PREPARATION OF ALUM COAGULANT FROM LOCALLY SOURCED BEVERAGE

CAN WASTE FOR WATER PURIFICATION APPLICATION

BY

MUSA, ABDULMAJEED

MATRIC NO: 17/56EF048

A PROJECT WORK SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF INDUSTRIAL

CHEMISTRY

IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF

BACHELOR OF SCIENCE (B. Sc Hons.) DEGREE IN INDUSTRIAL CHEMISTRY

NOVEMBER, 2022

i
 DECLARATION

I MUSA ABDLMAJEED, 17/56EF048, hereby declare that except from the reference to other
literatures which has been duly acknowledged, this project is a result of my own research work and
has not been in part or whole, been presented for a degree or diploma in any institution.

____________________

Signature/Date

ii
 CERTIFICATION

This is to certify that this research work was carried out by MUSA ABDULMAJEED with matric
number 17/56EF048 has been read and approved as meeting the partial requirement for the award of
the degree of Bachelor of Science (B. Sc Hons.) in Industrial Chemistry, Faculty of Physical
Sciences, University of Ilorin, Ilorin, Nigeria.

________________________ __________________

PROF. F. A. ADEKOLA DATE

(PROJECT SUPERVISOR)

_________________________ __________________

DR. H. K. OKORO DATE

(HEAD OF DEPARTMENT)

_______________________ _____________________

External Supervisor Date

iii
 DEDICATION

This work is dedicated to Almighty Allah the alpha and Omega of the Universe, for making the study
a completed task for me. And to my parents for their endless support.

iv
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

My profound gratitude goes to the one without a rival, the one who owns my soul (Almighty
Allah), the source of my inspiration, my sustainer up till now and forever. To him be the praise and
worship.

My deepest appreciation goes to my supervisor Prof. F. A. Adekola for his advice, guidance,
and love, may Allah grant you excellent success in your entire endeavor in life.

My big thanks to our lab technicians; Mr. Ajala, Mrs. Zubair. May God be with you.

I want to express my unalloyed gratitude to my sources, Alhaji Musa Sulaiman and Mrs.
Halimat Musa for the support, caring, and encouragement they have done to bring me up to where I
am today. May God Almighty grant you an healthy long life with wealth to reap the fruit of your
labor. Amen

Also, to my Siblings; Aishat, Shuaibat, Abdulkabeer, and to the baby of the house; Lukman
Musa. May you all be blessed.

My utmost thanks to my Uncles and Aunties; Mr. Sulaiman Abdulfatah, Mr. Sulaiman Sheu,
Mallam Sulaiman Abdulwaasi’i, Mr. Sulaiman Abdulhameed, Mrs Sulaiman Idayat, Miss Sulaiman
Balqees, Mr. Sambo Abubakar Oluwadare who have played in one way or the other to this success
and the entire membership of the Sulaiman and Sambo family. May Allah be your guide through
your endeavor.

In addition, less I forget Mrs Lawal Fatimoh, Mrs. Magaji Monsurat, Mrs. Isiaq Aminat may
you all reap the fruits of your labor.

Furthermore, to all my friends, who I can’t mention their names, Lateefat Abdulwasi’i
colleagues; Abdulkareem Wasilat, Shittu Latifat, my clique; Kareem Malik Oyewale, Oniye
Abdullahi Funsho, Binlawal Yusuf. Also to a friend and boss; Rufai Oluwadare. ,

Finally, to my beloved partner (Miss Oluwanifemi Maryam) and those who I may not be
chanced to mention their names. Thank you all.

v
TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGES

Declaration ii

Certification iii

Dedication iv

Acknoledgement v

Table of contents vi-viii

List of tables ix

List of figures x

CHAPTER ONE 1

INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 Backgrouond of the study 1-2

1.2 Aim and objective of the study 2

1.3 Problem of the study 3

CHAPTER TWO 4

LITRATURE REVIEW 4-7

2.1 Price of Recycling Aluminium Can 8-9

2.2 Aluminium Can Recycling 10

2.3 Environmental benefits 11

2.3.1 Economic benefits 11

vi
2.3.2 Community benefits 11

2.4 Characteristics of Aluminium 12

2.5 Application of Aluminium 12

2.6 Aluminisilicates 13

2.6.1 Aluminosilicates minerals 14

2.6.2 Properties of Aluminosiliates 14

2.6.3 Examples of Aluminosilicates 15

2.7 Alum 15 - 16

2.7.1 Chemical properties of Alum 16

2.7.2 Types of Alum 16 - 17

[Link] Potash Alum 17 - 19

2.7.2 Other properties of Alum

[Link] Sodium Alum 19

[Link] Ammonium Alum 19

[Link] Chromium Alum 20

2.7.3 Uses of Alum 20

CHAPTER THREE 21

MATERIALS AND METHODS 21

3.1 Materials 21

vii
3.1.1 Reagents used 21

3.1.2 Obtaining Aluminium scrap 21

3.2 Experimental Procedures 22 - 23

3.2.1 Reactions 24

3.2.2 Efficiency of the synthesized alum to commercial alum 24

3.2.3 Chemical test for qualitative analysis of Alum 24

3.4 Safety and disposal 25

CHAPTER FOUR 27

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 27

4.1 Qualitative analysis 28

4.1.1 Analysis of Potassium (K+) in the synthesized Alum 28

4.1.2 Analysis of Sulfate (SO2-4) in the synthesized Alum 28

4.1.3 Analysis of Aluminium ion (Al3+) in the synthesized Alum 28

4.2 Conclusion 37 - 38

REFERENCE 38 - 41

viii
LIST OF TABLES PAGES

Table 1: Amounts of can collected globally 10

Table 2: Properties of aluminum 12 - 13

Table 3: Properties of potash alum 17

Table 4: Qualitative analysis of ions present in the synthesized alum crystal 29

Table 4.1: Yield of potash alum from aluminum waste can 29

Table 4.2: Determination of the turbidity of the water sample before and after addition of alum 30

Table 4.3: Coagulation action of synthesized alum and commercial alum 31

Table 5: summary of the calculated values 31

Table 6: XRF result for commercial alum and synthesized alum 32 - 33

ix
LIST OF FIGURES PAGES

Figure 1: Amount of beverage can be recycled globally in 2005 5

Figure 2: Beverage aluminum can 9

Figure 3: Solution of KOH and Al on heating 22

Figure 4: Filtering of the heated solution. 22

Figure 5: cooling the solution on ice 23

Figure 6: Structure of modern aluminum can 26

Figure 7: XRD result of commercial alum 33

Figure 8: XRD result of synthesized alum 34

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 ABSTRACT

This study provides a chemical process for the recycling of waste aluminum cans to alum crystals.

