.50 m c Concentration of Pollutant (in gm/m3)
u - Wind speed (in m/sec) = 3.20 m Is = 1520 ug/nr'
p Atmospheric pressure (in millibars) = 100 Kpa Q Emission rate of the pollutant (gm/sec)
= 1000 millbars[l kPa = 10 millibar] µ - Mean wind velocity (in m/sec) = 3.20 mis
Ts - Stack gas temperature, (in °K) y - Crosswind distances (in m) = 500m
= 322° c = 322+273 = 595 °K cry - Plume's Standard Deviation in cross-wind
. Ta - Air temperature; (in °K) = 28° C direction (in m)
= 28+273 = 301 °K
 2.52 A_ir Pollution and Control Engineering _ Meteorology 2.53

·.•-:. ::.', .'·.<(> -:; ·t~tim¢·:s· stai{(Iara'0~v1k46ii.'.:1n~~ri1ca{a1i~6iidh ·

(inm) · . 1s20 ~ ~:~2~0)
g90)(3.2J[e
(94.6)2 }
~1z1it'JF '1;J;~:i~ 1

H - Effective [Link] = 94.61 m + e - 2(234)2

From the table 2.1, Pasquill's Stability Categories, For Q .
Wind speed, u = 3.20 m Is and Summer Afternoon (Strong- 1520 = 1.36 x 106 (0.26) (0.921+0.921) .
. Incoming Solar Radiation), stability category (A-B) selected.
Category, Bis assumed for this calculation. Q ·= 4,965 x 109 µg/s
The value of cry and a z can be calculated as follows. Q = 4965 g/s
j ay (x) = a x0.894 J and
2.6. DISPERSION MODELS
J az (x) = c xd +f I Dispersion models are mathematical simulation or
From table 2.2, for Stability Category B and x = 2 km appro~chesmade to the dispersion of pollutants to study how
(x > lkm), the value of air pollutants disperse in the ambient atmosphere. The
dispersion models vary depending on the mathematical
a = 156, c = 108.2, d = 1.098andf = 2.0
calculations used to develop the model.
Substituting,
. The dispersion models· vary depending on the
aY = 156 (2.0)0.89
mathematics used to develop the dispersion
= 289.898 or 290 m model.
Ci== 108.2(2.0)1.098+2.0 The dispersion models require the following details~
= 233.61 or 234 m a) Meteorological Factors
Concentration.} - 2
• Wind speed and direction,
of pollution
C .
= Q
2ncryaz-;;
exp [ -t(~) J • The amount of atmospheric turbulence
centre line horizontal • Ambient air temperature

{ exp [ -k (z :zH) J 2 +exp [ - ~ e ;zH) J }

2
• The height to the bottom of any inversion aloft that
may be present
vertical • Cloud cover
• Solar radiation.
 ·.•. M_~teorology .·
~
b) Sources of E.i:rri~sion This model is very limited in its ability to accurately
• The concentration or quantity of toxins in emission predict dispersion of air pollutants over an air shed be~ause
(or accidental release) the assumption of homogeneous poUutant distribution is
• Temperature of the material much too simple .

c) Emissions Parameters b] Gaussian model

• Source location and height /. - The· Gaussian model is the oldest and· most commonly

• Type of Source (i.e., fire, pool or vent stack) I used model type. It assumes that the air pollutant dispersion
has a Gaussian distribution, (meaning that the pollutant
• Exit velocity
distribution has a normal probability distribution). Gaussian
• Exit temperature and
models are generally used for predicting the dispersion of
• Mass Flow Rate or release rate . continuous, buoyant air pollution plumes originating from
d) Terrain elevations at the source location ground-level or elevated sources. Gaussian models-may also
be 'used for predicting the dispersion of non-continuous air
• The receptor location (nearby homes, SCh 00 1 S,
pollution plumes (called puff models). The primary algorithm
.. businesses and hospitals)
The location, height and width of any obstructions
used in Gaussian modeling is the Generalized
Equation for a Continuous Point-Source Plume
Dispersion

