Presented by Mr.

kosgei felix
 Reproduction in plants and animals
 Reproduction - is the process by which mature
organisms give rise to new individuals of the same kind

 Types of reproduction
 There are two types of reproduction i.e.
 Asexual reproduction – where new organisms arise /
develop form the existing mature individuals without
formation or fusion of gametes e.g. Bacteria, fungi
and some plants and animals
 Sexual reproduction – where new individuals are
formed as a result of fusion of male and female
gametes during fertilization to form a zygote.

Significance of reproduction to living
organisms
 Ensures perpetuation of the species to
avoid extinction of the species

 Improves the quality of individuals within
a species through mixing of genetic
materials hence adapting the organisms
better to their environment

 Assists in increasing the population of
organisms hence facilitating colonization
of new habitats
The Basis of reproduction (cell division and chromosomes)
 Reproduction is made possible through cell division;
 There are two types of cell division i.e. Mitosis and meiosis
 All cells contain nuclei; cell division begins with the nucleus then the cytoplasm
 The nucleus contain chromatin materials called chromosomes
 Chromosomes are threadlike structures in the nucleus of a cell which carry
hereditary / genetic materials called genes (i.e. Chromosomes act as
hereditary vehicles)
 Genes are made up of protein chemical substance called deoxyribonucleic acid
(DNA); they contain coded instructions that determine the characteristics of
an individual
 Body cells are known as somatic cells; each somatic cell has a fixed number of
chromosomes
 The chromosomes in these cells occur in pairs; each pair of chromosomes is
called homologous chromosomes
 Homologous chromosomes are similar in shape and size but differ in genetic
composition
 Each chromosome is made up of a pair of parallel strand called chromatids;
each chromatid pair are joined to each other at a point called the centromere
 Chromosomes are present in the nucleus at all times but only become visible
through a light microscope during cell division
Chromosome and DNA
Parts of a chromosome
 Types of cell division
 1. Mitosis
 Is a type of cell division where two daughter cells
are formed
 In mitosis the daughter cells have the same
chromosomal constitution as the parent cell
 Mitosis occurs in four main stages with an
interphase between the cell divisions
 The stages of mitosis include: interphase,
prophase, metaphase, anaphase and Telophase
 a) Interphase
 Is the stage between one cell division and the next;
during interphase the cell undergoes extensive
internal organization in preparation of the next cell
division

 Events during interphase
 The cell builds up large energy store in the form of
ATP (extensive ATP synthesis occur)
 The cell doubles itself internally(replication) i.e. New
cell organelles are synthesized
 Chromosomes appear as long thin and coiled strands
 The centriole replicates
Illustration of interphase
 b) Prophase
 The following events occur during prophase:
 The duplicate centrioles migrate towards the
opposite poles of the cell
 Nuclear membrane begins to disintegrate /
disappear
 The nucleolus disappears spindle fibres begin to
form
 Chromosomes shortens, thickens and replicates to
form chromatids; each chromosome now appear to
consist of a pair of chromatid that are attached
to each other at the centromere
Illustration of prophase
 C) metaphase
 The following events occur during metaphase:
 The nuclear membrane disappears completely leaving
chromosomes to be freely suspended in the cytoplasm
 The centrioles arrive at the opposite poles of the cell
 The spindle fibres lengthens and attaches to the
chromosomes at the centromere
 The chromosomes align themselves at the equator of
the spindle in a single row
 The spindle fibres begin to contract pulling the
centromere apart
 Sister chromatids separates
Metaphase
 d) Anaphase

 The following events occur during anaphase:
 Sister chromatids parts company and migrates to
the opposite poles due to the shortening of the
spindle fibres; the two separate sets of
chromatids now become new chromosomes on
reaching the poles
 The spindle fibres begin to disappear
 The nuclear membrane begin to form around each
set of chromosome
 The nucleolus reappears at each pole
Illustration of Anaphase
 E) Telophase
 Is the last phase of mitotic cell division;
 Events that occur during Telophase include:
 The daughter chromosomes collects at each pole
 The nuclear membrane forms fully around each set of
daughter chromosomes
 The spindle fibres disappears
 In animal cells the cytoplasm constricts along the centre
resulting into two daughter cells( in plant cells a new cell
plate / middle lamella forms along the centre thus dividing
the cell into two)
 The daughter cells separate from each other
 Nuclear membrane forms
 Cytoplasm constricts along the centre of cell
 The chromosomes become less distinct again and the
daughter cells enters interphase
Illustration of Telophase
Summary of mitosis
 Importance of mitosis

 Conserves the parental chromosomal constitution

in the daughter cells
 Results into an increase in number of cells in an
organism hence causing growth and development
 Leads to regeneration of body parts that have
been injured and also repairs of worn out tissues
 Mitosis is the basis of asexual reproduction where
gametes are not involved


 2. Meiosis
 In meiosis four daughter cells are formed
 Each of the four daughter cells has half the number of
chromosomes in the parent cell i.e. They are haploid
 Meiosis occurs in the gonads (ovaries and testes) in animals
and ovaries and anther in flowering plants during
gametogenesis
 Meiosis is responsible with formation of gametes
 Meiosis takes place in two consecutive cell divisions named
as meiosis I and meiosis II

 Note: during 1st meiotic division homologous chromosomes
are separated and move into two different cell; during 2nd
meiotic division sister chromatids are separated and move
into separate cells forming new chromosomes
Illustration
 Meiosis I (a) interphase I
 Events during interphase I:
 The cell builds up large energy store in the
form of ATP (extensive ATP synthesis occur)
 The cell doubles itself internally i.e. New cell
organelles are synthesized
 Chromosomes appear as long thin and coiled
strands
 The centriole replicates
 Note: the cell appearance during this stage
is similar to that of interphase in mitosis
interphase I
 b) Prophase I
 Events during prophase I:
 Chromosomes shortens, thickens and replicates to form
chromatids; each chromosome now appear to consist of a pair of
chromatid that are attached to each other at the centromere
 The homologous chromosomes lie side by side forming bivalent
 The bivalent intertwine forming synapsis; the point at which the
chromatids of the bivalent come in contact with each other
during synapsis is called chiasma (plural chiasmata)
 During synapsis crossing over occur; crossing over allows
exchange of genetic materials between the non-sister
chromatids and also leads to variations in genetics
 The duplicate centrioles migrate towards the opposite poles of
the cell
 Nuclear membrane begins to disintegrate / disappear
 The nucleolus disappears spindle fibres begin to form
Illustration of prophase i
 C) metaphase I
 Events during metaphase I
 Spindle fibres forms completely
 Homologous chromosomes (bivalent) align
themselves at the equator of the spindle fibres in
pairs
 The spindle fibres attaches to the centromere of
the bivalents
 The spindle fibres begin to shorten / contract and
the bivalent begin to separate
Illustration of metaphase I
 D) Anaphase I

 Events during anaphase I

 Homologous chromosomes (bivalent) parts
company and migrate to the opposite poles as a
result of shortening of the spindle fibres
 Chromatids remain attached at the centromere
 Spindle fibres begin to disintegrate
Illustration of anaphase I
 E) Telophase I

 E) Telophase I
 Events during Telophase I:
 Chromosomes reach the opposite poles
 Each chromosome still replicated
 The cell membrane constricts midway and the cell
divides into two daughter cells
 Illustration of Telophase I

Note:
Each daughter cell in 1st meiotic division undergoes 2nd
meiotic division separately; the cells at this stage go
straight to prophase II
In some organisms the cells go into a short interphase
stage; while in others Telophase does not occur
 Meiosis II

 The purpose is to separate sister chromatids of

the chromosomes formed in meiosis I

 a) Prophase II
 Events during prophase II:
 the chromosomes are already replicated
 centrioles replicates and migrates to the opposite
poles
 new spindle fibres are formed
Prophase ii
 b) Metaphase II

 Events during metaphase ii
 Spindle fibres forms completely and attaches
to the centromere of the chromosomes
 Chromosomes align themselves along the
equator of the spindle in a single row
 Sister chromatids separates and begin to
migrate to opposite poles as the spindle fibres
shorten
Metaphase II
 c) Anaphase II

 Events during anaphase II

 Sister chromatids migrate to the opposite poles
 The spindle fibres begin to disintegrate
 The nuclear membrane begin to form around each
set of chromatids
 The nucleolus forms at each pole
Anaphase II
 D) Telophase II

