CHAPTER TWO

INTRODUCTION

In this chapter, the following topics will be discussed: diffuse and direct solar radiation, solar
constant, and solar applications, thermal and electric forms. In addition to PV cell types,
application, PV array model, topology, and proposed modeling.
2.1 Overview of Solar Photovoltaic Cells
The invention of the solar cell dates back to 1839, when the French physicist Edmond Becquerel
discovered the photovoltaic effect by experimenting with a cell made of metal electrodes through
which the current flowed (Becquerel 1839). He noted that the amount of electricity produced
increases when the cell is exposed to sunlight (Brusso 2019). Then, in 1873, Willoughby Smith
discovered that selenium could be a photo-conductor (Smith 1876). Three years later, William
Grylls Adams and Richard Evans Day combined the two discoveries and noted that
they did possible to generate electricity using solar radiation (Dhingra 2021). In 1883,
American inventor Charles Fritts created the first fully functional selenium-based solar cell
(Kuppusamy
et al. 2022)
In today's cells, silicon is the most commonly used element, but the selenium-based invention
was a prototype for today's technology. Many other physicists also contributed to the
development of the invention of photovoltaic cells, but Becquerel and Fritts are considered the
fathers technology. They came up with an idea that evolved over the years and led to the solar
panels we see today on the roofs of many homes in our neighborhood.
Albert Einstein was one of the first advocates of solar energy and its potential. In 1905 he
published a paper on the photoelectric effect and how energy is transmitted by light (Einstein
1905). This statement led to considerable interest in the scientific world for the use of solar
energy on a wider scale. However, it was in 1954 that three scientists from Bell Labs - Daryl
Chapin, Calvin Fuller and Gerald Pearson created a more practical solar cell using silicon
for its construction (Chapin et al. 1954).
Advantages of this element include higher efficiency and much greater availability than
selenium. In the 1950s, there was a significant development of space expansion and spacecraft
technology, which began to be equipped with photovoltaic cells. The first such machines were
Vanguard I (1958), Vanguard II, Explorer III and the Sputnik- 3 satellite lite (Wolfe 2018). In
1964, the US government agency responsible for the national space flight program, NASA,
launched the Nimbus satellite, which was powered entirely by a 470-watt photovoltaic
panel (Arepalli and Moloney 2015).

4
Shortly thereafter, the technology gradually began to be used in homes, factories, and public
buildings.
2.2 Diffuse and Direct Solar Radiation
The most important supplier of energy for Earth is the sun. The whole life depends on the sun's
energy. It is the starting point for the chemical and biological processes on our planet. At the
same time it is the most environmentally friendly form of all energies, it can be used in many
ways, and it is suitable for all social systems [28]. The Sun is made up of about (80) % hydrogen,
(20) % helium and only (0.1) % other elements. Its Radiant power comes from nuclear fusion
processes, during which the Sun loses 4.3 million tons of mass each second, to be converted into
radiant energy [29]. As sunlight passes through the atmosphere, some of it is absorbed, scattered,
and reflected by the following: [29]
Air molecules
— Water vapor
— Clouds Dust
— Pollutants
— Volcanoes
This is called diffuse solar radiation. The solar radiation that reaches the Earth's surface without
being diffused is called a direct beam solar radiation. The sum of the diffuse and direct solar
radiation is called global solar radiation. Atmospheric conditions can reduce direct beam
radiation by (10)% on clear, and dry days and by (100)% during thick, and cloudy days [29].
In other words, on a clear day the amounts of diffuse energy are (15-20) % of global irradiance
whereas on a cloudy day it will be (l 00) %, sunlight that reaches the earth's surface without
scattering is called direct or beam radiation. Scattered sunlight is called Albedo radiation, and the
sun of all three components of sunlight is called global radiation [27].
2.3 Solar constant (Irradiance)
The solar constant is defined as the quantity of solar energy (W/mz) at normal incidence outside
the atmosphere (extraterrestrial) at the mean sun-earth distance. Applying the Stefan-
Boltzmann’s law to the Sun and Earth the radiant flux, received from the Sun outside the Earth's
atmosphere can be calculated as a mean value of(1367.7 W/m2) [31]. Solar constant acquires
special importance in the applications of solar energy so that it cannot in fact access to the
amount of energy from the sun is higher than the value of solar constant [32].