(such as buildings or other structures) in the path of

the emitted gaseous plume, surface roughness. •C) Lagrangian model
Lagrangian dispersion model mathematically follows ·
2.6.l. Types ofAir Pollution Dispersion Models
pollution plume parcels (also called particles) as the parcels
There are five types of air pollution dispersion models.
move in the atmosphere and they model the motion of the
a) Box model parcels as a random walk process. The Lagrangian model
The box model is the simplest of the model types. It calculates the air pollution dispersion by computing the·
assumes the air shed (i.e., a given volume of atmospheric air statistics of the trajectories of a large number of the pollution
in a geographical region) is in the shape of a box. It also plume parcels, A Lagrangian model uses a moving frame of
assumes that the air pollutants inside the box are reference as the parcels move from their initial location. It is
homogeneously distributed and uses that assumption to said that an observer of a Lagrangian model follows along
estimate the average pollutant concentrations anywhere with the plume.
within the air shed.
 e,

2.56 Air Pollution and [Link]

~) Euterlaii model
4~ Estimation of predict future concentrations under ----
Eulerian dispersions model is similar to a Lagrangian -
specific scenarios (i.e. changes in emission sources)>
model in that it also tracks the movement of a large number
of pollution plume parcels as they move -from their initial
I Example 2.2 I Determine the effective height of:;_. stack

location. The most important difference between the ·two from the following data. -: /
models is that the Eulerian model uses a fixed three- Wind Velocity, u 3 m/sec
dimensional Cartesian grid as a frame of reference rather than Air temperature 21 =c
a moving frame of reference. It is said that an observer of an 200 m with~
Physical Stack = { O. 98m inside diameter
Eulerian model watches the plume go by.
-· e) Dense Gas Model Atmospheric pressure = 1000 millibars

Dense gas models are models that simulate the dispersion

Stack gas velocity 11.12 ml sec
.
...
t:-··

of dense gas pollution plumes (i.e., pollution plumes that are Stack gas temperature 160 ° C
heavier than air). Based on the stability classification in the ©Solution:
field · of atmospheric diffusion, the three following well From the given data,
known models are used.
Wind Velocity, u = 3 m/sec
1. Pasquill Model
Stack height, h 200 m
2. ASME (American Society of Mechanical Engineers)
D 0.98 m
Model
Atmospheric temperature 21° c
3. McElroy Model
Ta = 21+273 = 294° K
2.6.2. Applications of Dispersion Models Stack Gas Temperature, Ts = 160° c
Following are the applications of dispersion models. 160 +273 = 433° K
I. Air Quality Assessment
Atmospheric Pressure, P = 1000 millibars
2. Estimation of downwind ambient concentration of air Stack gas velocity, Vs = 11.12 m/sec
pollutants
Rise of the plume above the Stack, f..h
3. Calculation of toxins emitted from sources such as
industrial plants, vehicular traffic or accidental = V s u· D. [ 1.5 + 2.68 x 1 Q-3 PD (Ts-Ta
· _ Ts ) J
chemical releases.
". .. ·•.. .v- 258°

11.12 x 0.98 [ .r: ••

3 x 3.6 tonnes/year
= 3 . L5 + 2,68 x 10-3 x 1000-+< 0.98
- 10.8 tonnes/year
x (
433-294)
433
J Assume the industry is working 20 hours in a day for 300
days in a year.
3.633 [1.5 + 0.843]
10.8
• • b..h 8.513 m Q'p = 300 x 20
Effective Height of the Stack,
1.8 x l0-3 tonnes/hour
IH=h~
h 74 (Q.P )0.27
= 200 + 8.513
= 74 (1.8 x I0-3)0.21
H - 208.513 m
I
Example 2.j~ An industry uses 3.6 ml of oil fuel per = 13.43 m

year. It has also been calculated that for every 1 ml of fuel · The height of 13.43 m chimney rs required for the
oil burnt in the industry per year, the quantities of various effective disposal of Particulate Matter.
pollutants, emitted are given below. l
(ii) By using equation h == 14 (Qs)3
PM = 3 t/year
Where,
S02 = 60 t/year
NOx 8 t!year Q, = S02 in (kg/hour)