 Events during Telophase II:

 Spindle fibres completely disappears
 Nuclear membrane completely formed
 The cytoplasm of each of the two daughter cells
formed during meiosis I splits and each cell
divides into two resulting in four daughter cells
being formed at the end of meiosis
Telophase II
 Significance of meiosis

 Leads to formation of gametes; the gamete
cells have haploid chromosomal constitution
ensuring that the diploid number of
chromosomes is restored in the offsprings
during fertilization
 Provides opportunities for new combinations
of genes to occur during gamete formation
leading to variations in offsprings

Similarities between mitosis and meiosis

Occur in both plants and

animal cells
Both involves multiplication of
cells
Summary of meiosis
Illustration..
Differences between mitosis and meiosis
MEIOSIS MITOSIS
Two division process MI and Mii Occur in one division
Homologous chromosomes associate Homologous chromosomes do
with one not
another /pairing of homologous associate
chromosomes
Takes place in two nuclear division Take place in one nuclear
each having division of four
four stages stages
Produces four daughters cells each Produces two daughters cell
haploid ( n) each diploid ( 2n)
Occurs in reproductive organs ( Occurs in somatic cells leading
gonads )
to growth
leading to formation of gametes
Chiasma formation take place and No chiasma formation hence
may lead to crossing over hence no crossing
variation
over no variation
Process is longer in duration Shorter in duration
Involved in sexual reproduction Involved in asexual
/reproduction
 Asexual reproduction
 Is the process by which new individuals form from
the existing ones without involving gametes
 Asexual reproduction is a result of mitotic cells
division hence the new individuals are genetically
identical to the parent

 Asexual reproduction includes:

 Budding e.g. in yeast
 Sporulation e.g. in rhizopus
 Binary fission e.g. in paramecia, amoeba e.t.c

 a) Binary fission
 Is the splitting of parent organism cell into two daughter cells
 Each daughter cell develops into an independent individual
 Binary fission is common in single celled organisms

 Mechanism of binary fission
 A mature cellular organism retracts and undergoes internal re-
organization
 The nucleus splits into two by mitosis; a process called karyogamy
 Cytoplasm then splits into two; a process called cytogamy
 A cell membrane constricts and forms around each cell resulting
into two individual daughter cells
 The daughter cells are same and identical to the parent cell
 Binary fission in amoeba
Binary fission in amoeba
 b) Sporulation
 Is the process by which spores are formed
 spores are small unicellular reproductive cells that are able of
giving rise to new individuals
 spores are produced by liverworts, ferns, mosses, mucor,
rhizopus e.t.c
 Sporulation in Rhizopus
 Rhizopus belong to the kingdom fungi
 It thrives on moist organic matter (food substances) e.g. Bread,
fruits, ugali etc. where it obtains nutrients and course decay
 The vegetative body of a rhizopus is called mycelium (plural –
mycelia)
 Mycelia are made up of thread like structures called hyphae
 Hyphae that grow vertically are called sporangiophore; while
those that grow horizontally along the surface of the substrate
are called stolons and those that grow into the substrate are
called rhizoids
 Sporangiophore contain spore producing structure called
sporangium (plural-sporangia) at their tip
 The cytoplasm of the sporangia undergoes multiples resulting into
hundreds of tiny spores; each containing several nuclei
 The spore formation creates a high internal pressure that causes
the sporangia walls to burst open hence releasing the spores
 The spores are dispersed by wind and when they land on a
suitable medium; they germinate to form new mycelia
Illustration

Rhizopus as seen under a

microscope
 C) budding
 Is a process by which an organism develops an outgrowth
which on detaching from the parent forms a self sustaining
individual; budding occurs in yeast, hydra etc.

 Budding in yeast
 Yeast is a single celled fungus
 Yeast cells have thin cell walls
 During budding, a small area of the cell wall softens and the
cytoplasm flows into it forming an outgrowth (bud)
 The bud bulges outwards and the nucleus divides mitotically into
two nuclei; one nucleus migrates into the outgrowth to form a
new cell
 The bud may eventually separate from the parent cell or remain
attached to the parent cell forming a chain of yeast cells
Yeast cell
Yeast cells multiplying by budding

Budding as seen under a

microscope
Sexual reproduction in flowering plants
 The flower is the reproductive organs of a flowering plant
 A flower is a modified shoot consisting of a modified stem and leaves
 The modified stem of a flower comprises of
 The flower stalk or pedicel - which attaches the flower to the main
stem
 The receptacle - which holds the floral parts of a flower (where the
modified leave arise)
 The flower has four main floral parts i.e.
 Sepals –which collectively form the calyx
 Petals – which collectively form the corolla
 Stamen – comprising of the filament and the anther; which
collectively form androecium (the male part of the flower)
 Carpel – comprising of the ovary, style and the stigma; which
collectively form the gynoecium or pistil (the female part of flower)
 Whorls is the circular arrangement of the four floral structures in a
ring i.e. Sepals , corolla , stamens and pistils
 Epicalyx are sepal like structures beneath calyx in certain flowers
Structural adaptation of a flower to reproduction
 A flower is made up of the flower stalk (pedicel) on whose apex
is the receptacle to which the floral structures are attached
 i). the calyx
 comprises of sepals
 encloses and protects the flower especially during bud stage
 sometimes sepals may be fused to form a gamosepalous calyx or may be free
forming a polysepalous calyx
 some flowers may have a ring of sepal like structures just beneath the calyx called
the epicalyx

 Note: The sepals photosynthesizes and some may be coloured to attract insects
pollinators
 ii). the corolla
 comprises of petals
 corolla encloses and protects the inner delicate floral structures
 are brightly coloured, large conspicuous and sometimes scented especially in insect
pollinated flowers to attract insects
 sometime petals may be fused to form gamopetalous corolla or free forming a
polypetalous corolla
 Note: In some cases petals have nectarines at their base to secrete nectar
that attracts pollinators

 Iii). The androecium
 Constitutes the male structures of a flower
 Comprises of one or more stamens
 Each stamen consist of a stalk called filament whose tip
bear the anther
 The anther consist of four pollen sacs which produces
pollen grains
 The pollen grains contain generative nucleus and the pollen
tube nucleus
 The generative nucleus that give rise to the male nucleus
while the pollen tube nucleus controls the growth of pollen
tube down the style during fertilization
 The stamen may be fused forming the staminal tube e.g. In
hibiscus or free e.g. In crotalaria
The stamen
 V). The gynoecium
 The gynoecium (also called the pistil)
 Constitutes the female structures of a flower
 Is made up of the carpel which comprises of
 Stigma – that receives the pollen grain during pollination
 Style – that conveys pollen tube and male nuclei towards
the ovary
 Ovary – that contains ovules (the female reproductive
cells)
 May consist of one or many carpels

 Note: the stamen and carpels are called essential parts of
a flower while the calyx and the corolla are called non-
essential parts of a flower
Description of the flower in terms of ovary
 a) Inferior or Epigynous ovary
 Refers to the position of ovary on the receptacle in such a way
that other floral parts occur above it e.g. in apples
b) Superior or Hypogynous ovary
 Refers to the position of the ovary on the receptacle
in such a way that other floral parts arise from
below it (i.e. The ovary above the floral parts) e.g.
Hibiscus
 c) Perigynous ovary
 Refers to the position of the ovary on the receptacle where the
other floral parts arise at the same level with the ovary e.g. Rose
flower
Description of flower in terms of type of gynoecium
 a) Monocarpous
 is a flower whose gynoecium has one carpel e.g. Beans
b) Polycarpous – flowers whose gynoecium
has many carpels; there can be:
 Apocarpous flower
 is a flower whose gynoecium has many free carpels e.g.
Bryophylum
 ii. Syncarpous flower
o Is a flower whose gynoecium has many carpels but where the
carpels or at least the ovaries are fused e.g. Hibiscus
 Other terminologies used to describe flowers
 i). Complete flower
 is a flower consisting of all the floral parts i.e. calyx, corolla,
androecium and gynoecium; when one or more of these parts are
missing the flower is said to be incomplete

 ii). Unisexual flower

 is a flower with only one of the reproductive parts present e.g.
male part or the female part
 such flowers may further be described as:
 Staminate flowers – when only the male parts are present
 Pistillate flower – when only the female part is present

 iii). Monoecious plants
 plants with both male and female flowers borne on the same
plant e.g. maize plant, oil palm plants e.t.c



continuation
 iv). Dioecious plants
 refers to plants with male flower and female flowers borne on
separate plants e.g. pawpaw

 v). Bisexual plants

 are plants with both male and female reproductive structures
borne on the same flower e.g. hibiscus; such plants are also said
to be hermaphrodite

 Vi). Regular (actinomorphic) flowers

 those flowers that can be divided into two similar halves by any
vertical section passing through the centre; they are said to be
radially symmetrical

 Vii). Irregular (zygomorphic) flowers

 those that can be divided into two equal halves in one plane only
e.g. cow peas; they are said to be bilaterally symmetrical

continuation

 viii). Pedicillate flowers ; are flowers with flower

 Ix). Solitary flowers; are flowers that occur singly

 X). Inflorescence flowers; Are flowers that grow in

clusters e.g. Sun flower, grasses etc.
 Pollination
 Is the transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the
stigma of a flower

 Types of pollination
 There are two types of pollination i.e.