Alum crystals have considerable applications in industry. The study was performed with a

concentrated acidic and alkaline solution. It involved an initial dissolution of aluminum can in KOH

solution, followed by neutralization with H2SO4 solution, and finally cooling to enable crystallization

into alum crystals. Emphasis was placed on the percentage yield of alum and recovery of aluminum

from waste aluminum can to useful product. The highest yield of 58.36% was obtained when 1.4M

of KOH solution and 9M of H2SO4 solution were used with 1 g of aluminum beverage cans. The

synthesized alum was found to be more effective for the use as coagulant than the commercially

available alum in the treatment of muddy water from the University of Ilorin Dam. The synthesized

alum reduces the turbidity level of the muddy from 20.00 NTU to 9.20 NTU. The use of synthesized

alum in water treatment has been found to be more efficient, economical, and eco-friendly compared

to commercially available alum.

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 CHAPTER ONE

1.0 INTRODUCTION

1.1 background Study

Wastes are generated from a spread of activities related to industries’ productions and other

anthropogenic sports. Wastes are of 3 types: solids, liquids, and gaseous. In beverage industries, the

most common wastes polluting our environment are waste aluminum cans. The handiest manner to

reduce/get rid of the effect of waste on the environment is to develop and put into effect a powerful

waste control technique. (Yun Ming et al., 2015). Even though a whole lot of strategies were

installed location to limit waste, those have did not meet the set trendy of the waste regulatory our

bodies. (Samuel et al., 2019) The beverage enterprise specializes in the non-stop manufacturing of

liquids for human consumption. production can be unbearably tasking due to the incessant daily

demands. The liquids both are available in bottles or cans. that is a characteristic of the initial design

of the production line. The cans and bottles can also come in the shape of plastic or glass. The boxes

can be cold-filled; warm-crammed; conventional or herbal. loads of factors are put in place in the

manufacturing of bins because of the inherent characteristics of the liquid content material. (Samuel

et al., 2019).

At some stage in history and the advancement of Civilization, discovery, development, and

application of metals has driven the way people stay and the way societies are organically fashioned.

(Ugwekar, 2012). Metals, while taken into consideration in an extensive sense may be divided into

two massive corporations, ferrous and non-ferrous. Ferrous substances are iron-based totally, and

non-ferrous materials have some factors apart from iron as the predominant constituent. The utility

of non-ferrous materials in engineering are big this encompasses; corrosion resistance, electrical

conduction software, low density, and smooth to fabricate. (William D. Callister, 2014)

1
The attention of waste discount in beverage industries has caused a number of the enhancements

tested within the sector. quite a few waste reduction strategies have been installed region to make

certain the powerful optimization of beverage packaging. This became completed via incorporating a

series of waste reduction criteria subjected to tremendous and open communication among producers

and clients. no matter the several waste reduction techniques it has been tough to overcome waste

that outcomes from the metal taste of the indoor liner of can beverages. (Samuel et al., 2019).

Nowadays maximum beverage cans are made of aluminum and they constitute throw-away

wastes. but, in maximum elements of Europe and Asia, greater than half of the beverage cans are

fabricated from metal while approximately 45 percent of the cans are made from aluminum alloy

(Samuel et al., 2019). In some cases, the steel cans have aluminum tops. In some parts of the sector,

customers save their aluminum cans for bulk purchase through scrap metallic dealers. these kinds are

returned and recycled with the aid of melting to produce new stock of cans. Aluminum,

consequently, is one of the fee-powerful materials for the manufacture of cans for the beverage-

producing industries. Efforts to reap number one aluminum brought about the conversion of bauxite

into alumina through the Bayer procedure and then aluminum is extracted from the alumina for

further processing into the desired form of the can via cold or hot drawing (Samuel et al., 2019).

typically, present-day cans are produced via a mechanical cold forming approach which begins via

punching a flat clean from a stiff bloodless-rolled sheet. The sheet used is either alloy 3104-H19 or

3004-H19 which includes 98 % Al, 1 % Mn, and 1 % Mg to enhance formability and power (Samuel

et al., 2019).

1.2 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

(a) Preparation of potash alum from waste aluminum scraps.

(b) Comparison of the Physico-chemical properties of the synthesized coagulants to that of

commercially available ones.

2
(c) Comparison of the efficiency of the synthesized alum to that of the commercially available

coagulants in the treatment of wastewater.

1.3 PROBLEM OF THE STUDY

The problem of this study is ineffective waste management techniques, In beverage industries, the

most common wastes polluting our environment are waste aluminum cans. This study will enlighten

us on ways to keep the environment safe from the beverage can solid waste as well as conversion of

the ‘throw-away’ cans into raw materials.

3
 CHAPTER TWO

2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW

Aluminum is the 1/3 maximum abundant element inside the earth's crust, the delivery of

aluminum ore is not inexhaustible, the triumphing, or extraction of the steel shape an impure ionic

supply, of aluminum from aluminum ore, is very luxurious from an electricity factor of view, the

technique of obtaining natural metal aluminum from aluminum oxide in a reasonably electricity-

green manner, which made it viable for aluminum to be the less expensive metal we understand these

days, become developed in a home laboratory quickly after the chemist finished his undergraduate

degree, Aluminum is an exceedingly beneficial material, in part due to the fact beneath ordinary

environments it is quite indestructible. accordingly, an aluminum beverage can be mendacity

alongside a motorway has an anticipated life of 100 years, From a chemist's factor of view,

aluminum may be very reactive (manual, 2019)

The recycling of aluminum scraps is a very wonderful contribution to saving our natural

surroundings and earning money. most of the recycled aluminum is melted and recast into different

aluminum metal products or used in the manufacturing of diverse aluminum compounds like alums

in the form of dry crystals (Ugwekar, 2012). The alum has huge application in industries along with

fabric industry, wastewater remedy plant, paper, and pulp enterprise, meals industry, home water

purification; it's also medically used as an astringent and antiseptic, as a herbal deodorant by way of

inhibiting the boom of the bacteria answerable for body odor, to reduce bleeding in minor cuts and

abrasions (EKERE et al., 2014).

As pollution is increasing, the want for pollution-unfastened surroundings arises.

Synthesizing potash alum from waste aluminum cans become discovered to be appropriate for

turning it into a useful chemical. The problem of environmental pollutants with the aid of strong

waste disposal is a prime difficulty. Aluminum and other metals are environmental contaminants.

