LESSON PROPER WEEK 13

IMMUNE SYSTEM
Our immune system is essential for our survival. Without an immune system, our bodies
would be open to attack from bacteria, viruses, parasites, and more. It is our immune system that
keeps us healthy as we drift through a sea of pathogens. This vast network of cells and tissues is
constantly on the lookout for invaders, and once an enemy is spotted, a complex attack is mounted.
The immune system is spread throughout the body and involves many types of cells, organs,
proteins, and tissues. Crucially, it can distinguish our tissue from foreign tissue — self from non-self.
Dead and faulty cells are also recognized and cleared away by the immune system. If the immune
system encounters a pathogen, for instance, a bacterium, virus, or parasite, it mounts a so-called
immune response. These are the main characters in the immune system.

White Blood Cell

A white blood cell (yellow), attacking anthrax bacteria (orange). The white line at the bottom
is 5 micrometers long. Image credit: Volker Brinkmann (Shared on Pinterest)
White blood cells are also called leukocytes. They circulate in the body in blood vessels
and the lymphatic vessels that parallel the veins and arteries. White blood cells are on constant
patrol and looking for pathogens. When they find a target, they begin to multiply and send signals
out to other cell types to do the same. Our white blood cells are stored in different places in the
body, which are referred to as lymphoid organs. These include the following:

• Thymus — a gland between the lungs and just below the neck.
• Spleen — an organ that filters the blood. It sits in the upper left of the abdomen.
• Bone marrow — found in the center of the bones, it also produces red blood cells.
• Lymph nodes —small glands positioned throughout the body, linked by lymphatic
vessels.
There are two main types of leukocyte:

1. Phagocytes
These cells surround and absorb pathogens and break them down, effectively eating them.
There are several types, including:
Neutrophils — these are the most common type of phagocyte and tend to attack bacteria.
Monocytes — these are the largest type and have several roles.
Macrophages — these patrol for pathogens and also remove dead and dying cells.
Mast cells — they have many jobs, including helping to heal wounds and defend against pathogens.

2. Lymphocytes
Lymphocytes help the body to remember previous invaders and recognize them if they come
back to attack again. Lymphocytes begin their life in bone marrow. Some stay in the marrow and
develop into B lymphocytes (B cells), others head to the thymus and become T lymphocytes (T
cells). These two cell types have different roles:

a. B lymphocytes — they produce antibodies and help alert the T lymphocytes.

b. T lymphocytes — they destroy compromised cells in the body and help alert other leukocytes.

How an Immune Response Works

B lymphocytes secrete antibodies (pictured) that lock onto antigens (Share on Pinterest)
The immune system needs to be able to tell self from non-self. It does this by detecting
proteins that are found on the surface of all cells. It learns to ignore its own or self-proteins at an
early stage.
An antigen is any substance that can spark an immune response. In many cases, an
antigen is a bacterium, fungus, virus, toxin, or foreign body. But it can also be one of our own
cells that is faulty or dead. Initially, a range of cell types works together to recognize the antigen as
an invader.
 The Role of B Lymphocytes
Once B lymphocytes spot the antigen, they begin to secrete antibodies (antigen is short for
“antibody generators”). Antibodies are special proteins that lock on to specific antigens. Each B cell
makes one specific antibody. For instance, one might make an antibody against the bacteria that
cause pneumonia, and another might recognize the common cold virus. Antibodies are part of a
large family of chemicals called immunoglobulins, which play many roles in the immune response:

a. Immunoglobulin G (IgG) — marks microbes so other cells can recognize and deal with them.
b. IgM — is expert at killing bacteria.
c. IgA — congregates in fluids, such as tears and saliva, where it protects gateways into the body.
d. IgE — protects against parasites and is also to blame for allergies.
e. IgD — stays bound to B lymphocytes, helping them to start the immune response.
Antibodies lock onto the antigen, but they do not kill it, only mark it for death. The killing is the
job of other cells, such as phagocytes.

The Role of T Lymphocytes

There are distinct types of T lymphocytes:

1. Helper T cells (T cells) — they coordinate the immune response. Some communicate with other
cells, and some stimulate B cells to produce more antibodies. Others attract more T cells or
celleating phagocytes.

2. Killer T cells (cytotoxic T lymphocytes) — as the name suggests, these T cells attack other
cells. They are particularly useful for fighting viruses. They work by recognizing small parts of the
virus on the outside of infected cells and destroy the infected cells.

3. Immunity - Everyone’s immune system is different but, as a general rule, it becomes stronger
during adulthood as, by this time, we have been exposed to more pathogens and developed more
immunity. That is why teens and adults tend to get sick less often than children. Once an antibody
has been produced, a copy remains in the body so that if the same antigen appears again, it can
be dealt with more quickly. That is why with some diseases, such as chickenpox, you only get it
once as the body has a chickenpox antibody stored, ready and waiting to destroy it next time it
arrives. This is called immunity.
Share on Pinterest Your skin is the first layer of defense against external pathogens.

There are three types of immunity in humans called innate, adaptive, and passive:

1. Innate immunity
We are all born with some level of immunity to invaders. Human immune systems, similarly to
those of many animals, will attack foreign invaders from day one. This innate immunity includes the
external barriers of our body — the first line of defense against pathogens — such as the skin and
mucous membranes of the throat and gut. This response is more general and non-specific. If the
pathogen manages to dodge the innate immune system, adaptive or acquired immunity kicks in.