 Self pollination – where pollen grains are transferred from

the anther to the stigma of the same flower or to another
flower on the same plant

 cross pollination – where pollen grains are transferred

from the anther of one flower to the stigma of a flower on
a different plant of the same species
Structure of a pollen grain
 Agents of pollination

 The process of pollination is aided by the following

agents:
 i. Insects

 ii. Wind

 a) Insect pollinated flowers - Are also known as
Entomophilous flowers
 b) Wind pollinated flowers - are also known as
Anemophilous flowers
Adaptations of flowers to insect pollination
 Insect pollinated flowers have the following
adaptations:
 They are often brightly coloured and scented; to attract
insects
 The flowers have nectaries that produce nectar which act as
bait for insects and nectar guides to lead insects to the nectar
 The flowers have funnel shaped corolla; to allow insects to get
in to search for nectar
 Their anther are small and firmly attached to the filament to
ensure that insects brush against them as they crawl into the
flower in search for nectar
 They have large, heavy, rough and sticky pollen grains so as to
cling onto the insects body
 They have small, sticky stigma that situated inside the flower
to collect pollen grains from the insects body as the insect
crawl into the flower in search for nectar
 The flowers form large bracts or inflorescence so as to be
conspicuous to insects
Adaptations of flowers to wind pollination
 Wind pollinated flowers have the following adaptations:
 They produce large quantities of small, smooth and light
weight pollen grains; that can easily be carried away by
wind
 They have long and feathery stigma that hang outside to
trap pollen grains floating in air
 They have large and often exposed anther that hang
loosely outside to scatter pollen grains
 They have petals and sepals that are dull coloured and
sometimes green
 The flowers are non – scented and lack nectaries
 The flower structure is simple and lack particular shape
with stamens occurring in clusters
 The flowers are often small and occur in inconspicuous
bracts or inflorescence
Features that favour / encourage cross
pollination
 The anther located below the level of the stigma
 The stamen, whole flower or the inflorescence may hang downwards to
encourage wide scattering of the pollen grain away from the parent plant
 The anther may be borne on a long flexible filament to encourage
scattering of the pollen grain
 Brightly coloured petals or sepals to attract insect pollinators
 Flowers often scented to attract insect pollinator
 Presence of nectar to act as bait for insects
 Nectaries being located deep down the corolla tube
 Production of sticky or prickly pollen grains
 Stamen and carpels within a flower maturing at different times a condition
known as dichogamy e.g.
 Protandry – where the stamen mature long before the carpel and shed their pollen
grains
 Protogyny – where the carpel mature long before the stamen
 Self sterility or incompatibility – where own pollen grains fail to
germinate on the stigma of the same flower or any flower on the same
plant
 Unisexual flowers – those whose carpel and the stamen are located on
different flowers e.g Staminate flowers or Pistillate flowers
Features that hinder self pollination
 Hermaphrodite or monoecism

 Protogyny or Protandry in plants

 Self sterility or incompatibility

 Heterostyly – a condition where the arrangement of style

and stigma in the flower does not allow pollen grains from
the anther of the same plant to land and germinate of the
stigma of the same flower

 Dioecism
Formation of embryo sac
Fertilization in flowering plants
Structure of the embryo sac
 Double fertilization
 Fertilization in flowering plants occurs in the embryo sac in a
mature ovule
 When pollen grain lands on the stigma of a compatible flower it
germinates to give rise to a pollen tube
 The pollen tube grows down through the tissues of the style as it
derive nutrients from it
 As the pollen tube grows, the tube nucleus assumes the position at
the tip of the tube as the generative nucleus follow
 On reaching the micropyle, the pollen tube nucleus disintegrates;
the generative nucleus divides mitotically into two male nuclei
which enter the embryo sac
 One of the male nucleus fuses with the egg cell in the embryo sac
forming a diploid zygote while the other male nucleus fuses with
the two polar nuclei to form a triploid nucleus called the primary
endosperm

 Note:
 The process of fertilization involved in plants is known as double
fertilization since two male nuclei are involved where one fertilizes the
egg cell while the other fertilizes the polar nuclei
Illustration of double fertilization.
 Events after fertilization

 After fertilization the ovule undergoes re-
organization and develops into seed
 The ovary re-organizes to become fruit
 The integuments forms the seed coat
 The ovary walls develops into the pericarp
 The calyx, corolla, stamen, stigma and the
style withers and fall off

Events in a flower following fertilization
 Seed formation
 The diploid zygote undergoes repeated mitotic division to form
an embryo
 The embryo differentiates to form three distinct parts i.e.
 The plumule – young shoot
 The radical – young root
 Two cotyledons – seed leaves
 The primary endosperm develops into the endosperm

 Note: the endosperm and the cotyledon stores nutrient
for the seed and provide the embryo with nourishment
during germination
 The integuments form the seed coat or testa that
surrounds the protects the seed
 As the seed matures, the endosperm and the cotyledon
looses up to 80% of water dries and may detach from the
placenta; leaving a scar called hilum
 Loss of water by the seed causes it to become dormant
 Revision Question:
What is the importance of seed dormancy
to flowering plants (3 marks)

 Allows time for seed dispersal

 Enables the seed to survive through
adverse environmental conditions without
depleting their food reserves
 Provides sufficient time for complete
maturation of the embryo
 Fruit formation
 The process of fruit formation is usually initiated by
hormone gibberellins
 Gibberellins causes the fruit to increase in size
 During fruit development, the ovary walls becomes the
pericarp or the fruit walls; the pericarp is made up of
three layers i.e.
 Epicarp – the outer layer of the fruit wall
 Mesocarp – the middle layer of the fruit wall and
 Endocarp – the inner layer

 Note: in some plants fruit development occur without

fertilization; a condition known as parthenocarpy.
Such fruits lack seeds
Parts of a fruit wall
 Revision Questions
A) Name the hormone responsible with fruit
formation in flowing plants (1 mark)
 Gibberellins / Gibberellic acid

b) Outline the events that occur in a flower
following fertilization (5 marks)

 Petals, sepals, stigma style and stamen

withers and fall off
 The ovule develop into the seeds
 The integuments form the seed coat
 The ovary enlarges and develops into fruit
 The ovary walls form the pericarp
c) Describe the process of fertilization in flowing
plant(15 marks)
 When pollen grain lands on the stigma of a compatible
flower it germinates to give rise to a pollen tube; the
pollen tube grows down through the tissues of the style
as it derive nutrients from it
 As the pollen tube grows, the tube nucleus assumes the
position at the tip of the tube as the generative nucleus
follow
 On reaching the micropyle, the pollen tube nucleus
disintegrates; the generative nucleus divides
mitotically into two male nuclei which enter the embryo
sac
 One of the male nucleus fuses with the egg cell in the
embryo sac forming a diploid zygote while the other
male nucleus fuses with the two polar nuclei to form a
triploid nucleus called the primary endosperm
d) Distinguish between parthenocarpy and
parthenogenesis (2 marks)

 Parthenocarpy is the development of

fruit without undergoing process of
fertilization

 Parthenogenesis is the development of

zygote from an unfertilized egg

e) Differentiate between a fruit and a seed
(2 marks)

Fruit Seed
Has two scars i.e. the remain Has one scar i.e. the point of
of style and the point of attachment to the placenta
attachment to the receptacle
Is enclosed in a pericarp with Is enclosed in a testa / seed
three layers coat
 Fruits