The solar constant actually varies because of the Earth's slightly elliptical orbit around the Sun.
The sun-earth distance is larger when the Earth is at perihelion (first week in January) and

5
smaller when the Earth is at aphelion (first week in July), the distance between earth and sun is
another factor affecting solar radiation, and the variation, and refers to the solar constant as the
power per unit area received at the average Earth-solar distance of one “Astronomical Unit” or
AU which is (149.59787066) million kilometers. Various different measurement units are used
when dealing with solar radiation, often incorrectly even by some solar specialists [33]. The total
specific radiant power, or radiant flux, per area that reaches a surface is called Irradiance.
Irradiance is measured in W/m° and has the symbol €. When integrating the irradiance over a
certain period it becomes solar irradiation. Irradiation is measured in either J/m2 or Wh/m2, and
represented by the symbol H. Since the variation of annual irradiations from year to year can be
well over 20% [32].
2.4 Solar Energy Power Generation
At the present time, solar energy can be harnessed in many ways, including using it for water
heating, solar heating and cooling of buildings, crop and vegetable drying, and greenhouse
agriculture. The solar radiation can be captured and converted into useful forms of energy, such
as heat and electricity [34], this thesis focus on using solar energy to generate electricity. There
are two ways to generate electricity from the sun which are:
2.4.1 Solar Thermal Electricity Generation
Solar thermal energy can be collected at large scale and complex collectors are generally used in
solar power plants where solar heat is used to generate electricity by heating water to produce
steam which drives a turbine connected to an electrical generator. Light from the sun may be
collected using huge mirror arrays focused onto a receiver at the top of a tower [34].

Figure 2.1 Solar thermal plant Source [30].

Most commercially attractive is the solar thermal electricity generation system developed by
Luz, which uses parabolic reflectors to warm heat-transfer oil running through a pipe at the focus
of the reflector. This heated oil is used to raise steam to power a turbine [341

6
2.4.2 Photovoltaic PV (Solar cell)
Photovoltaic (PV) or Solar cell is a Semiconductor material that converts sunlight to electricity.
Common seals are Silicon. The photovoltaic process does not produce any emissions; PV's have
played an important role in our life, such as feeding satellites with needed electricity and they
have many applications. The simplest solar cells provide small amounts of power for watches
and calculators. More complex systems can provide electricity to houses and electric grids.
Usually though, solar cells provide low power to remote, unattended devices such as buoys,
weather and communication satellites, and equipment aboard spacecraft [35, 36].
[Link] How To Produce Electricity Using Photovoltaic Cell
Photovoltaic cell made from at least two layers of the semiconductor material which is usually
silicon. A positive layer which is called p-type, the other layer negative which is called n-type,
and between them an area that is called p-n junction [36, 37].
When light enters the cell, some of the photons from the light are absorbed by the semiconductor
atoms, freeing electrons from the cell's negative layer (n-type) to flow through an external circuit
and back into the positive layer (p-type) this flow of electrons produces current [38, 39].
Typically , a PV cell generates a voltage around (0.5) to (0.8) volts depending on the
semiconductor and the built-up technology [10, 40), these cells are connected with each other in
a sealed so-called module. When two modules are connected with each other in series the voltage
will be doubled, while the current remains constant, but when two modules are connected in
parallel the current will be doubled and the voltage remains constant [40].
For the current and the voltage that be required many numbers of modules are connected to each
other in a series and parallel form which is called an array. The following figures shows
photovoltaic cell, module, and array [40].

Figure 2.4 Components of PV Cell Source [30].

7
 M ” m v

Figure 2.5 Photovoltaic Cell, Module, and Array Source [30].

2.5 Photovoltaic Module connections

Modules in series: When photovoltaic modules are connected in series increasing the voltage of
the system. The final system voltage is the sum of the individual voltages of each module [41].
Vtotal Vl + V2 + V3 + ... + V»

Figure 2.6 Modules in series [41].

Modules in parallel: Photovoltaic modules are connected in parallel to increase the current of the
system. The final current is the sum of the individual currents of each module [41].
It ta1 = 11+ 12 13 + I,

8
 Figure 2.7 Modules in parallel [41].

2.6 Photovoltaic (PV) generations

The first generation of PV cells was discovered at Bell Telephone in 1954, when scientists
discovered that silicon (is one of element found in sand) created an electric charge when exposed
to sunlight [39]. Traditional solar cells are made from silicon, one of the most common elements
on Earth [35]. Second-generation of PV cells changed names of PV cells into thin film solar cells
because they are made from amorphous silicon or non-silicon materials such as Cadmium
Telluride Thin film solar cells use layers of semiconductor materials only a few micrometers
thick [39].