Hydro Carbon HC 0.5 t!year S02 emissions 60 tonnes/year/ml of oil

Carbon Monoxide CO 0.5 tlyear 60 x-1000
300 x 20 x 3·6
Calculate the required height of Chimneyfor safe dispersion.
of the pollutants. 36 kg/hour
l
©Solution: :. h - 14 x (36)3
46.22 m
(i) By using the equation, h = 74 (Qp)o.21
Where, The height of 46.22 m required for the effective disposal
of the S02 and this height is more than the minimum
emissions of particulate matters in
QP = { tonners/hour . requirement of 30 m height. Hence the height of 46.5 m is
 ...

-2.60

provided for the effective disposal of pollutants including the- = 1800 µglhour
NOx, CO and HCs.
Since 'JO% of lead present in the fuel is emitted as particulate
I Example I
2.4 During rush hour on a busy road aerosol, the lead aerosol released in air
crossing, nearly 1500 vehicles ply per hour at an average 1800 µg/h x 0.8
speed of 30 km/hr. Of these, about 80% cars use leaded
- 1440 µg/hour
petrol. The average fuel consumption is one litre for an
average of 8 km of travel. Consideringthat 80% of the lead Hence, 1440 µg/h of lead is released in air as particulate
present in the fuel is emitted in the form of particulate aerosol.
aerosol,find the emission rate of lead aerosol i71 the ambient TWO MARKS QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS
air. (Given: concentration of lead in the fuel 0. 4 µg!L;
assume bright day with Light wind). -
p List out the meteorological factors in the context of air
pollution. (May/June 2012)
©Solution:
./ Primary Parameters
Number of vehicles passingper hour on the road = 1500
.;. Wind Speed and Direction
Since 80% cars use leaded petrol,
the number of lead emitting vehicles} .;. Temperature
.
passmg per hour on the road, = 1500 x 80%
.;. Atmospheric Stability
= 1200 .;. Mixing Height
Average fuel consumption per hour by each vehicle ./ Secondary Parameters
1 Litre_ km .;. Rainfall and Precipitation
= 8km x 30
.;. Humidity ·
3.75 litres (L)
.;. Solar Radiation
Total fuel consumption by 1200 vehicles per hour
.;. Visibility
= 1200 x 3.75
2.6' What is mixing height? (Nov/Dec2011)
= 4500 Litre/hour
----- lead in fuel =
Since the concentration of 0.4 µg/L Mixing height is defined as the height above the earth's
surface to which related pollutants will extend, primarily
The total lead contained in 4500L/h of used fuel
through the action of atmospheric turbulence".
= 0.4 µg/Lx 4500 L/hr
1
 What is a "Plume'?
(fl. / What is lapse rate? · -,
(Novi Ike 2012)
\ (Nov/Dec 2016, R-2008) (Nov/Dec 2016, R-2013)
Plume is defined as the path and its extension in the . (Nov/Dec 2017) (April/May 2018)
atmosphere of the emitted gas from a source. The source The rate at which, the temperature changes with
is generally referred as stack. increasing height of the atmosphere is called Lapse Rate

{1J. Define Plume rise. or Temperature Lapse Rate.

(Nov/Dec 20Jlj (May/June 2014) (Nov/Dec2015) ~I State adiabaticlapse rate. (Nov/Dec2018)

Plume Rise is defined as the distance of the hot plume TI:ie lapse rate of a parcel of dry air, when it lifts upwards
in a hydrostatically-stable environment and expands
from the stack into the atmosphere, due to the buoyancy
and momentum. slowly to the lower environment pressure without
'exchange of heat is called Adiabatic Lapse Rate.
Define atmospheric stability.
10. · Write the plume rise computing formula suggested by
(May/June 2012) (Nov/Dec 2012)
JS: fl829?
Atmespherlc stability is defined as the measure of Maximum Concentration (Cm) of pollutants on ground
atmospheric tendency to encourage or discourage the level is given as,
vertical motion and the vertical motion is directly related
to the different types
severity.
of weather conditions and its