 Fruits may develop either from a

fertilized ovary or from other parts of
a flower such as the receptacle

 Fruits that develop from fertilized
ovaries are called true fruits; while
those that develop from other parts are
called false fruit/pseudo fruits
 Classification of fruits
 There are three broad classes of fruits i.e.
 Simple fruits – those that are formed from single flowers whose
pistil has one carpel or several carpels that are fused together
e.g. mangoes
 Aggregate fruits
Those formed from single flower whose pistil has several free
carpels;
They form several simple fruits on a single receptacle e.g straw
berry, black berry etc.
 compound fruits / multiple fruits
 Those formed from many flowers whose ovaries
fuse together after fertilization e.g. Fig,
pineapple
 (a). Simple fruits
Simple fruits – can further be classified into:
succulent (juicy) fruits – those fruits with the whole
pericarp or part of the pericarp being fleshy / juicy, e.g.
 Drupe e.g. mangoes, avocados e.t.c

Characteristics of drupe
 Single seeded fruits
 The epicarp is thin forming a skin
 The mesocarp is fleshy and edible while the endocarp
is hard or stony
 The endocarp encloses a seed
DRUPE
 Berry
 (b) Examples: oranges, tomatoes lemons e.t.c

 Characteristics of berries
 Have many seeds
 The whole pericarp is succulent
 Dry fruits
 Dry fruit – those fruits which on maturation the
pericarp dries up and become hard; they have dry
hard and woody pericarp

 They can further be classified as:

 Dry dehiscence (splitting) fruits

 The pericarp become dry on maturity and splits to
release seeds
 They have many seeds
 Dehiscing fruits include:
I Legumes / pods e.g. beans pods, peas pods etc.
 They split along two edges
 Follicle
 ii. Follicle e.g. Sodom apple, kola e.t.c
 they split along one edge only
 capsule
 Iii. Capsule e.g. Castor oil
 Develops from many fused carpels
 They split in various edges
 schizocarp
 Iv. Schizocarp e.g. Desmodium
 Splits into several parts each containing a seed
 (b) Dry indehiscent fruits
The pericarp become dry on maturation but
does not split to release seeds
 They are mostly single seeded fruits

 Dry indehiscence fruits include:
I. Achene
 Fruits have thin tough pericarp e.g.
Sunflower, straw berry etc.
Achene fruit
 ii. Cypsela
 Is a small single seeded dry indehiscent fruit that develops from
an inferior ovary at the stalk end
 During development the calyx or some times the perianth
persists and forms a parachute of hairs called pappus e.g. Bidens,
sonchus
 iii. Caryopsis
 Single seeded fruits in which the seed coat
and the pericarp are fused together e.g.
Maize, oat, wheat etc.
 Iv. Samara
Is a winged achene
 During development of the fruit the pericarp extends
from the ovary walls to form a flattened wing of
fibrous, membranous structure used for dispersal by
wind e.g. The sycamore, combretum etc.
 V. Nuts
 Are single seeded fruits with hard or stony
pericarp e.g. Cashew nuts, macadamia nuts,
etc.
 Placentation
 Refers to the arrangement of the ovules (seeds) in
the ovary (fruit)
 Types of placentation
There are five types of placentation i.e.
 Basal placentation
 Marginal placentation
 Axile placentation
 Free central placentation and
 Parietal placentation

Note: for the Monocarpous flower or Apocarpous flower the

placentation can either be marginal or basal while the Syncarpous
flowers the placentation can be axile, parietal or free central
 a) Marginal placentation
Placenta appears as one ridge in the ovary and
ovules are attached to the placenta in single row
e.g. In pods / legumes
 b) Basal placentation
 The placenta is formed at the base of the ovary
cavity
 One or numerous ovules are attached to the
placenta e.g. Avocado, mango etc.
 C) Axile Placentation
 Also called central placentation
 Formed when the edges of the carpels fuse together giving a
single central placenta where numerous ovules / seeds are
attached
 The carpel walls divide the ovary into several cavities called
loculi e.g. In tomatoes, oranges, lemons etc.
 d) Free central placentation
 Formed when the edges of the carpels fuse together
giving a single central placenta
 The dividing walls disintegrate leaving a single loculus
 The placenta appears at the centre of the ovary and
numerous ovules / seeds are attached to it
 E) parietal placentation
The central edges of several carpel fuse together and the dividing
walls disintegrate leaving a single loculus
 The outer edges of the carpels fuse together to form parietal
placentation ridges on the ovary walls where the numerous ovules
/ seeds are attached e.g. Paw paw, passion fruit etc.
 Fruit and seed dispersal
 Importance of fruit and seed dispersal
 Reduces competition for the available resources
between the offsprings and the parent plants
 Enables organisms to colonize new habitats

 Agents of dispersal
 Dispersal agents for fruits and seeds include:
 wind
 water
 animals
 self explosive mechanism
 a) Fruits dispersed by Wind
Characteristics of wind dispersed fruits
 Seed or fruits are small and light to enable them be carried
away easily by wind

 Some seeds like jacaranda, Nandi flame and fruits of combretum

have wing like extensions to increase the surface area so that
they can easily float in air

 Others like cotton seeds have tufts of hairs which increase

their ability to be carried away by air

 Some fruits such as sonchus posses parachute of hair like

structures called pappus so as to float easily in air

 Other fruit such as poppy and Simsim show censor mechanism

where the seeds born in dry capsules are scattered away when
wind blows and sways the stalk
 B) fruits dispersed by water

 Characteristics of water dispersed

fruits
 The fruits have spongy or fibrous
mesocarp which encloses large air
spaces to make them buoyant e.g.
Coconut, water lily
 Fruits have tough water proof epicarp
to prevent soaking up and imbibition of
water during dispersal
 c) Fruits dispersed by Animals
 Characteristics of animal dispersed fruits
 Have hooks or hook like structures on the pericarp
perianth to stick on the fur of a passing by animal or
human cloths

 Some fruits are succulent to attract animals that feed on

them and carry them away from parent plants

 Other fruits are brightly coloured and sweet scented to

attract animals that feed on them

 Some edible fruits like guavas have seeds with hard

indigestible seed coats to enable them pass undigested
through the alimentary canal and deposited away with
feaces
D) fruits dispersed by self explosive mechanism
 Characteristics of self explosive mechanism

 Seed are born in dry pods; the seeds detach from

the placenta and collect in the pod creating
pressure

 The pods have lines of weakness called sutures

 The pods opens violently along the sutures thus

throwing seeds away

Sexual reproduction in animals
 Involves fusion of male and female gamete in a
process called fertilization to form a zygote;
 Gametes are reproductive cells and are normally
haploid i.e. Have half the number of chromosomes
found in the somatic cells of the species

 Male gametes are called sperms while female gametes

are called ova (singular - ovum)

 Gametes are produced in the gonads;

 The male gonads are called testes (testis) while the

female gonads are called ovaries
 Fertilization
 Fertilization
 Is the fusion of the nuclei of male and female gametes to form a
zygote
 Types of fertilization
 External fertilization – where the fusion of the nuclei of male and
female gametes occur outside the body of a female animals

 External fertilization occur in water

 Normally many eggs are laid by the female in order to increase
the chances of fertilization and survival of the young ones e.g In
amphibians and fish

 Limitations of external fertilization
 Is mainly restricted to water
 There are few chances of fertilization
 Gametes and fertilized eggs risk being fed on by other aquatic
organisms
Mating and fertilization in amphibians
 They mate during rainy season or otherwise
migrate to water during the mating season
 During mating season the male croaks at night to
attract the female
 The male mounts the female; the female lays
many eggs in water in a string of gelatinous
albumen
 The male sheds sperms on the eggs as they are
laid to increase the chances of fertilization
 The albumen absorbs water, swells and become
slippery forming an envelope around the eggs
Functions of the slippery jelly like material
 The slippery jellylike material has the following
functions:
 Provides protection to the fertilized eggs against
mechanical damage, bacterial attack and predators
 Insulates the eggs against wide fluctuation in
temperature of water
 Separates the eggs from each other allowing for
aeration
 Anchors the eggs onto the water plants or rocks to
avoid being swept away by water currents
 Makes the eggs to be buoyant

 ii. Internal fertilization
 Internal fertilization - where the fusion of male
and female gametes occur within the body of a
female organism
 Internal fertilization is independent of water
 Normally few eggs are produced since the
gametes and the fertilized eggs are protected
inside the body