The last generation is third-generation solar cells were made from a variety of new materials
besides silicon, including solar inks using conventional printing press technologies, solar dyes,
and conductive plastics [42].

2.7 Types of Photovoltaic Cells:

There are four types of photovoltaic cells categorized according to silicon crystal and efficient
rate and cost of production : [35, 39, 40, 43].

1. Monocrystalline silicon(15) % efficient, made up of sections of a single silicon crystal.

When cooling, the molten silicon solidifies into a single large crystal, typically expensive to
make (grown as big crystal).

2. Multicrystalline silicon (10—12) % efficient, these are formed by crystallized small

particles. During the cooling of the molten silicon, it solidifies creating many crystals. Their
appearance is blue too, but it is not uniform, since we can distinguish several different colors
created by the glass , cheaper to make (cast in ingots).

3. Thin film silicon (W6) % efficient, cheapest per Watt, easily deposited on a wide range of
surface type.

4. Amorphous: These cells are produced when the silicon has not yet crystallized during
processing, and it produces a gas that is projected onto a glass slide. They are able to operate
with low diffuse light, even on cloudy days. The cost is much smaller and it can accommodate
both flexible and rigid media. Against this, the performance, in full sunlight conditions, is
between (5 -7) %, and it decreases, with the pass of time, around (7) %.

9
Figure 2.2 Example of PV's application [30].

2.8 Photovoltaic Topologies

Photovoltaic systems can be grouped into stand-alone systems and grid connected systems. In
stand-alone systems, the solar energy supplies the energy demand. Since the solar energy yield
often does not match in time with the energy demand from the connected loads, additional
storage systems (batteries) are generally used. If the PV system connected by another power
source such as, a wind generator or diesel generator, this is known as a photovoltaic hybrid
system. In grid-connected systems, the public electricity grid functions as an energy store [47]
the overall topology shown in Fig. 2.10.

— Direct coupled PV system

In direct-coupled system, the PV array is connected directly to the load. Therefore, the PV
operates only whenever there is solar radiation, so, this system has very limited application such
as water pumping.

— Stand alone system (Off Grid)

Stand-alone system is used in areas have not access to a public grid , such as remote area and
rural places, the produced energy usually stored in batteries. This system composed

from the PV array, batteries, charge controller, and sometimes inverter when AC current
required.

10
— Grid connected system (On Grid)

Nowadays, the grid connected system is a usual practice to connect PV system with public grid,
this means that “sunshine” system supplies the domestic, commercial, and industrial load, the
remain of the harvested energy will be sold to one of electricity supply companies, this system
usually composed from PV array and inverter.

— Hybrid connected system

In the hybrid system, more than one electricity generators are used with the PV system such as
wind turbine and diesel generators, this system composed from the PV array, and inverter.

2.9 Characteristics of a PV Cell

There are three parameters playing an important role in the study the characteristic of PV system,
these are open circuit voltage (Voc), short circuit current (I ) and maximum power point (P,nax).
The maximum power that can be supplied from a PV cell are at the maximum power points.
These parameters are provided by the manufacture at standard test condition (STC) where the
temperature (T) equal to (25°C), and solar irradiance equal to 1000 W/ m2 all parameters are
described below [45]:

Short circuit current (Is ): Maximum amount of current that can deliver the PV module under
standard conditions, corresponding to zero voltage and therefore no power.

Open circuit voltage (Voc)i The maximum voltage that is delivered in a PV module under
standard conditions, not allowing any current flow between the terminals of photovoltaic module
under conditions of zero current and therefore no power.

Maximum or peak power (Pmax). Pmaxis the maximum value of power that can be delivered by
the PV module under standard conditions. Its value is specified by a pair of voltage and current
values, ranging between (0) and Incand between (0) and Voc-

Current at maximum power: current delivered to the device in maximum power under standard
conditions. It is used as nominal current of the photovoltaic module.