Where,
0iiV- 1AT

6. What do you mean by inversion? ·(Nov/Dec2014)

H Height of the stack
When the Reverse (or Negative) lapse rate occurs, a
dense-cold stratum of air at ground level gets covered by K Constant

lighter-warm air at higher levels. This concept is called M Mass of the pollutant gases discharged per unit
inversions. time

It) Write the types of inversion. V - Volume of the pollutant gases discharged per
(May/June 2016)
unit time
(i) Radiation Inversions
AT - Difference in temperature of stack gases and
(ii) Subsidence Inversion
surrounding air
 2.64 . Air Pollution and Control Engineering
.- ::;:~--- . •" .:

·. ·.(()- . What a~e tt;ind ro.~~s?Siaie

us~s~ .
(May/June 2014) (Nov/Dec 2014) (April/May 2015) /JJ. What are dispersion models? -
(Nov/Dec 2015) (May/June 2016) (Nov/Dec 2016) (May/June 2012) (Nov/Dec 2012)
(Nov/Dec 2016, R 2013) (Nov/Dec 2017) Dispersion models are mathematical simulation or
(April/May 2018) approaches made to the dispersion· of pollutants to study
Wind rose at a location is defined as the pictorial how air pollutants disperse in the ambient atmosphere.
representation of distribut_ion of wind direction at the 15. Express Gaussian dispersionmodel. (Novi Dec 2012)
given location over the observation period. Wind rose is
The Gaussian model is the oldest ·and most commonly
used to show the prevailing wind direction.
used model type. It assumes that the air pollutant
It is used to view how the wind speed and direction are dispersion has a Gaussian distribution. It is for predicting
typically distributed at a particular location. the dispersion of continuous, buoyant air pollution

.....
.....
What is turbulence and how it is formed?
(May/June 2013) (April/May 2017)
Turbulence is defined as the gas (or a fluid) flow,
plumes _originating from ground-level or elevated
sources.
What are the applicationsof Dispersion Models?
-
..... .
differentiated by its properties, changes with respect to (Nov/Dec 2017) • ..
.,.
.....
~
time, which is formed due to the rapid variation of Following are the applications of dispersion models .
pressure, velocity etc. 1. Air Quality Assessment
13. What is the prime mechanism to disperse air pollution? 2. Estimation of downwind ambient concentration of · . . -'°'·

(May/June 2012) air pollutants

When the air pocket, containing air pollutants, released 3. Calculation of toxins emitted from sources such as
to the atmosphere from a source, it gets dispersed into industrial plants, vehicular traffic or accidental
chemical releases.
the atmosphere to various directions, depending upon the
prevailing winds, temperature and pressure conditions in 4. Estimation of predict future concentrations under
the environment. Under the normal environmental specific scenarios (i.e. changes in emission sources).
conditions, when a packet of air (which is hotter and REVIEW QUESTIONS
lighter than the surrounding air) is released to the
1. Briefly discuss about the various meteorological
atmosphere, then it tends to rise up and reaches a level, at ·
parameters that influencing air pollution. (16)
which its temperature and density becomes equal to the
(Nov/Dec 2017)
surrounding air.
(Or)
 •· /. Air-Pollution and Co~;rolErigitzeeiihg .·. ·

List out the various meteorological parameters 5. Discuss the various plume patterns for the different
influencing air pollution. Explain them. (16) prevailing lapse rates. (8) (Nov/Dec 2012)
(April/May 2017) (Or)