 Advantages of internal fertilization
 is independent of the environment e.g. water
 there are high chances of fertilization occurring
 gametes and fertilized eggs are protected inside the
body ensuring their survival
 Revision questions
 1. Differentiate between external fertilization
and internal fertilization (6marks)
External fertilization Internal fertilization
Fusion of the male and female Fusion of male and female
gametes occur outside the body gametes occur within the body of
of a female animals a female animal
External fertilization mainly Internal fertilization is
occur in water independent of water
Normally many eggs are laid by Normally few eggs are produced
the female to increase by the female since survival
fertilization chances chances are high
Gametes and fertilized eggs risk Gametes and fertilized eggs are
being fed on by aquatic protected inside the female’s
organisms body
2. Give the advantages of internal fertilization over
external fertilization (3 marks)

 Internal fertilization is independent of the

environment e.g. Water

 In internal fertilization there are high

chances of fusion between male and female
gametes

 In internal fertilization the gametes and

fertilized eggs are protected inside the
body hence increasing their survival chances
 Reproduction in mammals
 In mammals fertilization occur internally; after
fertilization the egg may be laid or develops within
the body of the female in the structures called uterus
or womb
 Mammals that lay eggs e.g. Spiny anteater and duck
billed platypus are called oviparous mammals; while
those that give birth to young ones e.g. Human beings
are referred to as viviparous mammals
 Most mammals are viviparous
 Oviparous mammals show a condition known as
oviparity while viviparous mammals show a condition
known as viviparity
 The eggs that are laid have a tough calcareous outer
shell
 Questions
 1. Distinguish between Viviparity and oviparity (2 marks)
 Viviparity is the ability of an organism to give birth while
oviparity is the ability of an organism to lay eggs

 2. State the advantages of the embryo developing inside the

females body(2 marks)
 The embryo is protected against harsh external conditions
 The embryo obtains nutrients from the mother

 3. State one advantage of the embryo developing inside a

shell (1 mark)
 The embryo is protected from the harsh external conditions
 Reproduction in human beings
 Some common terminologies used
 Coition – sexual intercourse or copulation

 Ejaculation – is the release of semen into the

vagina

 Orgasm – is the reflex action accompanying

ejaculation; it is exhibited by immense physical
excitement

Reproductive structures
 The female reproductive system:
 Structure, functions and adaptations of the female
reproductive system

 a) General functions of the female reproductive system

 The main functions of the female reproductive system

include:
 Production of female sex hormones e.g. Oestrogen and
progesterone
 Production of the egg cells (female gametes or ova)
 Delivering the egg cell to the oviduct
 Receiving the male sex organ (the penis) during copulation
 Protection of the foetus during development
Female reproductive organ
b) Functions and adaptations of various
parts of the female reproductive system
 The female reproductive system comprises of the following
structures:

 The ovaries:
 Are two cream coloured oval bodies located in the abdominal
cavity just beneath the kidneys; they are held in position by thin
fibrous membranes

 Functions:
 They produces the female reproductive cells (eggs or ova) / they
are the female gonads
 They also produce hormones oestrogen and progesterone

 Adaptations
 They contain follicle cells (graafian follicles) which releases ova
and secrets the hormones

Ii. The oviducts / fallopian tube:
 Are tubular structure with funnel shaped opening at the
ovary end and connected to the uterus at the other end

 Functions
 They receive and convey ova from the ovaries to the uterus
 They also provide site for fertilization

 Adaptations
 They have ciliated endothelium; the cilia wafts the ova
towards the uterus
 Their walls have smooth muscle which provides peristaltic
wave motion that aids in moving ova towards the uterus

 :
Iii. The uterus
 Also called the womb, is an enlarged posterior portion
of the oviduct
 Functions
 It is the site for implantation and development of the
foetus

 Adaptations
 Its walls are made up of layers of muscles fibres with
the inner lining (endometrium) having a thick layer of
tissues and dense network of blood capillaries to
provide nourishment to the foetus
 The walls are elastic to allow for expansion during
growth of the foetus
 The muscular wall produces powerful contractions
that helps to expel the developed foetus during birth
 iv. The cervix:
 Is the opening to the uterus

 Functions
 It allows secretions of the uterus and the menses to flow
out into the vagina
 Prevents entry of pathogens into the uterus
 It maintains the foetus in the uterus during gestation
period

 Adaptations
 It has cells which secrete a mucus plugs that prevents
entry of microorganisms into the uterus during pregnancy
 It is made up of a ring of smooth muscles and connective
tissues hence separate the uterus from the vagina
 v. The vagina:
 Also called the birth canal; is a muscular tube linking the
uterus to the outside through the vulva

 Functions
 It links the uterus to the outside through the vulva
 It receives the penis during copulation; sperms are
deposited in it during copulation

 Adaptations
 It has vestibular glands that secret a mucary fluid for
lubrication during sexual intercourse
 Its walls are elastic to allow it to stretch during
intercourse and also at the time of giving birth
 Vi. The clitoris
 Is a small rounded projection on the anterior portion
of the vulva

 Function
 It produces sexual excitement during intercourse

 Adaptation
 It is served with numerous nerve endings that
produces sexual stimulation hence producing
excitement during intercourse
 It is located close to the vaginal opening so as to
receive direct stimulation during sexual intercourse
 Essay question
 Describe how a mammalian female reproduction system is adapted to
its functions (15 marks)

 The mammalian female reproductive system has two ovaries; which

produce ova alternately every month after puberty when the ovarian
tissues (graafian) mature; the graafian follicle also secrets hormones
oestrogen and progesterone; which regulate the menstrual cycle;

 The female reproductive system also has fallopian tubes / oviducts

which convey ova from the ovaries to the uterus; the fallopian tubes
also provide site for fertilization; the end of the fallopian tube near
the ovaries is funnel shaped so as to suck the ova during ovulation; the
fallopian tubes are narrow to increase the chances of fertilization;
and also has cilia that aid in the movement of ova / zygote towards the
uterus after fertilization; the walls of the fallopian tube have smooth
muscles to produce peristaltic motion that moves the ova towards the
uterus
Continuation.
 It has uterus which provide site for implantation and
development of the zygote after fertilization; the uterus has
muscular walls that are lined with thick tissues on the inside
to allow for implantation; the inner walls are well vascularised to
provide nutrient and oxygen to the developing foetus; the
muscular walls also provide the force that expels the fully
developed foetus during birth;
 The lower end of the uterus has cervical sphincter / cervix
which prevent foetus from coming out during gestation; the
cervix also prevent entry of pathogens into the uterus;
 the vagina is tubular, muscular and elastic to accommodate
the foetus during birth and penis during copulation; the walls of
the vagina have vestibular glands that secret slippery fluid for
lubrication during copulation; the vagina opens up into a vulva; on
the anterior part of the vulva is the clitoris which is the centre
for sensitivity / produces sexual excitement during copulation;
 :
The male reproductive system
 Structure, functions and adaptations of the
male reproductive system

 A) general functions of the male reproductive

system
 Production of male sex hormones e.g. Androgens
 Production of male gametes or sperms
 Production of male secretions collectively known
as semen
 Introducing sperms / male gametes into the
vagina during copulation
Illustration of male reproductive organ
b) Functions and adaptations of various parts of the male
reproductive system
 The male reproductive system comprises of the following
structures:
 I). The testes (testis)
 Are two in number and are located outside the body within the
scrotal sacs
 Functions
 They produce the male reproductive cells / male gametes or
sperms; they are the male gonads
 They secrets androgens (hormone testosterone) which is
responsible for development of secondary sexual characteristics
 Adaptations
 Have highly coiled tubules called seminiferous tubules that
increases the surface area for sperm formation
 They are located outside the body in the scrotal sacs to provide
conducive temperatures for optimum sperm production
 Question
 Why are the testes located outside the body
of a male?