Voltage at maximum power: voltage delivered by the device when the power reaches its
maximum value under standard conditions. It is used as a nominal voltage of the device [48].

Usually manufacturers provide these parameters in their data sheets for a particular PV cell or
module. By using these parameters, we can build a simple model but more information is
required for designing an accurate model [48].

11
The current to voltage characteristic of a solar array is non-linear, which makes it difficult to
determine the MPPT. The Fig. 2.11 gives the characteristic I-V and P-V curve for a fixed level of
solar irradiation and temperature [49].

4.0

3.5

1.5
1 .0

O. 5

O.O
Figure 2.11 I-V and PV curve characteristics [49].

2.10 PV Cell Model

The equivalent circuit of a PV cell, models have been developed by many researchers in order to
find accurate, simple , and practical model for PV module, in this regard the model can be
mathematically modeled based on the theoretical equations that describe the functioning of the
PV system using the equivalent circuit in the literature of this thesis.

Other models are empirically-based models that acquire their versatility and accurate from the
fact that individual equations used in the model are derived from individual PV system
characteristics [11]. Fig. 2.11 (a) to (c) shows the equivalent circuit model used by researchers to
describe the behavior of the PV module. The ideal PV module model in (a) does not include the
parasitic resistances Rs dTld Rp that account for the cell power loss due to the internal resistance
of PV module. The single-diode model in (b) is the common used PV module , The double-diode
model in (c) is reported in [9] and [12, 13]

2.11 SOLAR INVERTER

A solar inverter is an electrical device that converts the direct current (DC) power generated by
solar panels into alternating current (AC) power, which is usable in homes and businesses.
Purpose of Solar Inverters in Our Homes
1. DC to AC Conversion: Solar panels produce DC power, but most household appliances use
AC power. A solar inverter converts DC power to AC power, making it usable in homes.

12
2. Grid Compatibility: Solar inverters synchronize the AC power output with the grid frequency,
allowing for safe and efficient feeding of excess energy back into the grid.
3. Energy Utilization: Solar inverters enable households to use the energy generated by their
solar panels, reducing reliance on the grid and lowering energy bills.
4. Monitoring and Control: Many solar inverters come with monitoring and control features,
allowing homeowners to track their energy production, consumption, and savings.
Benefits of Solar Inverters
1. Renewable Energy Utilization: Solar inverters enable households to harness renewable energy
from solar panels, reducing their carbon footprint and reliance on fossil fuels.
2. Energy Savings: By using solar energy, households can reduce their energy bills and save
money on their electricity costs.
3. Increased Energy Independence: Solar inverters allow households to generate their own
energy, reducing their dependence on the grid and providing a sense of energy independence.
Types of Solar Inverters
1. String Inverters: Suitable for small to medium-sized solar panel systems.
2. Microinverters: Suitable for larger solar panel systems or systems with shading issues.
3. Hybrid Inverters: Suitable for systems with energy storage (batteries).
Solar inverters play a crucial role in harnessing the energy generated by solar panels and making
it usable in homes. By converting DC power to AC power, solar inverters enable households to
utilize renewable energy, reduce their energy bills, and increase their energy independence.
What is a BMS?
A Battery Management System (BMS) is an electronic system that manages and monitors a
battery pack's performance, ensuring safe and efficient operation. It protects the battery from
overcharging, over-discharging, and other adverse conditions.

13
 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM OF A BMS
List of Components Used in Building a BMS
Electronic Components
1. Microcontroller (MCU): The brain of the BMS, responsible for monitoring and controlling the
battery pack.
2. Voltage Monitoring Circuitry: Measures individual cell voltages.
3. Current Sensing: Measures charge and discharge currents.
4. Temperature Sensors: Monitor battery temperature.
5. MOSFETs or IGBTs: Switches for controlling charge and discharge currents.

Protection Components
1. Fuses: Protect against overcurrent conditions.
2. TVS Diodes: Protect against voltage transients and surges.
3. Overcurrent Protection (OCP): Protects against excessive current flow.

Communication Components
1. UART or I2C Interface: Enables communication with external devices.

14
2. CAN Bus or Other Protocols: Enables communication with other systems.

Power Components
1. Voltage Regulator: Regulates power supply for the BMS.
2. Power MOSFETs: Control charge and discharge currents.

Other Components
1. Connectors and Wiring: Connect the BMS to the battery pack and external devices.
2. PCB (Printed Circuit Board): The physical board that holds the BMS components.