4
Even the automobile now consists of greater aluminum alloys. Many food industries are at the boom

in the use of aluminum foils (EKERE et al., 2014).

Aluminum is a gentle, long-lasting and lightweight metallic, crafted from Bauxite ore, which is

mined from the earth. Bauxite is transformed into alumina, a satisfactory white powder, that's then

smelted at over 700°C to become aluminum, that's one of the versatile merchandise universally being

utilized by customers in some of the applications. The procedure is costly and makes use of big

resources, such as strength and gas. Making cans out of aluminum for storing tender beverages and

juices is one of the typically used phenomenons as it takes 5 tonnes of Bauxite to make simply one

tonne of aluminum cans. (Ahmad, 2020)

Figure 1: Beverage aluminum can

Among the foods and drinks merchandise, we buy are packaged in cans made from either

aluminum or metallic, and both of these materials can be without difficulty recycled after we

have finished with them to make either new cans or other allied appropriate merchandise.

Aluminum cans are very not unusual in our day-by-day existence and are often eaten up as drink

bins and later thrown as garbage in packing containers or being littered on streets and open plots.

The good factor is that those cans supply meals and earnings to many poor people who inn to

5
gather them from the containers and open areas and promote it to the middle recycling shops in

trade for money. This practice is sincerely limiting big quantities of cans going to municipal

landfill sites saving treasured space and is prompting informal recyclable material collection.

The aluminum can is the arena’s most recycled packaging box. We want to remember the fact

that all aluminum cans are 100% recyclable. It could absorb 500 years for aluminum cans to

decompose. Aluminum does now not degrade for the duration of the recycling process, which

means that it could be repeatedly recycled many times (Tse, 2020). Recycling aluminum saves

whilst the fee of series, separation, and recycling are taken into consideration. Over a long time,

even large countrywide savings are made while the reduction within the capital prices associated

with landfills, mines, and global shipping of raw aluminum is considered. (Ahmad, 2020)

Aluminum recycling is a technique whereby the scrapped aluminum can be reused after

preliminary production. Recycling aluminum beverage cans is vital as the recycling manner

consumes only 5% more power than the power wanted for the extraction of aluminum from its

natural ores (Schlesinger, 2006). except, in keeping with the worldwide Aluminum institute, it

saves up to 8kg of bauxite, 4kg of chemical products, and 14 kWh of strength via recycling 1 kg

of aluminum beverage cans (Verran & Kurzawa, 2008).

There are numerous strategies to recycle aluminum beverage cans including the reprocessing of

discarded aluminum beverage cans for equal utility (closed-loop recycling) and re-melting the

aluminum beverage cans to be the bottom cloth for casting packages (cascade recycling)

(Filipovic et al., 2009). rather than recycling aluminum beverage cans into new beverage cans, a

chemical method may be carried out to transform scrapped aluminum into a useful chemical

compound, potassium aluminum sulfate dodecahydrate, KAl(SO 4)2.12H2O, typically called

“Alum”. Alum has discovered utility as mordant, astringent, clarifier, and flocculant in the

purification of water and sizing agent(Yun Ming et al., 2015).

6
It's miles our environmental and social duty to separate aluminum cans from other home waste

and either deliver to recyclers or one at a time discard it at containers so that it could be without

difficulty accrued via negative entrants. Before disposal, make certain that the aluminum cans are

empty and no longer soiled and broken. The gathered cans inside the center East are then taken to

a nearby recycling facility in which they're beaten, compacted, baled, and later transported and

exported to different nations for recycling, in which they are milled and remade into new

merchandise. A critical reality is that recycling aluminum can save sufficient strength to run a

television for three hours. If we throw away two aluminum cans, we waste extra power that is

used each day by using each of the billion human beings in the developing international. We

want to preserve our environmental sources and exercise environmentally pleasant behavior

along with aluminum can segregation and recycling. Brazil recycles greater than 98% of its

aluminum can manufacturing, ranking first within the international accompanied by Japan with

83% restoration fee. Let us try to make center East recycling heaven and protect our sources from

any kind of pollution. (Ahmad, 2020)

The stimuli to recycle aluminum are thus very strong and are being bolstered through other

recent traits. The manufacturing of aluminum from natural assets like bauxite (aluminum oxide,

Al2O3) and cryolite (Na3AlF6) entails an electrolytic method that uses a huge amount of power

and an excessive price of electricity. The trouble of recycling aluminum scraps and

indiscriminate wastewater disposal nevertheless poses the main venture to environmental

pollutants agencies and the population. Efforts are being made in the production of alum

(coagulates) from aluminum scraps for wastewater remedy and to lessen the pollutants charge

inside the surroundings. because of competition in aluminum with calcium for absorption, the

elevated amount of dietary aluminum may additionally contribute to the reduced skeletal

mineralization (osteopenia) located in infants with growth retardation. Aluminum can cause

neurotoxicity and is related to altered characteristics of the blood-brain barrier6. people who are

7
 allergic to aluminum and revel in touch dermatitis, digestive problems, vomiting, or different

symptoms upon touch or digestion of products containing aluminum, which includes

antiperspirants or antacids. research has shown that consumption of liquids with aluminum

drastically increases aluminum absorption.

The environmental advantages of recycling aluminum are tremendous. most effective round 5%

of the CO2 is produced all through the recycling system in comparison to generating uncooked

aluminum, and an even smaller percent when thinking about the entire cycle of mining and

transporting of the aluminum. Additionally, open-cut mining is most often used for acquiring

aluminum ore, which destroys large sections of the arena's herbal land (Ekberg & Hultman,

2021). even though plenty-used aluminum can be transformed lower back into aluminum the use

of numerous recycling strategies. (Yauri & Aliyu, 2014)

2.1 Price of Recycling Aluminum Cans

Something that is made from aluminum can be recycled repeatedly. Aluminum cans, foil, plates,

window frames, furnishings, automobile additives are melted down and used to make similar

products once more. Recycling is vital a part of the aluminum enterprise is comparatively cheap,

technical, and ecological. Aluminum organizations have invested in a committed country of the

artwork secondary steel processing plants to recycle aluminum. The recycling of aluminum calls for

the most effective 5% of the energy used to supply number one aluminum (new aluminum from ore)

and simplest generates five% of greenhouse gas emissions as compared to producing primary

aluminum.

All aluminum that is recycled can be described as either "new scrap" or "old scrap". New scrap is

that surplus fabric that arises during the manufacture and fabrication of aluminum alloys up to the

factor in which they may be bought to the very last customer. Examples include the trappings from

the edges of sheet aluminum, turnings and millings from aluminum fabrication, and surplus

8
extrusion discards. New scrap tends to return from the manufacturing enterprise and tends to be of a

recognized satisfaction and composition and may be processed with very little practice.