 Because the process of sperm formation occur

at temperatures which are slightly lower than
that of the body / to provide conducive
temperature (below the body temperature)
required for maximum sperm production
 Ii). The seminiferous tubules
 Are highly coiled tubules in the testes

 functions
 They are site of sperm formation
 Secretes hormones / androgens

 Adaptations
 Are lined with actively dividing cells that give rise to
sperms cells
 Contain interstitial cells that secret hormones
androgen
 Has sertoli cells where the sperm cells grow, develop
and mature
 Iii). The epididymis
 Are highly coiled muscular tubules on the outer surface of the
testes

 Functions
 Stores sperms temporarily before being discharged from the
body
 Nourishes the sperm cells ensuring their maturation and viability
 Contracts to expel sperms out during sexual intercourse

 Adaptations
 Its walls are made up of smooth muscles whose contraction aid in
forcing sperms out
 Has ciliated endothelium that aid in propelling the sperms
onwards
 It is long to provide sufficient space for sperm storage and also
time for complete maturation of sperms
 Iv). The vas deferens
 Is a narrow tube connecting the epididymis to the urethra

 Functions
 It convey sperm cells from the epididymis to the urethra

 Adaptations
 It has narrow lumen with muscular walls (walls made up of
smooth muscles) to provide sufficient force with which the
semen is ejected from the body during ejaculation

 Note:
 At the junction between the urethra, the vas deferens and
the urinary bladder is a collection of accessory glands
(prostate gland, Cowper's gland and seminal vesicles) which
collectively produces a fluid known as seminal fluid.
Seminal fluid serves the following functions:
 Activates the sperm cells causing them to become motile

 It is alkaline to neutralize the acidity of the vagina

 Contains sugars (fructose) that nourishes the sperm cells

 Provides a fluid medium in which the sperms swim

 Lubricates the urethra as well as the vagina for smooth

passage of sperms

 Provides an alkaline PH suitable for sperm survival

 V). The urethra
 Conveys urine from the bladder to the outside of
the body
 Also conveys sperm from the vas deferens to the
outside of the body

 Adaptations
 Has sphincter muscle at its anterior end and at
the junction with the vas deferens which prevent
mixing of urine and semen

 Note: urine and semen comes at different time
 Vi). The penis:
 Is an intromittent erectile organ projecting from the body
 functions
 Used to introduce / deposit sperms into the vagina during
copulation
 It is also used to expel urine from the body

 Adaptations
 Has numerous blood spaces that fills up with blood to make it
stiff and erect when stimulated
 It is highly vascularized to increase the blood flow when sexually
aroused hence effecting an erection
 Has a highly sensitive head called the glans to produce sexual
stimulation that leads to ejection of semen / ejaculation
 Question

Describe how a mammalian male reproduction system is adapted
to its functions (15 marks)
 The male reproductive system comprises of two testes contained
in scrotal sacs that hang outside the body to provide favourable
temperature for sperm formation;
 The testes have numerous highly coiled seminiferous tubules
that produce sperms; the walls of seminiferous tubules have
interstitial cells that secret hormone androgen (testosterone);
 which controls the male secondary sexual characteristics;
 The seminiferous tubules join to form a long highly coiled tubule
called epididymis which provides temporary storage for the
sperms; the walls of epididymis are made up of smooth muscles to
provide rhythmic contractions that expel sperms during
ejaculation;
 The epididymis are connected to the urethra through the vas
deferens or sperm duct; which convey sperms to the urethra during
ejaculation; their walls are muscular to provide the force needed to
move the sperms along;
Continuation..
 The urethra is a tubular duct; that conveys urine and semen
containing sperms to the outside of the body; at the junction
between the urethra and the vas deferens is an automatic
sphincter muscles that prevent urine and semen from mixing; the
urethra runs on the dorsal side along the axis of the penis;
 The penis is used to deposit semen into the vagina; it is an
intromittent erectile organ with numerous blood spaces; that fills
up with blood to become erect and stiff; so as to penetrate the
vagina during copulation; the penis has a highly sensitive head called
the glans; that is stimulated to bring about ejaculation;
 The male reproductive system also has accessory glands which
include the seminal vesicle, prostate gland and the Cowper's
glands; that secret an alkaline slippery fluid called seminal fluid;
the seminal fluid activates the sperm cells, nourishes the sperm
cells, neutralizes the acidity of the vagina and lubricates the
vagina for smooth passage of sperms; the fluid also provide a
medium through which sperms swim;


 Gametogenesis
 Role of hormones in gametogenesis
 Gametogenesis is the process by which gametes are formed in the gonads;
formation of sperms is called spermatogenesis while formation of ova is
called oogenesis
 Spermatogenesis occurs in the seminiferous tubules found in the testes
while oogenesis occur alternately in the ovaries each month
 Gametogenesis is initiated and controlled by follicle stimulating
hormone(FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH);
 Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH) are
gonadotrophic hormones secreted by the pituitary glands; they trigger the
maturation of gonads and secretion of:
 Androgens e.g. Testosterone - by the interstitial cells in the testes
(testosterone is also secreted to a small extend by the adrenal cortex
and the ovaries)
 Oestrogen and progesterone - by the ovarian tissues
 Testosterone controls the male secondary sexual characteristics including
formation sperms
 Luteinizing hormone other than initiating secretion of gonad hormones also
controls the maturation of sperms and graafian follicles to release ovum
Spermatogenesis
 The structure and adaptation of sperm cells

 A sperm cell consists of the

following parts:
 An ovoid head
 Short neck
 Middle piece
 The tail

 Parts of a spermatozoa
 The head
 Consist of an acrosome; the acrosome contains a lytic enzyme that aid
in dissolving the vitelline membrane of the ovum for the head to
penetrate during fertilization

 Has a large nucleus that contains haploid number of chromosome

(hereditary materials)

 The neck
 Contain microtubules / centrioles that give rise to the tail (flagellum)

 The middle piece
 Consist of numerous mitochondria used to provide energy needed to
propel the sperm cell

 The tail
 Helps to propel the sperm cell forward by lashing from side to side
The Sperm cell
Oogenesis
The structure and adaptation of the ovum
 It is round enabling to easily roll in the fallopian
tube
 It is surrounded by follicle cells called zona
pellucida that secrets a chemical that attracts
sperms
 It is enclosed in vitelline membrane which provide
protection
 It has a dense cytoplasm containing yolk which
provide nourishment to the embryo in the early
development stage
 Has a large nucleus containing haploid number of
chromosomes (hereditary materials)
The ovum
Differences between the sperm and ovum

Sperm cell Ovum (egg cell)

Small in size Large in size
Lack yolk Has egg yolk
Has a tail for propulsion Lack tail
Has a small haploid nucleus Has a large haploid nucleus
Has acrosome containing lytic Lack acrosome
enzyme
Structural difference between sperm
cell and an ovum
 Copulation

 During copulation sperms are deposited into the
vagina

 The sperms are drawn up into the uterus by the

suction force caused by the contractions of the
uterine walls and the vaginal walls

 The sperm swims into the oviduct where one of them

fuses with the ovum to form a zygote
Forces that aid movement of sperm
and ovum inside the female
 Forces that maintain the movement of sperms inside the
female reproductive tract
 Suction due to the contraction and relaxation of the
uterine and vaginal muscles
 Side to side lashing of the tail of the sperms using energy
produced by the numerous mitochondria

 Forces that maintain the movement of ovum down the
fallopian tube / oviduct
 Wafting motion produced by the cilia on the epithelial
lining of the oviduct
 Peristaltic wave produced by the rhythmic contractions of
the smooth muscles in the walls of the oviduct

 Events during fertilization
 Is the fusion of the male and female gamete nuclei to form a zygote
 Fertilization occurs in the oviduct (why? Because the oviduct has narrow
lumen that increases the chances of sperms and ovum meeting)
 When sperms are introduced into the vagina during copulation; the sperms
are drawn into the uterus by the suction force resulting from the
contraction and relaxation of the uterine and vaginal muscles
 The sperms then swim up the oviduct using their tails; only one of the
about 300 million sperm cells released in a single ejaculation fertilizes
the ovum
 When the sperm come into contact with ovum, the acrosome raptures and
releases lytic enzyme that dissolves the egg membranes; then reorganizes
to form a fine filament that is used to penetrate the ovum
 The head of the sperm enters the ovum and the tail detaches off
 The vitelline membrane thickens and lifts off preventing further entry of
sperms
 While in the cytoplasm of the ovum, the head of the sperms ruptures and
releases the male nucleus, which fuses with the female nucleus forming a
diploid zygote
 After ovulation, the ovum can remain viable for from 8-24 hours before
it dies, the sperm can however be viable for 2-3days within the female
reproductive tract
Preparation of sperms for fertilization
Actual fertilization
 Implantation:
 Events following fertilization
 After fertilization the zygote undergoes rapid mitotic divisions
as it moves down the oviduct to form a hollow mass of cells called
the blastocyst