2. Adaptive (acquired) immunity

This protects from pathogens that develop as we go through life. As we are exposed to diseases
or get vaccinated, we build up a library of antibodies to different pathogens. This is sometimes
referred to as immunological memory because our immune system remembers previous enemies.

3. Passive immunity
This type of immunity is “borrowed” from another source, but it does not last indefinitely. For
instance, a baby receives antibodies from the mother through the placenta before birth and in breast
milk following birth. This passive immunity protects the baby from some infections during the early
years of their life.

4. Immunizations
Immunization introduces antigens or weakened pathogens to a person in such a way that the
individual does not become sick but still produces antibodies. Because the body saves copies of
the antibodies, it is protected if the threat should reappear later in life.

LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
Your lymphatic system, part of your immune system, has many functions. They
include protecting your body from illness-causing invaders, maintaining body fluid levels,
absorbing digestive tract fats and removing cellular waste. Blockages, diseases or infections
can affect your lymphatic system’s function.
 The lymphatic system is a network of tissues, vessels and organs that work together to move
lymph back into your bloodstream. The lymphatic system is part of your immune system.

What is the lymphatic system?

The lymphatic system is a network of tissues, vessels and organs that work together to move
a colorless, watery fluid called lymph back into your circulatory system (your bloodstream).
Some 20 liters of plasma flow through your body’s arteries and smaller arteriole blood
vessels and capillaries every day. After delivering nutrients to the body’s cells and tissues and
receiving their waste products, about 17 liters are returned to the circulation by way of veins. The
remaining three liters seep through the capillaries and into your body’s tissues. The lymphatic
system collects this excess fluid, now called lymph, from tissues in your body and moves it along
until it ultimately returns it to your bloodstream. Your lymphatic system actually has many functions.
Its key functions include:

a. Maintains fluid levels in your body: As just described, the lymphatic system collects excess fluid
that drains from cells and tissue throughout the body and returns it to the bloodstream, which is
then recirculated through the body.

b. Absorbs fats from the digestive tract: Lymph includes fluids from the intestines that contain fats
and proteins and transports it back to the bloodstream.

c. Protects your body against foreign invaders: The lymphatic system is part of the immune
system. It produces and releases lymphocytes (white blood cells) and other immune cells that
 monitor and then destroy the foreign invaders — such as bacteria, viruses, parasites and fungi —
that enter the body.

d. Transports and removes waste products and abnormal cells from the lymph.

Parts of the Lymphatic System

The lymphatic system consists of many parts. These include:

• Lymph: Lymph, also called lymphatic fluid, is a collection of the extra fluid that drains
from cells and tissues (that is not reabsorbed into the capillaries) plus other substances.
The other substances include proteins, minerals, fats, nutrients, damaged cells, cancer
cells and foreign invaders (bacteria, viruses, etc). Lymph also transports infection-
fighting white blood cells (lymphocytes).

• Lymph nodes: Lymph nodes are bean-shaped glands that monitor and cleanse the
lymph as it filters through them. The nodes filter out the damaged cells and cancer cells.
These lymph nodes also produce and store lymphocytes and other immune system
cells that attack and destroy bacteria and other harmful substances in the fluid. You
have about 600 lymph nodes scattered throughout your body. Some exist as a single
node; others are closely connected groups called chains. A few of the more familiar
locations of lymph nodes are in your armpit, groin and neck. Lymph nodes are
connected to others by the lymphatic vessels.

• Lymphatic vessels: Lymphatic vessels are the network of capillaries (microvessels)

and large network of tubes located throughout the body that transport lymph away from
tissues. Lymphatic vessels collect and filter lymph (at the nodes) as it continues to move
toward larger vessels called collecting ducts. These vessels operate very much like
your veins do: they work under very low pressure, have a series of valves in them to
keep the fluid moving in one direction.

• Collecting ducts: Lymphatic vessels empty the lymph into the right lymphatic duct and
left lymphatic duct (also called the thoracic duct). These ducts connect to the
subclavian vein, which returns lymph to your bloodstream. The subclavian vein runs
below your collarbone. Returning lymph to the bloodstream helps to maintain normal
blood volume and pressure. It also prevents the excess buildup of fluid around the
tissues (called edema).
 The lymphatic system collects excess fluid that drains from cells and tissue throughout the
body and returns it to the bloodstream, which is then recirculated through the body.

• Spleen: This largest lymphatic organ is located on your left side under your ribs and
above your stomach. The spleen filters and stores blood and produces white blood cells
that fight infection or disease.

• Thymus: This organ is located in the upper chest beneath the breast bone. It matures
a specific type of white blood cell that fights off foreign organisms.

• Tonsils and adenoid: These lymphoid organs trap pathogens from the food you eat
and air you breathe. They are your body’s first line of defense against foreign invaders.

• Bone marrow: This is the soft, spongy tissue in the center of certain bones, such as
the hip bone and breastbone. White blood cells, red blood cells, and platelets are made
in the bone marrow.

• Peyer’s patches: These are small masses of lymphatic tissue in the mucous
membrane that lines your small intestine. These lymphoid cells monitor and destroy
bacteria in the intestines.

• Appendix: Your appendix contains lymphoid tissue that can destroy bacteria before it
breaches the intestine wall during absorption. Scientists also believe the appendix plays
a role in housing “good bacteria” and repopulating our gut with good bacteria after an
infection has cleared.