Vintage scrap is aluminum materials that have been used by the consumers and subsequently

discarded. This encompasses an extensive variety of gadgets consisting of used beverage cans, car

cylinder heads, window frames, or electric cabling. The aluminum can is taken into consideration to

be the maximum recycled consumer beverage program globally. The used beverage aluminum cans

are gaining a widespread price and the market scrap expenses have been increasing throughout the

years. inside the worldwide Aluminum Institute 2005, it's far recognized that almost 60% of cans

recycled that 12 months have been aluminum cans. almost 44 billion aluminum cans had been

recycled in comparison to the 17 billion metallic cans, 7.6 billion plastic bottles, and zero. three

billion glass bottles. (Mingqian, 2006)

50
44
45

40

35

30

25 17

20
7.6

5
0.3

(Source: International Aluminum Institute Report 2005)

Figure 2: Amount of Beverage Cans Recycled Globally in 2005

The recycling rates due to the efforts of the global government authorities through the coming years

have been increasing significantly. The table below shows the number of used beverage cans

collected globally in 2002 and 2003.

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Table 1: Amount of Cans Collected Globally

Recycling No. of Cans Recycled Recycling No. of Cans

Country
Rates in billion (2002) Rates Recycled

(2002) (2003) in billion (2003)

Asia 79% 18 81% 27

Brazil 87% 10 89% 19

Europe 45% 23 48% 36

USA 53% 57 54% 60

2.2 Aluminum Can Recycling Process

All aluminum products can be recycled after use. each two out of three aluminum cans produce are

the recycling system both at nearby recycling centers, network drop-off websites, recycling boxes.

Aluminum cans from these assets are then accumulated at large scrap processing compounds. Scrap

aluminum is then transported to the scrap compounds wherein it's far checked and looked after to

determine its composition and price. If the scrap is of unknown nice, the scrap aluminum will first be

passed through big magnets to get rid of any ferrous metallic. Then they are condensed into

briquettes or bales and delivered off to aluminum businesses for re-melting.

Relying upon the form of contamination gift, the condensed cans might be shredded, crushed, and

stripped off their interior and external lacquer through a burning system. Then the shredded portions

of aluminum cans are loaded into melting furnaces, where the recycled metallic is blended with new

aluminum. The molten aluminum is then poured into ingots.

The ingots are fed into rolling turbines that reduce the thickness of the metal. The steel is then coiled

and shipped to can producers who produce can bodies and lids. They in flip deliver cans to beverage

10
businesses for filling. the brand new cans are then geared up to go back to store shelves in much less

than 60 days. (Mingqian, 2006)

2.2.1 Advantages of Aluminum Can Recycling

Aluminum can recycling affords many environmental, monetary, and community benefits to people,

communities, organizations, organizations, and industries.

2.3 Environmental benefits

Recycling aluminum cans save treasured natural sources, energy, money, and time for you to

advantage the earth and additionally the economic system and local communities. The aluminum can

is a sustainable product that can be recycled again and again. every aluminum may be recycled and

turned into a new can within 60 days and be offered on the shop cabinets once more. In 2003, almost

fifty-four billion aluminum cans in the united states have been recycled, and this protects power that

is equal to fifteen million barrels of crude oil important for America’s gasoline consumption for one

day.

2.3.1 Economic benefits

The aluminum can is the maximum precious packaging to recycle and is the maximum recycled

purchaser product within the world nowadays. Every 12 months, the aluminum enterprise can pay

over $800 million for empty aluminum cans in the US. This cash is going to charity companies.

Money that is recovered shape recycling aluminum helps international locations and their

communities rebuild houses for the poor and aid the needy.

2.3.2 Community benefits

11
Aluminum can recycling enables many charitable organizations and organizations to earn funds to in

addition local initiatives. The cash earned enhances applications, groups and improves the best of

human beings’ lifestyles. (Mingqian, 2006)

2.4 Characteristics Of Aluminum

• Aluminum is lightweight, durable, malleable, and corrosion-resistant.

• This steel is broadly used for components inside the aerospace, transportation, and creation

industries.

• Non-corrosive

• without problems machined and cast

• lightweight but durable

• Non-magnetic and non-sparking

• appropriate warmth and electrical conductor

2.5 Applications of Aluminum

• Electronic casings

• Electric transmission lines

• Warmness sinks for transistors and CPUs

Table 2: properties of Aluminum

PROPERTY METRIC UNITS

12
 Density 2.5x103 - 2.9x103 kg/m3

Yield Strength 3 x107 - 5 x108 Pa

Tensile Strength 5.8 x107 - 5 x108 Pa

Elongation 0.01 - 0.44 % strain

Hardness (Vickers) 1.18 x108- 1.48 x109 Pa

Fracture Toughness 2.2 x107 - 3.5 x107 Pa/m0.5

Young's Modulus 6.8 x1010 - 8.2 x1010 Pa

Max Service Temperature 120 – 210 °C

Melting Temperature 475 – 677 °C

Insulator or Conductor Good Conductor

Specific Heat Capability 857 – 990 J/kg °C

Thermal Expansion Coefficient 2.1 x10-5 - 2.4 x10-5 strain/°C

Insulator or Conductor Good Conductor °C

Electrical Resistivity 2.5 x10-8 - 6.5 x10-8 °C

CO2 Footprint 1.85 - 2.04 kg/kg

Recycle Yes

2.6 ALUMINOSILICATES

Because of their biocompatibility, high surface area, ion-exchange ability, and superior thermal and

mechanical stability, aluminosilicates have long been utilized as excipients in medicinal formulations

(Lopes et al., 2014). Composite materials with increased functional qualities, such as drug-loading

capacity, swelling, and drug-release properties, sensitivity to biological stimuli, and mechanical and

13
rheological characteristics, can be made by modifying/functionalizing aluminosilicates with other

components.

2.6.1 Aluminosilicate minerals

Aluminosilicates are a type of minerals that contain the components alumina (Al 2O3) and silica

(SiO2). Alumina and silica are two of the most abundant chemicals in the Earth's crust, and they

produce some of the most frequent minerals on the planet as a result. Aluminosilicates are found in

several jewels, including emeralds.