 On reaching the uterus the blastocyst forms finger like

projections called villi with which it attaches to the thickened
uterine walls (endometrium) a process called implantation
(implantation takes place 6-7 days after fertilization)

 Implantation is the process by which a zygote / embryo attach

itself to the uterine wall; implantation is the beginning of
gestation / pregnancy
 The villi together with the endometrium forms a special organ
called the placenta

 Events after implantation
 After implantation, the blastocyst become embryo; which
differentiates into three layers i.e. Chorion, amnion and allantois

 a) The Chorion
 Modifies itself to form chorionic villi

 Functions of chorionic villi
 Attaches the embryo onto the endometrium before the
formation of placenta
 It offers site for exchange of materials between the mother
and the embryo during early development stages

 b) The Amnion
 Surrounds the embryo and secretes amniotic fluid that provides aquatic
environment for the embryo development
 Functions of amniotic fluid

 Suspends the foetus in position

 Acts as a shock absorber thus
protecting the foetus from
mechanical injury
 Lubricates the foetus for easy
movement
 Protects the foetus from desiccation
 C) The Allantois -
c) The allantois - gives rise to the placenta;
 The allantois, the chorionic villi and the endometrium form the
placenta
Structure of the Placenta
Developing foetus
 Roles of the placenta

 Prevents mixing of the maternal and foetal blood, this prevents
agglutination incase the two bloods are of different groups

 Prevents pathogens from crossing over to the foetus incase the

mother has infections

 Prevents some harmful chemicals from crossing over from the

mother to the foetus

 Provide site for exchange of materials between the mother and

the foetus i.e. Nutrients, oxygen, hormones and antibodies form
the mother while waste products form the foetus

 Secretes hormones progesterone and prolactin


 Adaptation of the placenta
 Has dense network of capillaries to provide nutrients and
remove waste materials

 Has thin membrane to facilitate exchange of materials by

diffusion; the membrane is selectively permeable

 Foetal blood and maternal blood flow in opposite direction

in the placenta to maintain a steep concentration gradient
for maximum exchange of materials

 Has secretory cells that produce hormones that maintain

pregnancy

 Has highly folded membrane to increase the surface area

for diffusion
 The umbilical cord

Note: the foetus is connected to the placenta through the

umbilical cord; which contain umbilical artery and the
umbilical vein
 Pregnancy (Gestation)
 Is the period between implantation and birth;
 It varies between different animals but in human beings it takes 9 months
 During this period the embryo differentiates into tissues and organs and
becomes the foetus;
 By the end of the 1st trimester the foetus have the following:
 Features of the head including the brain and the spinal cord, the limbs,
heart and the blood vessels
 During the 2nd trimester
 The limbs, heart and the blood vessels, the lung tissues are well developed;
the foetus also show some movement
 By the end of 3rd trimester
 All the organs and the systems of the foetus are fully developed and
functional except the lungs
 The foetus head is directly above the cervix in readiness for birth

 Note: sometimes implantation takes place inside the fallopian tube such
pregnancy is called ectopic pregnancy

 Ectopic pregnancy never lasts full term since the oviduct is narrow and cannot
allow growth to occur
Stages of human gestation
 Birth / parturition
 Is the process of expelling a fully developed foetus
from the womb after completion of the full term of
pregnancy

 It is brought about by hormone oxytocin which is

secreted by the anterior lobe of pituitary gland

 Before birth the level of hormone progesterone drops

triggering production of oxytocin

 Oxytocin causes the myometrium to start producing a

wave of contraction that eventually forces the full
grown foetus out of the body
 Terminologies of parturition
 Some terms related to birth
 Abortion: is a spontaneous or induced termination of pregnancy
before its full term; abortion may be by chemical means or
physical

 Miscarriage: is premature expulsion of the foetus before
attainment of 6 months;
 If a miscarriage occurs after 6 months it is called premature
birth such a baby can survive if it has attained a certain weight
or else it will require specialized attention / care (incubation)

 Caesarean delivery
 It is surgical incision of abdomen and uterine wall for delivery of
the offspring [Link]
 It is done in case of complication , e.g. Siamese twins , cosmetic
purpose
Role of hormones in reproduction
 Secondary sexual characteristics:
 Are physiological, structural and mental changes
associated with feminity and masculinity

 It is controlled by hormone oestrogen in females

and androgens such as testosterone in males

 The period within which the changes begin to

occur is called puberty; puberty occur at age 14
years in males and about 10 years in females
Secondary sexual characteristics in males

 Include:
 Deepening of voice
 Growth of pubic hairs and armpit hairs
 Growth of beards
 Body becoming masculine and shoulders
broadening
 The testes enlarges and begin producing sperms:
wet dreams are common at this stage
Secondary sexual
characteristics in females
 Include:
 Development of mammary glands leading to
enlargement of breast

 Enlargement of the pelvic girdle and broadening of

hips

 Growth of pubic hairs and armpit hairs

 Onset of menstruation as a result of maturation of

ovaries
Menstruation and menstrual cycle
 Menstruation is the periodic shedding of blood
mixed with intra-uterine tissues through the
vagina

 Menstrual cycle is a cyclic event, which starts

and ends with menses (menstrual flow)

 It occurs at puberty and continues until

menopause about 45 years of age
 Role of Hormones in menstrual cycle
 On the onset of puberty the hypothalamus initiates menstrual cycle:
 By stimulating the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland to secret follicle stimulating hormone
(FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH)
Follicle stimulating hormone has the following functions:
 Initiates the development of primary follicles the ovary into graafian follicles
 Stimulate the secretion of hormone oestrogen by the follicular cells
Hormone oestrogen has the following effects:
 Brings about repair and healing of the endometrium after menstruation;
 When its level in blood increases it stimulates the secretion of luteinizing hormone (LH) by the
pituitary glands
Luteinizing hormone induces:
 The maturation of the graafian follicle
 Brings about the release of ovum from the ovary (ovulation);
 It also induces the graafian follicle to change into corpus luteum after ovulation
 Stimulates the corpus luteum to secret hormone progesterone
Hormone progesterone has the following functions:
 Initiates the thickening and proliferation of the endometrium in readiness for implantation
 Increase in progesterone level in the blood inhibits further production of follicle stimulating
hormone and luteinizing hormone from the pituitary gland thus preventing further development of
primary follicles
In the event that fertilization fails to occur in 12-14 days after ovulation, the corpus luteum reduces
in size and eventually degenerates leading to decrease in level of luteinizing hormone and progesterone
The decrease in level of progesterone in blood leads to secretion of FSH by the pituitary gland and the
cycle begins again
Meanwhile the uterine walls washes out as menses (menstrual flow)
 Ovulation

 Is the process by which a mature graafian follicle

ruptures to release an ovum from the ovary into
the oviduct

 Ovulation is initiated by luteinizing hormone (LH)

secreted by the pituitary gland

 Ovulation occurs midway the menstrual cycle i.e.

Around day 14 in human females
Summary chart for the menstrual cycle
Illustration of menstrual cycle
 Parental care
 Attention given to newborn e.g. Providing food and
protection

 For mammals young ones are fed on milk produced

by mammary glands under influence of lactogenic
hormones e.g. Prolactin

 1st milk is called colostrum it contains antibodies,

lactose and proteins and is a yellowish fluid
Structure of the mammary gland
 Milk let down
 It occurs by reflex action /automatic response
 It is influenced by prevailing environment +ve or –ve

 Under positive environment
 Milk let down reflex is triggered by sucking at the breast or in some cases the
crying of the baby , or smell of the baby or touch of breast
 When this happens hypothalamus relays impulse to the pituitary glands which in
turn releases hormone oxytocin which reaches the breast causing contraction of
alveolus forcing milk into ducts
 Ducts conducts milk into reservoirs behind areola
 Baby can then suck milk from this reservoirs into the mouths

 Under negative environment
 Milk let down may be inhibited if the breast feeding mother experiences:
 Distraction
 Embarrassment
 Anxiety or fatigue
Summary on roles of Hormones
Hormone source Function
Follicle Anterior lobe of the o Development of ovarian follicle
stimulating Pituitary gland o Stimulate secretion of oestrogen
hormone (FSH)
Luteinizing Anterior lobe of the o Causes ovulation
hormone (LH) Pituitary gland o Initiates change of graafian follicle
into corpus luteum
o Initiates secretion of progesterone
Prolactin Anterior lobe of the o Initiates secretion of milk from the
Pituitary gland mammary gland
Oxytocin Anterior lobe of the o Causes contractions of the uterine
Pituitary gland walls during birth
Oestrogen Ovarian follicles o Changes in the uterine in preparation
(Graafian follicle) to implantation
o Initiates secretion of luteinizing
o Initiates secondary sexual
characteristic female
Progesterone Corpus luteum in the o Causes proliferation of the uterine
ovary walls
o Inhibits the secretion of FSH
SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED INFECTIONS (STIS)

