MA10209 Algebra 1A
Sheet 9 Solutions: GCS
25-xi-13
The course website is [Link]
Hand in work to your tutor by 17:15, Monday Dec 2.
1. Suppose that G is a group. Suppose that H ≤ G and xH = Hx for all x ∈ G.
Prove that, for all y, z ∈ G, we have H(yz) = {ab | a ∈ Hy, b ∈ Hz}.
Solution If t ∈ H(yz), then t = hyz for some h ∈ H, and so t = (hy)(1z)
where hy ∈ Hy and 1z ∈ Hz. Conversely, if a ∈ Hy, and b ∈ Hz, then there are
h1 , h2 ∈ H such that a = h1 y and b = h2 z so ab = h1 yh2 z. Now yh2 ∈ yH = Hy
so there is h3 ∈ H such that yh2 = h3 y. Therefore ab = (h1 h3 )(yz) ∈ H(yz). We
have established inclusion in both directions, and so we have equality.
2. Suppose that G is a group.
(a) Choose any x ∈ G. Let CG (x) = {g | g ∈ G, gx = xg}. Prove that CG (x) is
a subgroup of G. The subgroup CG (x) is called the centralizer in G of x.
Solution 1 ∈ CG (x) 6= ∅. Also if a, b ∈ CG (x) then bx = xb so bxb−1 = x
and so xb−1 = b−1 x and finally ab−1 x = axb−1 = xab−1 and therefore
ab−1 ∈ CG (x). Therefore CG (x) ≤ G.
(b) Let G = D8
= {id, (1234), (13)(24), (1432), (14)(23), (12)(34), (14)(23), (13), (24)}
be the group of rigid symmetries of a square (with vertices labelled 1, 2, 3, 4
anticlockwise). For each x ∈ G, calculate the group CG (x).
Solution CG (x) is a subgroup and so has size 1, 2, 4 or 8. Now CG (id) = G
of course. Also elements commute with their powers, so the centralizers of
each 4-cycle has size at least 4. Neither of them commutes with (13) so both
centrazers are the cyclic group
h(1234)i = h(1432)i = {id, (1234), (13)(24), (1432)}.
The common square of both 4-cycles commutes with each 4-cycle and the
identity, so has size at least 4. By inspection it commutes with (13) and
so CG ((13)(24)) = G. None of the remaining four elements commutes with
(1234) and so their centralizers have size at most 4. Each of them commutes
with id, (13)(24) and themselves, so each of them has centralizer of size at
least 3 and therefore of size 4. In particular
CG ((14)(23)) = {id, (14)(23), (13)(24), (12)(34)} = CG ((12)(34))
and CG ((24)) = {id, (24), (13), (13)(24)}.
3. Suppose that G is a group.
(a) Define a relation ∼ on G by x ∼ y iff there is z ∈ G such that zxz −1 = y.
Prove that ∼ is an equivalence relation on G. We say that x, y ∈ G are
conjugate if x ∼ y.
Solution For x ∈ G we have x = 1x1−1 so x ∼ x. Reflexivity is OK. If
x, y ∈ G and x ∼ y, then there is z ∈ G such that zxz −1 = y. Therefore
z −1 yz = x so y ∼ x. Symmetry is established. Now suppose that x ∼ y and
y ∼ z. Therefore there are a, b ∈ G such that axa−1 = y and byb−1 = z.
Now (ba)x(ba)−1 = baxa−1 b−1 = byb−1 = z so x ∼ z and we have established
transitivity.
(b) Calculate the equivalence classes of ∼ (i.e. the conjugacy classes) if G is the
group D8 of Question 2(b).
Solution The conjugacy class of id is {id} and the conjugacy class of
(13)(24) is {(13)(24)} because they both commute with all elements of G.
All other elements have centralizers of size 4, so if w is such an element and
C is its centralizer, then every element of G is either in C, or in its other
left coset tC for some t 6∈ C. Conjugating w by elements of C gives w, and
conjugating w by tc for c ∈ C gives tcwc−1 t−1 = twt−1 so all these elements
have conjugacy classes of size 2. One conjugacy class is {(1234), (1432)},
another is {(13), (24)} amd the last one is {(12)(34), (14)(23)}.
4. Suppose that G, H are groups and that α : G −→ H is a homomorphism.
(a) Suppose that U is a subgroup G. Consider that set {α(u) | u ∈ U }. Must
this set be a subgroup of H?
Solution Yes, it is a subgroup. Note that our set contains 1H because
α(1G ) = 1H ∈ U so our set is not empty. Now suppose that s and t are
in our set, so there are x, y ∈ G such that s = α(x) and t = α(y) ∈ U , so
α(xy −1 ) = α(x)α(y)−1 = st−1 ∈ U . Therefore st−1 is in our set, which is
therefore a subgroup.
(b) Suppose that V is a subgroup of H. Consider that set {x | x ∈ G, α(x) ∈ V }.
Must this set be a subgroup of G?
Solution Yes, it is a subgroup. α(1G ) = 1H ∈ V so 1G is in our set, which is
therefore not empty. Now suppose that x, y are in our set, so α(x), α(y) ∈ V ,
so α(x)α(y)−1 ∈ V , but this forces α(xy −1 ) ∈ V so xy −1 is in our set, which
is therefore a subgroup.