2.6.2 Properties of Aluminosilicates

Aluminosilicates can be found as solitary crystals or as clay-like formations, depending on the

mineral. The clay-like aluminosilicates have a similar texture to dry modeling clay. Water is included

in the chemical structure of clay aluminosilicates, which gives them their clay characteristics. It

doesn't make them feel watery or turn them into a liquid, but it does transform their appearance from

crystalline to thick and powdery. The other variety of aluminosilicate is more crystalline in

appearance. Hard, non-clay-like crystals arise from these minerals. Some, such as beryl and topaz,

can be polished into gemstones. Emerald is the gemstone form of beryl, and the popularity of

emeralds has made beryl one of the most well-known aluminosilicate minerals.

2.6.3 ALUMINUM SILICATE

This is a generic term for chemical compounds generated from aluminum oxide (Al 2O3) and silicon

dioxide (SiO2), which might be anhydrous or hydrated, naturally occurring, or synthetically

produced. xAl2O3ySiO2zH2O is a common chemical formula for these minerals. E number E559 is

the code for it. Wikipedia (Wikipedia, 2021). Aluminum silicate is a fibrous substance comprised of
14
aluminum oxide and silicon dioxide that has a high melting point (such materials are also called

aluminosilicate fibers). Rather than chemical compounds, these are glassy solid solutions. The

percentage weights of alumina (Al2O3) and silica (SiO2) are frequently used to define the

compositions. As the percentage of alumina increases, so does the temperature resistance. Loose

wool, blankets, felt, paper, and boards are examples of fibrous materials. (Wikipedia, 2021)

EXAMPLES

 Al2SiO5, (Al2O3·SiO2), which occurs naturally as the minerals andalusite, kyanite,

and sillimanite which have different crystal structures.

 Al2Si2O5(OH)4, (Al2O3·2SiO2·2H2O), which occurs naturally as the mineral kaolinite and is also

called aluminum silicate dihydrate. It is a fine white powder and is used as a filler in paper and

rubber and also used in paints.

 Al2Si2O7, (Al2O3·2SiO2), called metakaolinite, formed from kaolin by heating at 450 °C (842 °F).

 Al6Si2O13, (3Al2O3·2SiO2), the mineral mullite, is the only thermodynamically stable intermediate

phase in the Al2O3-SiO2 system at atmospheric pressure. This is also called '3:2 mullite' to

distinguish it from 2Al2O3·SiO2, Al4SiO8 '2:1 mullite'.

 2Al2O3·SiO2, Al4SiO8 '2:1 mullite. (Whitney, 2002)

2.7 ALUM

Alum, any of a set of hydrated double salts, commonly together with aluminum sulfate, the

water of hydration, and the sulfate of some other detail. a whole series of hydrated double salts

results from the hydration of the sulfate of a singly charged cation (e.g., k +) and the sulfate of any

individual of numerous triply charged cations (e.g., Al 3+). Aluminum sulfate can as a result form

alums with sulfates of the singly charged cations of potassium, sodium, ammonium, cesium, and

other elements and compounds. further, sulfates of the triply charged cations of iron, chromium,

manganese, cobalt, and other metals may also take the area of aluminum sulfate. The maximum vital

15
alums are potassium aluminum sulfate, ammonium aluminum sulfate, and sodium aluminum sulfate.

Potassium aluminum sulfate, is also known as potassium alum or potash alum. (Encyclopaedia

Britannica, 2021)

Alums can without problems be produced with the aid of precipitation from an aqueous

answer. In producing potassium alum, for example, aluminum sulfate and potassium sulfate are

dissolved in water, after which upon evaporation, the alum crystallizes out of the answer. An extra

commonplace manufacturing method is to treat bauxite ore with sulfuric acid and then with

potassium sulfate. Ammonium alum is produced by using the evaporation of a water solution

containing ammonium sulfate and aluminum sulfate. it could additionally be received by way of

treating a combination of aluminum sulfate and sulfuric acid with ammonia. Alums arise clearly in

various minerals. Potassium alum, for instance, is located in the minerals kaolinite, alunite, and

leucite, which can be dealt with sulfuric acid to obtain crystals of the alum. (Encyclopaedia

Britannica, 2021)

Alum is likewise referred to as aluminum sulfate with formulation (Al 2(SO4)3.16H20) is

normally used as a coagulant. Alum is double salt this is used inside the purification of water, the

negatively charged colloidal particles clumps collectively into flocs, impurities in the water can be

natural or inorganic which now settle at the lowest of the water. (Byjus, 2022a)

Alum has lengthy been utilized in paper sizing to enhance sturdiness and ink receptivity and

in water, the remedy to make clear water. different uses for alum consist of wastewater remedy, as a

waterproofing agent and accelerator in concrete, as a clarifier for fat and oils, and as a foaming agent

in fireplace foams. (Ugwekar, 2012)

2.7.1 CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF ALUM

- It is soluble in water

- It has a sweetish taste

- When heated with liquid then it is acidic.

16
2.7.2 TYPES OF ALUM

 Potassium alum

 Soda alum

 Ammonium alum

 Chromium alum

[Link] POTASSIUM ALUM

Aluminum potassium sulfate, also known as potash alum, KAl(SO4)2.12H2O is used as an

astringent and antisepsis in various food preparation processes such as pickling and fermentation and

as flocculants for water purification. As a naturally occurring mineral, potassium alum is known as

an alum-(K). Other potassium aluminum sulfate minerals are: - alunite (KAl (SO 4)2.2Al(OH)3) and

kaolinite (KAl(SO4)2.11H2O). It is also used in so-called "crystal" deodorants.

It's far double salt that is used normally in medicinal drugs and the water treatment system. It

is also commonly referred to as ‘fitkari.’ Potash alum is an essential member of alum that is one of

the maximum popular coagulants utilized in water remedies, especially in low-colored waters. It has

numerous exceedingly complicated species, which includes aluminum polymers in conditions that

affect the product type which further depends on different situations including dosage, pH, and

hydroxide supplement fee and mixing. the versatility additionally means that alum may be very

bendy and diverse coagulation mechanisms can be manipulated. (Byjus, 2022b)

Table 3: properties of potash Alum

IUPAC Name Aluminum potassium sulfate dodecahydrate

Chemical Formula KAl(SO4)2·12H2O

Molar Mass 258.192 g/mol (anhydrous)

474.37 g/mol (dodecahydrate)

17
Density 1.725 g/cm3

Melting Point 92 to 95 °C (198 to 203 °F; 365 to 368 K)

Boiling Point 200 °C (392 °F; 473 K)

18
[Link].1 PROPERTIES OF POTASH ALUM

The shape or structure of potassium alum crystals is octahedral. it is almost colorless solid and is

highly soluble in water. Obtains a crimson coloration while heated to a sure degree and forms a

porous, cold weight called ‘burnt alum’. when it's far exposed to very excessive temperatures warm

molecules of water evaporate and sulfuric acid is released leaving behind an aggregate of alumina

and potash sulfate.

