NERVOUS SYSTEM

The nervous system regulates body activities by responding rapidly using nerve
impulses

The nervous system is responsible for maintaining homeostasis,it is also

responsible for our perceptions, behaviour and memories .

The branch of medical science that deals with the normal functioning and
disorders of nervous system is neurology.

Organisation of Nervous system

With a mass of only 2kh, about 3% of total body weight, the nervous system is
one of the smallest and most complex of the 11 body systems.

The nervous system is complex, highly organised network of billions of neurons

and even more neuroglia.

The structures that make up the nervous system includes brain, cranial nerves,
spinal cord, spinal nerves and their branches, ganglia, enteric plexus, and
sensory receptors.

The skull encloses brain which contain 100 billion neurons

12pairs of cranial nerves (I-XII) emerge from the base of brain.

A Nerve is a bundle of 100-1000 of axons associated connective tissue and

blood vessels that lies out side the brain and spinal cord .

The spinal cord connects to the brain through foramen magnum of skull and is
encircled by bones of vertebral column.

31 pairs of spinal nerves emerge from spinal cord and each serve a special
region on right or left side of the body .

Ganglia are small masses of nervous tissue consisting mainly of neuron cell
bodies that are located outside the brain and spinal cord, mostly associated with
cranial and spinal nerves
Enteric plexus is extensive network of neurons located in the walls of organs of
gastro intestinal tract help to regulate the digestive system.

Sensory receptors is the dendrites of sensory neurons as well as separate

specialised cells that monitor changes in internal and external environment.
(photo receptor in retina)

Functions of Nervous system

The nervous system performs complex tasks

It allows us to sense various smells produce specch and remember past events

It also provides signals that control body movements and regulate operations of
internal organs

These diverse activities can be grouped in to 3 basic functions

1)sensory functions : Sensory receptors detect internal stimuli such as an

increase in blood acidity and external stimuli as rain drop landing on arm

This sensory information then carries into the brain and spinal cord through
spinal and cranial nerves

2)Integrative functions :Nervous system integrate sensory information by

analysing and storing some of its by making decisions for appropriate responses

An important integrative function is perception

3) Motor functions: Once Sensory information is integrated the nervous system

elicit an appropriate motor responses by activating effectors through cranial and
spinal nerves.

HISTOLOGY OF NERVOUS TISSUE

Nervous tissue contains two types of cells

1-Neuron/Nerve Cell-It provides most unique functions of nervous system like
sensing thinking remembering controlling muscle activity and regulating
glandular secretions

2-Neuroglial Cell- It support nourish, protect and maintain homeostasis in the

interstitial fluid

Neuron: Like Muscle cells neurons posses’ electrical excitability the ability to
respond to a stimulus and convert into an action potential

Stimulus: is any change in the environment that is strong enough to initiate an

action potential.

Action potential: is an electrical signal that propagates along the surface of

membrane of a neuron.

It begins and travels due to movement of ions (Na+ &K+) between interstitial
fluid and inside neurons through specialized ion channels in its plasma
membrane.

Nerve impulses travel at speed ranging from 0.5 to 130meters per second

Parts of a neuron: Most neurons have 3 parts

1) Cell Body: (Perikaryon or soma)

Cell body form grey matter of the nervous system, it contains nucleus
surrounded by cytoplasm that includes organelles like lysosomes,
mitochondria and Golgi complex.
2) Dendrites: It is receiving portion of neuron, they usually short tapering
and highly branched
Their cytoplasm contains Nissil bodies (contains free ribosomes, and
clusters of RER), mitochondria and other organelles
3) Axon: Each nerve cell has only one axon which begins of a tapered area of
cell body call axon hillock.
 Axon propagates nerve impulses toward an other neuron, a muscle
fiber, or a gland cell
 An axon contains mitochondria, microtubules and neuro fibrils
 The cytoplasm of an axon called Axoplasm
 Plasma membrane called Axolemma
 Axon and its collaterals end by dividing into many fine processes called
axon terminals or telodendria
  The site of communication between two neurons or between a neuron
and an effector is called synapse
 The tip of the axon terminals swells in to bulb shaped structure called
synaptic end bulb
 Synaptic end bulbs contain many tiny membrane enclosed sacs called
synaptic vesicles, that store 2 or 3 chemical messengers called neuro
transmitters

Classification of Neuron
Structural classification
1) Multipolar Neuron: They usually have several dendrites and one axon .
Most neurons in the brain and spinal cord are of this
type.
2) Bipolar Neuron: They have one main dendrite and one axon
They are found in retina of eye, Inner Ear, olfactory
area of brain.
3) Unipolar Neuron: They have dendrites and one axon, they are fused
together to form continuous process that emerges from the cell body
the dendrites of most unipolar neurons functions as
sensory receptors, that detect a sensory stimulus such as touch, pressure,
pain, temperature.
 Functional Classification
1) Sensory neurons/afferent neurons: These neurons either contain
sensory receptor at their dendrites or located just after sensory receptors
that are separate cells.
Once an appropriate stimulus activates a sensory receptor, the
sensory neuron forms an action potential in its axon and action potential
is conveyed into CNS through cranial or spinal nerves.