INFECTION CAUSE Scientific name

Gonorrhea Bacteria Neisseria gonorrhea
Syphilis Bacteria Treponema palladium
Trichonomiasis Protozoa Trichomonas vaginalis
Candidiasis / Oral Fungus Candida albicans
thrush
Hepatitis B /Serum Virus
hepatitis
Herpes simplex Virus Herpes simplex ( hsv ii )
 GONORRHEA
 Cause – gonococcus bacteria ( Neisseria gonorrhea )
 Infects urethra and vaginal tract

 Mode of transmission
 Sexual intercourse ( through secretions of urethra , cervix , vagina , anus )
 At birth from mother to infants
 Incubation period – 2- 14 days ( time between infection and appearance of
symptoms )

 Symptoms –
 Blindness in baby’s ( severe conjunctivitis )
 Itching of urethra , sores at tip of penis
 Yellowish discharge during urinating ( males ) with difficult
 Unusual vaginal odour in females
 Infertility

 Control and treatment
 Avoid indiscriminate sexual contact
 Regular screening
 Use condoms
 Use antibiotics – penicillin
 SYPHILIS
 Cause – bacteria ( spirochaetes ) treponema palladium
 Transmission mode – sexual intercourse , blood transfusion
,mother to infants
 Incubation period – 7- 90 days
 Symptoms
 Pain less ulcer on genital or mucous membrane
 Rashes
 Macules ( discoloured spots ) may appear on hands feet
 Papules ( pimples on skin ) oral cavity , lips and genitals
 Insanity paralysis if meninges is attacked ( after several years
 Still birth

 Control and treatment
 Use of broad spectrum antibiotics for treatment
 Avoid indiscriminate sex
 Use condoms

 Note- tertiary and secondary phase are difficult to treat

 TRICHOMONIASIS
 Cause – protozoa called Trichomonas vaginalis
 Protozoa can live in vaginal canals that are less acidic

 Mode of transmission
 Sexual intercourse
 Contaminated linen , underwear , towels

 Symptoms
 Itching of urethra in male and vagina in female
 Discharge in males ( not noticeable )
 Yellow smelly discharge in females

 Treatment
 Avoid sharing linen
 Avoid indiscriminate sex
 Avoid high personal hygiene of genital
 Antibiotics
 CANDIDIASIS /ORAL THRUSH
 Is an opportunistic disease in women with diabetes mellitus
 Cause – fungus – Candida albicans ( thrush )
 Vaginal candidiasis
Symptoms
 Burning sensation of genitals Note:. Fungus may be present in ones
 White vaginal discharge vaginal but it’s harmless
They are harmful if their population rises

due to
 Transmission Change in pH. in vagina. Use of antibiotics (
 By sexual contact soaps ) which kill bacteria that keeps
 Sharing towels , underwear , bath tub of candida in low
population

 Treatment and control
 Antifungal soap ointment fungicide
 Avoid strong medicated soap that may alter ph of birth canal
 Use pure cotton and louse pants
 Wiping oneself from front to back after visiting the toilets


 HEPATITIS B / serum hepatitis
 It refers to inflammation of the liver
 Cause – virus
 Symptoms
 Nausea
 Severe loss of appetite TYPES OF HEPATITIS
 Jaundice ( yellowing of skin ) Hepatitis A – children
 High mortality Hepatitis B - common in adults (virus is
 present in urine, saliva, semen, milk)
 Mode of transmission
 Sexual contact
 Blood transmission
 Contaminated razors and unsterilized syringes
 Kissing
 Contaminated instruments by barbers and dentists
 Incubation period ( 2- 4 weeks )

 Control
 Vaccination
 Maintain high hygiene
 Avoid sexual contacts
 HERPES
 Cause – virus – herpes simplex ( hsv ii )
 Mode of transmission
 Sexual intercourse
 Kissing
 Contaminated needles and syringes /drug addicts

 Symptoms
 Painless lesion on penis (head) , anal
 Lesions on mucus membrane, mouth cavity , vaginal canal
and conjunctiva

 Treatment and control
 Avoid indiscriminate sex
 Avoid contaminated needles and syringes

 HIV /AIDS
 1st reported in USA in 1981
 AIDS – Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome
 Cause – virus – HIV – Human Immune Deficiency Virus
 Hiv belongs to group of viruses known as retroviruses
 It invades human blood and penetrates ( CD4
lymphocytes ( type of WBC ) which produce antibodies
 Hiv contains the enzymes reverse transcriptase which
enables it to convert RNA to DNA once inside the
host cell
 Hence quick multiplication spread to other CD4
lymphocytes
 Hiv –generic materials is RNA instead of DNA

 Hiv multiplication in the body

Bursting
Enzyme Reverse outside the
transcriptase multiplication cells

CD4 BODY
RNA DNA VIRIONS
WBC CELLS

Hiv particles
kills

CD4
CELLS
Continuation..
 Hiv – destroys capacity of CD4 lymphocytes to produce
antibodies against diseases
 Antibodies – immobilize, neutralize and kill pathogens
 Hiv occurs in high concentration in body fluids i.e. Blood,
tissue fluids, semen, vaginal fluids
 Hiv occurs in low concentration in saliva, tears, breast milk
 Hiv transmission is mainly via body fluids

 Note AIDS
 Acquired – means it’s not hereditary,
 Syndrome – collection of symptoms e.g. Diarrhoea , rashes
, pneumonia , lymph nodes
 HIV – virus occurs in lymphatic system and only small
quantity in blood
 Mode of transmission of HIV

 Sexual intercourse
 Blood transfusion ( unscreened )
 Contaminated surgical instrument
 Organ transplant
 Birth from mother to child
 Breast feeding
 AIDS related diseases
 Opportunistic diseases
 T.b – lung
 Kaposi sarcoma – cancer of mouth /nose
 Oral thrush ( candidiasis
 Herpes simplex
 Herpes zoster /shingles
 Pneumocystis pneumonia
 Cryptococal meningitis – headache, nausea , paralysis
convulsions

 Aids related diseases are often the direct cause of
death in aids patients
 Symptoms of HIV- AIDS
 Chronic diarrhea – 1month
 Night sweating , high fever ,
 loss of appetites
 Excessive loss of body weight
 T.B constant persistent cough – 4 weeks
 Pneumonia
 Swollen lymph nodes
 Generalized skin infections /rashes
 Herpes zoster and herpes simplex and inflamed lymph
nodes
 Painful sores on the face
 Permanent sores on genitalia and anal
 Impaired judgments

 Prevention and cure
 Have no cure
 Avoid excessive intake of alcohol /drug addiction
 Avoid indiscriminate sex
 Avoid cultural practices e.g. Wife inheritance , FGM
,traditional circumcision
 Screening blood before transfusion
 Avoid sharing instruments , brushes, razors , syringes
etc
 Go for VCT to determine ones HIV status
 Use antiretroviral – to prolong life ( azt ) zidovudine -
destroys action of enzyme transcriptase
 Combination of three drugs ; expensive and toxic
Social and economic effects of HIV and AIDS
 Lowers economic growth
 Increase number of orphans
 High cost of medical service
 Early retirement and loss of benefits
 Increase in poverty
 Decreased motivation for production
 Psychological torture – suicidal feelings
Merits and demerits of Asexual reproduction
 Advantages of asexual reproduction
 Faster rate of reproduction and growth
 Beneficial characteristics of patients are maintained
in the offspring
 Nutrients are provided by the parent , thus
increasing chances of survival

 Disadvantages
 Undesired parental characteristics are maintained
 No variation in offspring
 Depletion of resources due to fast rate of growth
 Overcrowding of plants /banana stool

Merits and demerits of Sexual reproduction
 Advantages of sexual reproduction
 Variation in organisms due to mixing of genes
during fusion of gametes
 Better adaptation to new environmental changes

 Disadvantages
 Cannot occur where gametes of two parents do
not meet i.e. Isolation
 Undesirable characteristics may emerge
 THE END

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