Potassium aluminum sulfate fuses in its very own crystallization water at 92°C. it is acidic in nature

and adjustments the coloration of the blue litmus.

[Link].2 USES OF POTASH ALUM

Fireplace Retardant

The use of potassium alum for textiles, timber, and paperless flame resistance is a fireplace-retardant.

Tanning

For leather-based tanning, potassium alum is used to extract moisture from the hide and avoid

rotting. Alum isn't covered and can be washed out, in comparison to tannic acid.

Iron and steel Dissolving

This aluminum answer has the property that steels are dissolved without affecting aluminum or base

metals. For machined castings of metal parts of machinery, alum solutions may be used.

Gourmand food

Potassium alum can be an acidic aspect in baking powder to offer a second leavening step at high

temperatures (even though sodium alum is extra widely used for this motive). Bakers in England

made bread whiter with alum in the course of the 1800s.

19
Used for Dyeing

Alum turned into used to form a permanent hyperlink between natural textile fibers like wool and

dye, as mordant.

Pigmentation of the Lake

Aluminum hydroxide from alum acts as a base for maximum lake pigments

Blocking Chemicals

Due to the fact far off antiquity, potassium alum become used for purifying turbid drinks. The

ingesting water and business water systems, equine treatment, and put up-storm lake tactics stay

usually used for the treatment of pollution in precipitation.

Water is implemented to the domestic wastewaters more or less 30 to 40 ppm of alum, however

greater usually to the commercial wastewater to clump negative debris into the flocs and waft them

as much as the liquid backside, or greater readily clear out them out of liquid before similarly

filtration and disinfection of the water.

2.7.3 OTHER TYPES OF ALUM INCLUDE:

[Link] SODIUM ALUM

Soda alum, NaAl(SO4)2.12H2O, mainly occurs in nature as the mineral mendozite. It is very soluble

in water and is extremely difficult to purify. Soda alum is used in the acidulent of food as well as in

the manufacture of baking powder.

[Link] AMMONIUM ALUM

Ammonium alum, NH4Al(SO4).12H2O, a white crystalline double sulfate of aluminum, is used in

water purification, in vegetable glues, in porcelain cement, dyeing, tanning, etc.

20
[Link] CHROMIUM ALUM

Chrome alum, Ker(SO4)2.12H2O, a dark violet crystalline double sulfate of chromium and potassium

was used in tanning.

2.8 USES OF ALUM

 For purification of water

 Styptic pencil to stop bleeding

 Use in baking powder

 Use in toothpaste.

 Use in deodorant

 It is used as acid.

Alum is one of the most widely used coagulants in the water remedy enterprise (Benschoten and

Edzwald 1990). For water and wastewater remedies, the coagulants used extra frequently are the

inorganic salts of aluminum. while introduced to water, Al ions hydrolyze rapidly and form several

metallic hydrolysis species (Jiang 2015). those cationic species adsorb onto the negatively charged

particles and neutralize the rate. in this mechanism, particles get destabilized and aggregation takes

place (Yukselen and Gregory 2004).

21
 CHAPTER THREE

3.0 MATERIALS AND METHODS

3.1 Materials

The materials used were:

 Aluminum beverage cans

 Potassium hydroxide pellet

 Scissors

 50ml or 100ml, 250ml beaker

 Sandpaper

 Stirring rod

 Spatula

 Vacuum filtration apparatus: Buchner funnel, side-arm flask, rubber tubing, and filter paper

 Bunsen burner

3.1.1 Reagents used

 1.4 M Potassium hydroxide KOH

 9M solution of sulfuric acid H2SO4

 Ethanol

3.1.2 Obtaining aluminum scrap

Using scissors or metal snips, a piece of aluminum approximately 5 cm x 7.5 cm was cut from the

can. Using a piece of sandpaper, scrape off any paint and/or plastic coating from both sides, as

22
completely as possible. The cleaned piece of aluminum was weighed. You need approximately 1.0 g

of aluminum (if the mass is between 0.9 and 1.2 g, that is acceptable). (David A. Katz, 2000)

3.2 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES

A 250-mL beaker was weighed. The aluminum sample was cut into small squares of about 0.2 cm in

length (small pieces will react at a faster rate) and placed in the 250-mL beaker. The beaker and final

sample were weighed to the nearest 0.01 g and the mass was recorded. Then the mass of the

aluminum was determined. (David A. Katz, 2000)

50 mL of 1.4 M potassium hydroxide was added to the 250-mL

beaker containing the aluminum pieces. The beaker was then

placed on a hotplate, or ring stand and ring supports, in a fume

hood and heated so it is hot, but not boiling. Bubbles of hydrogen

were formed from the reaction between aluminum and aqueous

Fig 3: solution of KOH and Al
potassium hydroxide. When the liquid level in the beaker drops
on heating
to less than half of its original volume, distilled water was added to maintain the volume at

approximately 25 mL. The reaction is completed when the hydrogen evolution ceases and there are

no visible pieces of aluminum metal. The final volume of the liquid was about 25 mL

During the reaction, the initially colorless mixture turned dark gray or black. Pieces of plastic

lining, that were not completely removed were floating in the liquid and were removed. The dark

material probably comes from the decomposition of residual paint or plastic lining. A vacuum

filtration apparatus was set up. The hot solution was filtered to remove any solid residue. The filtrate

was cleared with dark residue left on the filter paper. The beaker was rinsed twice with 5-mL portions

of distilled water, pouring each rinse through the filter residue.

When all of the liquid has passed through the filter paper, The vacuum was

23
 broken by disconnecting the rubber tubing from the filter flask.

The clear filtrate was transferred into a clean 250-mL beaker. And the filter flask was rinsed with
Fig10
4: mL
filtering of the water and poured into the beaker. When the filtrate was not yet cool, it is then
of distilled
heated solution.
placed in a cooling bath of cold water.

Slowly and carefully, the solution was stirred, 20 mL of 9.0 M H2SO4 was added to the cooling

solution. The solution got hot from the neutralization reaction occurred. The appearance of a white

precipitate of aluminum hydroxide was noticed. The addition of the last few milliliters of the sulfuric

acid will usually dissolve the Al(OH) 3. Where necessary, warm the solution gently, while stirring, to

completely dissolve any A1(OH)3 that might have formed. The final solution contained potassium

ions (from the KOH used), aluminum ions, and sulfate ions. The mixture was then filtered and

worked with the cleared filtrate.