2) Motor neurons/Efferent Neurons: They convey action potential,

mostly multipolar in structure away from CNS to effector organs.
3) Interneurons or association neurons: Mainly located within the CNS
between sensory and motor neurons.
Interneurons integrate incoming sensory information then elicit a
motor response by activating appropriate motor neurons.

Neuroglia

Neuroglia or glia make up about half the volume of CNS

Their name derived as they were the glue that held nervous tissue together.
Generally, neuroglia is smaller than the neurons ,5-50 times more than neurons.

In contrast to neurons glia do not generate or propagate action potential.

Neuroglia are of 6 types

they are total 4

1)Astrocytes

2) oligodendrocytes CNS
3) microglial cells

4) ependymal cells

5) schwann cells PNS

6) satellite cells

out of these 4 cells found only in CNS and two are present in PNS

Neuroglia of CNS

1) Astrocytes : These stars shaped cells have many processes and are largest
and most numerous of the neuroglia
these are two types of astrocytes
o Protoplasmic astrocytes
o Fibrous astrocytes

Protoplasmic astrocytes have many shot branching process found in Grey

matter

Fibrous astrocytes have many long unbranching processes found in white

matter

The process of Astrocytes make contact with blood capillaries neuron and the
piamatter (a thin membrane around the brain and spinal cord)
 2) Oligodendrocytes: These resemble astrocytes but are smaller and contain
few processes oligodendrocytes processes are responsible for farming and
maintaining the myelin sheet around CNS axons .Myelien sheath is a
multilayered lipid and protein covering around some axons that insulate
them and increases the speed of the nerve impulse conduction.
3) Microglia: That neuroglia are small cell with thin processes that give
numerous spine like projections
They function as phagocyte to remove cellular debris formed during
normal development of nervous system and phagocytize microbes and
nervous tissues.
4) Ependymal cells:- These are cuboidal or columnar cells arranged in single
layer these have microvilli and cilia.
These cells line ventricles of brain and Central Canal of spinal cord
(Space filled with CSF to protect and nourishes brain and spinal cord)

Functionally these cells assist and in circulation of CSF and also form

cerebro spinal fluid barrier .

Neuroglia of PNS

1) Schwann cells: These cells and encircle PNS axons and like
oligodendrocytes they form myelin sheet around axons. S
Single oligodendrocytes myelinates several axons whereas the Schwann
cells myelinates a single axon.
Schwann cells participate in Axon regeneration .

2)Satellite cells : These flat cells Surround the cell bodies of neurones of PNS
ganglia. Satellite cells provide structural support to cell bodies of neurons.

Satellite cells regulate the exchange of material between neuronal cell bodies
and interstitial fluid
 Classification Of Nerve fibers

Nerve fibers or axons can be classified into three major groups based on
mylenation ,diameter and propagation speed

1) A fibre : A fibre are largest diameter axon (5 to 20 micrometers) and are

myelinated

 A fibre conduct nerve impulses that is action potential at speeds of 12 to 130

m/s

 the axons of sensory nerves that propagate Impulse of touch, pressure,

position of joints and some thermal and pain sensations are a fibers

 also as neurons that conduct impulse to skeletal muscles

2) B fibers: B fibers with diameter 2 to 3 micrometers like A fibers B fibers are

myelinated that exhibit saltatory conduct at speed up to 15 m/s

 B fibers have some what longer absolute refractory period than A fibers .

 B fibers conduct sensory nerve impulses from viscera to brain and spinal
cord

 they also constitute all the axons on autonomic motor neuron that extend
from brain and spinal cord to ANS relay stations called autonomic ganglia.
3) C fibers: C fibers are smallest Diameter axons 0.5- 1.5micro meter and all
are unmyelinated

 Nerve impulse propagation along a C fibers ranges from 0.5 -2m/s

 fibers has longest absolute refractory period

 C fibers conduct some sensory impulses for pain ,touch,pressure heat and
cold from skin

 autonomic Motor fibers the extend from autonomic ganglia to stimulate

heart smooth muscles and glands are C fibers

Example of Motor functions of B and C fibers are

 Constriction and dilation of pupils

 Increasing and decreasing heart rate

 Contracting and releasing the urinary bladder