Building a BMS requires a range of electronic, protection, communication, power, and other
components. These components work together to ensure safe, efficient, and reliable operation of
the battery pack.
Why Do We Need a BMS in a Battery Pack?
1. Overcharge Protection: Prevents damage from overcharging.
2. Over-Discharge Protection: Prevents damage from deep discharging.
3. Cell Balancing: Ensures balanced cell voltages.
4. Short-Circuit Protection: Protects against short circuits.
5. Monitoring and Control: Tracks battery performance and adjusts operation accordingly.
Inverter
An inverter is an electrical device that converts direct current (DC) power into alternating current
(AC) power. It's commonly used to power household appliances, industrial equipment, and other
devices that require AC power from DC sources like batteries or solar panels.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM OF AN INVERTER

15
List of Components Used in Producing an Inverter
Electronic Components
1. Microcontroller (MCU)
2. Power MOSFETs or IGBTs
3. Gate Driver
4. Voltage Regulator
5. Oscillator
6. Diodes
7. Transistors
8. Resistors
9. Capacitors

Power Components

16
1. Power Transformer
2. Inductors
3. Power Capacitors

Protection Components
1. Fuses
2. Surge Protection Devices (SPDs)
3. Overtemperature Protection
4. Overcurrent Protection

Other Components
1. PCB (Printed Circuit Board)
2. Connectors (DC input, AC output)
3. Wiring and Cables
4. Heat Sink
5. Cooling Fans (optional)

Additional Components
1. Voltage Sensors
2. Current Sensors
3. Temperature Sensors
4. Display and Control Interface (optional)

These components work together to produce a functional inverter that converts DC power to AC
power efficiently and safely.

What is a Solar Panel?

17
A solar panel, also known as a photovoltaic (PV) panel, is a device that converts sunlight into
electrical energy. It's composed of many solar cells made from semiconducting materials that
generate electricity when exposed to sunlight.

Why Do We Need Solar Panels in Our Solar Connection?

1. Renewable Energy Source: Solar panels harness energy from the sun, a renewable and
sustainable source.

2. Zero Emissions: Solar panels produce clean energy, reducing greenhouse gas emissions and
environmental impact.

3. Energy Independence: Solar panels can provide energy independence, especially in remote or
off-grid locations.

4. Lower Energy Bills: Solar panels can significantly reduce energy bills by generating free
electricity.

5. Long-Term Savings: Solar panels can provide long-term savings, as they require minimal
maintenance and have a long lifespan.

Applications of Solar Panels

1. Residential Solar Systems: Solar panels are used in homes to generate electricity and reduce
energy bills.

2. Commercial Solar Systems: Solar panels are used in businesses and industries to reduce
energy costs and carbon footprint.

3. Off-Grid Systems: Solar panels are used in remote locations to provide energy independence.

Solar panels are a crucial component of solar energy systems, providing a clean, renewable, and
sustainable source of electricity. They offer numerous benefits, including reduced energy bills,
energy independence, and a lower environmental impact.

18
What is a Charge Controller

A charge controller, also known as a charge regulator is an electronic device that regulates the
flow of energy from a solar panel or other renewable energy source to a battery bank. It ensures
safe and efficient charging of the batteries.

Why Do We Need a Charge Controller in Our Installation?

1. Overcharge Protection: Prevents batteries from overcharging, which can cause damage and
reduce lifespan.

2. Over-Discharge Protection: Prevents batteries from deep discharging, which can cause damage
and reduce lifespan.

3. Regulate Charging Current: Regulates the charging current to match the battery's
requirements.

4. Prevent Reverse Current Flow: Prevents reverse current flow from the battery to the solar
panel at night.

5. Optimize Energy Harvesting: Optimizes energy harvesting from the solar panel to maximize
system efficiency.

Types of Charge Controllers

1. PWM (Pulse Width Modulation) Charge Controllers: Regulate charging current by adjusting
the pulse width.

2. MPPT (Maximum Power Point Tracking) Charge Controllers: Optimize energy harvesting by
tracking the maximum power point of the solar panel.

A charge controller is a crucial component of a solar energy system, ensuring safe and efficient
charging of batteries. It prevents overcharging and over-discharging, regulates charging current,
and optimizes energy harvesting

19