An ice-water bath

was prepared by

filling a 600-mL

beaker two-thirds

full with ice.

Fig 5: cooling the solution on
Coldwater was added
ice
to just cover the ice. The reaction beaker was set into the ice-

water bath to chill. And the mixture was allowed to chill

thoroughly for about 15 minutes. Crystals of the alum then

began to form in a few minutes.

12 ml ethanol was mixed with 12 mL water in a small beaker. The chilled solution of alum crystals

was removed from the ice bath and chilled the ethanol mixture. The alum crystals were filtered from

the chilled solution, transferring as much of the crystalline product as possible to the funnel.

Half of the chilled ethanol solution was used to rinse the remaining crystals from the beaker into

24
the funnel. The beaker was rinsed again with the second half of the solution. And a spatula was used

to distribute the crystals evenly on the filter paper.

While the crystals are drying, a clean, dry 250-mL beaker was weighed to the nearest 0.01 g. and

the mass was recorded. Using a spatula to transfer all of the air-dried crystals from the filter paper

into the beaker. The beaker and the crystals were reweighed. And the mass was recorded. Then the

mass of the alum crystals was determined.

3.2.1 The reactions involved in converting aluminum into alum are as follows:

1. Reaction of aluminum with KOH (the dissolution step)

2 Al (s) + 2 KOH (aq) + 6 H2O (l) → 2 KAl(OH)4 (aq) + 3 H2 (g)…………………………1

2. Initial addition of sulfuric acid (precipitation of Al(OH)3)

2 KAl(OH)4 (aq) + H2SO4 (aq) → 2 Al(OH)3 (s) + K2SO4 (aq) + 2 H2O (l)…………………………..2

3. Further addition of sulfuric acid (dissolving of Al(OH)3)

2 Al(OH)3 (s) + H2SO4 (aq) → Al2(SO4)3 (aq) + 6 H2O (l) …………………………………………………….3

Precipitation of alum on cooling

K2SO4 (aq) + Al2(SO4)3 (aq) + 24 H2O(l) → 2 KAl(SO4)2 ⋅12 H2O(s) …………………………………...4

4. The overall reaction that takes place is the sum of the previous reactions Or the net ionic

equation is:

K+(aq) + Al3+(aq) + 2 SO42-(aq) + 12 H2O(l) → KAl(SO4)2•12 H2O(s) …………………………………….5

3.2.2 Efficiency of the synthesized alum to commercially available alum

Muddy water and distilled water were used to check the efficiency of the synthesized alum. Distilled

water was used in a control experiment. Two 20 mL of each water sample were measured in six

separate test tubes labeled A, A1, B, B1, and C, C1. The initial turbidity level of each water sample

was recorded using digital turbidity (meter model no: 331). 0.50 g each of commercial alum and the

synthesized alum were added into the different test tubes and left for three days. The synthesized

25
alum was used in flask A, B, C while the commercial alum was used in flask A1, B1, and C1. The

turbidity of the sample waters was measured for both; the commercial and the synthesized alum after

three days. The efficiency of the synthesized and commercially available alum was compared based

on the turbidity measurement.

3.2.3 Chemical test for qualitative analysis of alum

Qualitative analysis of the synthesized potash alum was carried out to confirm the presence of

potassium, sulfate, aluminum, and water of hydration and the alum melting point.

26
3.4 SAFETY AND DISPOSAL

Strong acids and bases are corrosive and should be handled with care, such as

Potassium hydroxide solutions are caustic. In the event of contact with your skin or eyes,

wash the affected area immediately with lots of water and soap. If necessary, seek qualified

medical assistance.

Also Sulfuric acid is corrosive. In the event of contact with your skin or eyes, wash the

affected area immediately with lots of water. If necessary, seek qualified medical assistance.

Ethanol is a flammable liquid. Avoid flames. Prolonged skin exposure can cause drying and

cracking of the skin. The aluminum metal may have shape edges. Exercise care in handling

the metal. Work in the mini-hoods whenever possible to avoid breathing in fumes. All

solutions can be disposed of down the sink with running water. The alum can be safely

disposed of in the trash but has several uses and can be used for other laboratories, place alum

crystals into the designated container. Goggles or safety glasses must be worn at all times in

the laboratory.

27
Fig 6: STRUCTURE OF MODERN ALUMINUM CAN

28
(Hosford & Duncan, 1994a).

CHAPTER FOUR

4.0 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The synthesis of alum from aluminum beverage cans occurred through crystallization.

Aluminum reacts with KOH solution and is oxidized to form potassium

tetrahydroxoaluminate (III), K[Al(OH)4], which is stable only in the basic solution. When

H2SO4 solution was added, a portion of the acid acted to neutralize the excess KOH solution

and convert it to K2SO4 and water. As more H 2SO4 solution was added, Al(OH)3, white,

gelatinous semi-solid was produced which was then dissolved to form soluble Al2(SO 4)3. In

the growing of the alum crystal, the aluminum sulfate and potassium sulfate diffuse through

water and reach the surface of the crystal. Then, they join with each other and some water to

produce alum. The growth of alum from a solution is due to the difference in the solubility of

alum in water at different temperatures. Alum has very low solubility in water at low

temperatures.

Yields of alum crystals are defined as the mass of crystals obtained from a unit mass

of solution. Theoretical yield is the maximum mass of alum crystals that can be obtained from

the chemical reaction while the actual yield of alum is the mass of alum that is obtained in the

laboratory. To investigate the feasibility of the chemical reaction, the percentage yield of

alum produced is calculated to specify the attainment of the theoretical yield. The raw

29
material of aluminum beverage can is aluminum, however, there are also other impurities in

trace amounts such as magnesium, manganese, iron, silicon, and copper (Hosford & Duncan,

1994b). Furthermore, the crystallized alum might revert into the solution in a reversible

reaction during the crystallization process.

4.1 Qualitative analysis

The following qualitative analyses were carried out on the synthesized alum crystal:

4.1.1 Analysis for potassium ion (K+) in the synthesized alum crystal

Using the flame test, the presence of potassium was tested in the synthesized alum, the crystal

was held in flame for 20 seconds until the crystal glows. Potassium was evolved and the red

flame turned pale purple.

4.1.2 Analysis for sulfate ion (SO4-2) in the synthesized alum crystal.

A small amount of the pulverized alum crystal was added into a test tube filled halfway with

distilled water and the solution was stirred with a stirring rod until dissolution was complete.