{Or)
I What is a Plume? Explain the different plume
behaviour with respect to the prevailing lapse rates. (8)
Explain the role of meteorological factors in pollution (May/June 2012) (8) (Nov/Dec 2012)
studies. (Nov/Dec 2011)
(Or)
(Or)
Explain the plume behaviour from a stack for different
What are the meteorological factors influencing the air atmospheric stability conditions. (Nov/Dec 2011)
pollution? Explain briefly. (8) (Qr)
(Nov/Dec 2012) (May/June 2013) Describe the behavior of plume for various atmosphere _
·- - - <conditions with neat sketches. (8) (Nov/Dec 2015)
(Or)
(Or)
Discuss in detail about the effect of metrological
Describe in detail about plume behaviour.
parameters on transport and diffusion of air pollution.
(16) (Nov/Dec 2016) (8) (Nov/Dec 2017) (16)
(May/June 2014)
(Nov/Dec 2017, R- 2013)
Refer Chapter 2.1.1.; Page 2. l (Or)
2. Explain the atmospheric stability process through With neat sketch explain the types of plume. (6)
temperature lapse rate. (8) (Nov/Dec 2018) (May/June 2016)
Refer Chapter (II) 2.1.2; Page 2.2
Refer Chapter 2.3.3; Page 2.18
3. How does windplay a role in Air Pollution? Explain. 6. "Explain the meteorological factors that affect the
'-
(8) (May/June 2012) (8) (Nov/Dec 2017) dispersion of air pollution and draw wind rose diagram.
Refer Chapter (II) 2.1.2; Page 2.2 (Nov/Dec 2015)
4. ·. With neat sketch, explain effect of lapse rate on plume Refer Chapter [Link] 2.3.4; Page 2.1 and 2.23
behaviour. (16) (May/June2012) (April/May2015) 7. What is plume rise? Make a note on facts influencing
(April/May 2018) and its estimation. (7) (May/June 2013)
Refer Chapter 2.3; Page 2.12 (7) (April/May 2017)
Refer Chapter III. 2.3. 7 Page 2.31
 2.68
.. -::··
Jc:, . :M~!<.~"'llQgy . r:
,.,,:~:. ·• : :.:0:-;,. ·. . / ·2.69 .

8. : Expiaiiz' ·. the factors affecting. dispersion of air ··1• . · 12. What do you understand by Dispersion Models?
pollutliltts:. '..:· .• . Explain about Gaussian Dispersion Model in detail·
.' (JO) (Nov/Dec 2017) (16) (ApriVMay2018)
'·
(Nov/Dec 2014) (May/June 2016) Refer Chapter 2.6 and 2.62; Page 2.53 and 2.54
Refer Chapter 2.5 .1; Page 2.44 ]3. Derive the expression for ground level concentration of
9. On a summer afternoon with a wind speed of 3.20 mis pollutant by assuming Gaussian Plume Dispersion for
the concentration of particulate matter was found to· be stack emission. (May/June 2012)
1520 µg/m3 ·at a point 2 km down wind and 0.5 km (Or)
perpendicular to the plume centerline from a coal fired
- power plant. Determine the particulate emission rate of
Explain the Gaussian Dispersion Modeland discuss the
factors involved · in the prediction of ground level
the power plant, given the following:
- -
Stack Parameters Atmospheric Condition
concentration of pollutants. . (Nov/Dec2012)
.
Refer Chapter 2.6.2; Page 2.54
Height : 75.0 m Pressure : 100 Kpa '•

-
......., Diameter : 1.50 m
Exit Velocity : } 2 mis
Temperature: 28° C aaa

Temperature: 322° C
Make any assumption, if found necessary.
(Nov/Dec 2011) (May/June 2012) (Novi Dec 2012)
Refer Example 2.1; Page 2.49.
10. Define Dispersion model and explain their types with its
application. (9) (May/June 2013) (May/June 2014) (8)
(Nov/Dec 2015) (16) (Nov/Dec 2016) (16)
(Nov/Dec 2016, R-2013) (9) (April/May 2017)
Refer Chapter 2.6; Page 2.53
11. Explain Gaussian dispersion models with assumptions,
merits and demerits. (1 OJ
(Nov/Dec 2014) (16) (May/June 2016)
Refer Chapter 2.6.1; Page 2.54