(c) Suppose that x ∈ G and o(x) = m is finite. Prove that the α(x) has finite
order, and that o(α(x)) divides o(x).
Solution Let o(α(x)) = n. Now α(x)m = α(xm ) = α(1G ) = 1H . Choose q, r
integers with 0 ≤ r < n and m = qn + r. Now 1H = α(x)m = α(x)qn α(x)r =
α(x)r so r = 0 and n divides m.
5. Suppose that G, H are groups and that α : G −→ H is a homomorphism.
(a) Suppose that x, y ∈ G are conjugate elements in G (see problem 3(a)). Prove
that α(x) and α(y) are conjugate elements of H.
Solution There is z ∈ G such that zxz −1 = y. Therefore α(zxz −1 ) = α(y)
and so α(z)α(x)α(z)−1 = α(y), so α(x) and α(y) are conjugate in H.
(b) Is it possible that x and y are not conjugate elements of G, but α(x) and
α(y) are conjugate elements of H?
Solution Yes it is possible. Choose a group G (say D8 ) which contains non-
conjugate elements x and y. Let H be the trivial group consisting of the
identity alone. Let α be the constant map from G to H.
6. Suppose that G, H and K are groups and that α: G −→ H and β : H −→ K are
homomorphisms. Prove that β ◦ α is a homomorphism.
Solution This is a formality. Suppose that x, y ∈ G, then (β ◦ α)(xy) =
β(α(xy)) = β(α(x)α(y)) (because α is a homomorphism) and this is β(α(x))β(α(y))
since β is a homomorphism. Therefore (β ◦ α)(xy) = (β ◦ α)(x)(β ◦ α)(y). Thus
β ◦ α is a homomorphism.
7. Suppose that G is a group. A map α: G −→ G which is both a homomorphism
and a bijection is called an automorphism of G.
(a) Suppose that β is an automorphism of G. Prove that β −1 : G −→ G (the map
obtained by reversing the arrows) is also an automorphism of G.
Solution The map β −1 is certainly a bijection. We need to show that it is
a homomorphism. Suppose that h, k ∈ G. Since β is a bijection, there are
x, y ∈ G such that β(x) = h and β(y) = k. Now β −1 (hk) = β −1 (β(x)β(y)) =
β −1 (β(xy)) = xy = β −1 (h)β −1 (k) so β −1 is a homomorphism as required.
(b) Let Aut G be the set of automorphisms of G. Prove that Aut G is a group
under composition of maps.
Solution We have proved that the composition of homomorphisms is a ho-
momorphism, and we have long since known that the composition of bijec-
tions is a bijection. Therefore the composition of automorphisms is an auto-
morphism. We established in part (a) that the inverse of an automorphism
(as a map) is an automorphism. Therefore Aut G is a group provided that
it is non-empty. The identity map from G to G is in Aut G, so Aut G 6= ∅
and we are done.
8. Suppose that G is a group. For each x ∈ G, consider the map cx : G −→ G
defined by cx (y) = xyx−1 for each y ∈ G.
(a) Show that each cx is an automorphism of G.
Solution cx has a two sided inverse cx−1 so it is a bijection. Now if g, h ∈
G, then cx (gh) = xghx−1 = xgx−1 xhx−1 = cx (g)cx (h). Therefore cx is a
homomorphism, and therefore an automorphism of G.
(b) Define a map θ : G −→ Aut G by θ(x) = cx for each x ∈ G. Prove that θ
is a homomorphism. Here Aut G was defined in Problem 7. Suppose that
x, y ∈ G, then θ(xy) = cxy . Now if a ∈ G, then cxy (a) = xya(xy)−1 =
x(yay −1 )x−1 = cx (cy (a)) = (cx ◦ cy )(a). Therefore θ(xy) = θ(x)θ(y) and so
θ is a homomorphism.
9. Suppose that R is a ring, and U denotes the multiplicative group of units of R
(the set of divisors of 1). Prove that the set of 2 × 2 matrices
a b
c d
where a, b, c, d ∈ R and ad − bc ∈ U forms a group under matrix multiplication.
Solution The formula for the inverse of a 2×2 matrix involves dividing by ad−bc,
but that is possible in R since ad − bc is a unit. Also one can verify mechanically
that the function ad − bc is multiplicative on such matrices. Therefore our set
of matrices is closed under products and inversion. It is clearly not empty (it
contains the 2 × 2 identity matrix), and matrix multiplication is associative, and
so our matrices form a group.
10. (Challenge) Suppose that p is a prime number. Find a group G which has a
unique subgroup of size pn for every positive integer n, and no other subgroups
apart from itself and the trivial subgroup 1.
n
Solution Consider the set Gn of complex numbers z such that z p = 1 (where n
is a positive integer). There are pn such numbers, and they are all powers of the
one with smallest positive argument (geometrically they are at the vertices of a
regular pn -gon in the Argand diagram). They form a cyclic group of size pn . Let
G be the union of all the groups Gn , so
G1 ≤ G2 ≤ G3 ≤ · · · ≤ G,
so G is an infinite abelian group, but each of its elements has finite order. Suppose
that H is a subgroup of G. If H is a subgroup some Gm , then it is a subgroup of
a cyclic group and so is cyclic. If it is not contained in any Gm , then it contains
elements of arbitrarily large order and so it is G.