Two drops of aqueous barium chloride (BaCl 2) solution were added to the mixture. A white

precipitate formed, which was insoluble in Barium Chloride. This indicates the presence SO 4-2

in the synthesized alum crystal

4.1.3 Analysis for Aluminum ion (Al3+) in the synthesized alum Crystal

30
Two drops of diluted 1.4M KOH were added to the dissolved alum solution. Sulfuric acid in

drop and then in excess was also added to the alum solution. A thick white gelatinous

precipitate was formed which was insoluble in drops but soluble in excess sulfuric acid. This

indicates the presence of aluminum ions in the synthesized alum crystal (Yauri & Aliyu,

2014)

Table 4: Qualitative analysis of ions present in the Synthesized alum crystal

31
Test Observation Inference

Alum solution + White Precipitate SO42-

Aqueous BaCl2 formed, and insoluble Confirmed

Solution (After 20 hours)

Solid Alum Crystal+ heat (10 Red flame turned to K+

minutes) Pale purple flame color Confirmed

Aluminate ion

Solution + H2SO4(aq) Thick, white gelatinous Al3+

in drop and in precipitate formed Confirmed

Excess insoluble in drop but

soluble in excess

Table 4.1: Yield of potash alum from aluminum wastes

32
The mass of alum obtained from the aluminum can is 10.26 g, and % yield of the synthesized

alum from the aluminum can is 58.36%

Aluminum type Mass of Theoretical Mass of alum % yield of alum

aluminum used yield of alum obtained

(g) (g)

Aluminum can 1.00 17.58 10.26 58.36

Table 4.2: Determination of the turbidity of the water sample before and after addition

of alum

Sample water type Initial turbidity level Final turbidity level (NTU)

(NTU)

Synthesized alum Commercial alum

Distilled water 0.00 0.00 0.00

Dam (Unilorin) 20.00 9.02 16.30

water

The turbidity level of each water sample measured (Table 3) before the addition of alum gave

0.00 NTU and 20.00 NTU for distilled water and Dam water respectively. The distilled water

33
sample was turbidity free before the addition of alum. This shows that Dam water from

Unilorin Dam has a higher level of impurity than Distilled water. This is because; they are

contaminated differently by different species and at different degrees. The Dam water is

mostly contaminated by impurities, human activities, contaminants from Industries, and so

on.

Table 4.3: Coagulation action of synthesized Alum and commercial Alum

The coagulation action of synthesized alum is found to be very effective, but upon application

of heat the rate at which alum crystals dissolved differed at different temperature range but

the suspended particles in the wastewater was observed to settle irrespective of temperature

applied in both two processes (Precious Sibiya et al., 2021).

Parameter Coagulation action(min) Appearance in water

34
 Synthesized Commercial Synthesized alum Commercial

alum alum alum

Muddy water 30.52 41.00 Before coagulation Before

(muddy) coagulation

(muddy)

Volume of 30ml 30ml After coagulation After

muddy water (clear and coagulation

colorless) (clear and

colorless)

Table 5: Summary of calculated values

Parameter Calculated value

Mass of alum obtained 10.26g

Number of the mole of aluminum 0.037mole

used

Number of the mole of Alum 0.022mole

35
 Theoretical yield of Alum 17.58g

Percentage yield of Alum 58.36%

The dissolution of Al(s) in aqueous KOH is an example of an oxidation-reduction or redox

reaction. The Al metal is oxidized to aluminum with an oxidation number of +3 and the

hydrogen in KOH or water is reduced from an oxidation number of +1 to zero in hydrogen

gas. The Al(OH)4- ion is a complexion called “aluminate." The reaction between aluminate

ion and sulphuric acid is an acid-base reaction in which the H + ions from the sulfuric acid

neutralize the base Al(OH)4-. Initially, a thick, white, gelatinous precipitate of aluminum

hydroxide, Al(OH)3 was formed as more acid is added, the precipitate dissolved. The solution

at this point contains Al3+ ions, K+ ions (from potassium hydroxide), and SO 42- ions (from

sulfuric acid) equations (1) &(2) above. However, the qualitative analysis of the Alum crystal

formed indicated insoluble white precipitate when reacted with Barium chloride confirming

the presence of sulfate ions. While a blue flame of Bunsen burner and pale purple (lavender)

color produced, this confirmed the presence of potassium ion (K+ ) in the solid crystal

Table 6: XRF result for commercial Alum and synthesized Alum

Compounds Percentage wt% (commercial Percentage wt%

36
 Alum) (synthesized Alum)

MgO 1.19% 0.13%

Al2O3 9.26% 14.37%

SiO2 0.18% 0.77%

P2O5 0.11% 0.16%

SO3 32.56% 34.84%

K2O 9.15% 0.08%

Loss on ignition (L.O.I) 45% 46%

Fe2O3 0.01% 0.43%

The chemical analysis of the prepared alum and the commercial at different calcination

temperatures obtained by XRF results and expressed as oxides wt% taking into account the

alumina content in both alum which is relatively high purity.

The impurities for the prepared alum are attributed to the presence of impurities in the

aluminum can waste, as the can contains the ratio of iron and silica. the percentage of SO 3 of

both the alum was similar to each other. The silica ratio of the synthesized alum is higher than

37
that of the commercial alum. Also, the Alumina ratio of commercial alum is lesser than the

synthesized alum.

Fig 7: XRD result of commercial Alum

The commercial alum contains a mainly high percentage of Alum-K of about 100%. Peaks

were detected at 2Ө (Cu) = 5.00240, 74.96840 and 0.02600 in XRD pattern.

38
Fig 8: XRD result of Synthesized Alum

The Synthesized alum contains a mainly high percentage of Alunogen of about 100%. Peaks

were detected at 2Ө (Cu) = 5.00240, 74.96840 and 0.02600 in XRD pattern.

It is clear from the above figures that the synthesized alum and the commercial alum at

different calcination temperatures (a,b and c) exhibits similar broad diffraction peaks at 2Ө

(Cu) angle = 5.00240, 74.96840 and 0.02600

4.2 CONCLUSION

This study investigated the recycling of waste aluminum cans to produce alum crystals. Alum

crystals were crystallized from a chemical process involving the use of alkali and acid

solutions. The yield of alum production is important to determine the feasibility of the

chemical reaction and the efficiency of the recovery of aluminum into useful products. The

result of the study indicated that the crystallization process is efficient. The highest

percentage yield of alum with 1.4M of KOH solution and 9M of H2SO4 solution. The yield

39
of alum increased with the increase of weight of aluminum cans, however, there is a

limitation on the weight of aluminum cans added. Furthermore, the percentage yield of alum

also increased with the increasing molarity of solutions used.

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