UNIT 8 WASTE MANAGEMENT

Structure
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Objectives
8.3 Waste Generation
8.3.1 Scenario
8.3.2 Problems Associated with Waste
8.4 Interlinkages between Waste generation and Climate Change
8.5 Waste Management Strategies for Climate Change Mitigation
8.6 Technologies for GHG Reduction
8.6.1 Composting
8.6.2 Anaerobic Digestion
8.6.3 Mechanical Biological Treatment
8.6.4 Incineration
8.6.5 Pyrolysis
8.6.6 Gasification
8.6.7 Refuse Derived Fuels
8.6.8 Engineered Landfill
8.6.9 Biofuel and Biodiesel Production
8.6.10 Waste to Energy Technologies
8.7 Waste Hierarchy
8.7.1 Avoiding and Reducing the Generation of Waste
8.7.2 Resource Recovery
8.7.3 Disposal
8.8 Let Us Sum Up
8.9 Key Words
8.10 Suggested Further Reading/References
8.11 Answers to Check Your Progress

8.1 INTRODUCTION
Accelerated urbanization, unprecedented population growth, growing incomes
and changing consumption patterns have resulted in a vast increase in the
amount of solid waste generated worldwide. According to a World Bank Report
by 2025, the world’s urban areas are projected to produce 2.2 billion tonnes of
waste every year which is almost twice the amount (1.3 billion tonnes) produced
in the year 2012. It is estimated that waste is responsible for up to five per
cent of global greenhouse emissions, as the methane emissions that come from
waste is an especially potent greenhouse gas. As waste production from cities is
set to almost double by 2020 better waste management is essential to meet the
Paris Climate Agreement goals. Cutting waste generation through prevention,
reduction, recycling and reuse is the fifth target of the 2030 Sustainable
Development Goal 12. Greenhouse gases mitigation measures in the waste
management sector would reduce global average temperature increases by 0.5
degrees centigrade over the next 50 years.
It is reported that waste disposal and treatment can emit greenhouse gases.
Among the sources of greenhouse gases from waste treatment include landfill Waste Management
methane, followed by wastewater methane and nitrous oxide and to a lesser
extent, carbon dioxide. The waste management technologies adopted till now by
many countries are efficient. Nevertheless, there is a scope to reduce greenhouse
gas emissions from the waste management sector. Waste management thus
occupies a unique position as a potential reducer of greenhouse gas (GHG)
emissions and climate change mitigation. Keeping all this in view, the present
unit endeavours to provide an overview of inter-linkages between waste
management and climate change and discuss briefly various technologies for
mitigation of greenhouse gases from the waste sector.

8.2 OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit, you should be able to:
•• assess the status and trends in the waste sector and the associated problems;
•• explore the inter-linkages between waste generation and climate change;
•• assess waste management strategies for climate change mitigation;
•• discuss various technologies options for greenhouse gas mitigation; and
•• explain the role of waste hierarchy in waste management.

8.3 WASTE GENERATION

8.3.1. Scenario
The ever-rising population, along with rapid urbanization and industrialization,
economic development, increased trade, increased consumption of goods,
changes in lifestyle, use and throw culture and increasing wealth of the rising
middle class, directly affects the amount of waste generated. As far as urbanization
is concerned, the 21st century will be the century of the cities. The urban
population of the world has grown rapidly. According to UN data, it is expected
to increase up to 9.7 billion by 2050, with nearly 90 per cent of the increase
taking place in the urban areas. According to a recent World Bank report (Waste
2.0, 2018), the World generates 2.01 billion tonnes of municipal solid waste
annually, with at least 33 per cent of that not managed in an environmentally
safe manner. Worldwide, waste generated per person per day averages 0.74
kilograms but ranges widely, from 0.11 to 4.54 kilograms. Though high-income
countries only account for 16 per cent of the world’s population, they generate
about 34 per cent, or 683 million tonnes, of the world’s waste. Global waste is
expected to grow to 3.40 billion tonnes by 2050.
According to the International Energy Agency, waste generation rates will more
than double over the next twenty years in lower-income countries. Irrespective
of the accuracy of these forecasts, these enormous waste volumes will pose
a tremendous challenge to many local urban authorities which are already
struggling to manage the waste quantities of today. To date, about 70% of MSW
still ends up in landfills or uncontrolled dumpsites, which often contaminate 153
Land And Soil Issues surface water, groundwater or soil and emit greenhouse gases. Waste disposal
close to coastlines and along rivers pose a risk for land-based marine littering.
Although good examples of the management of sanitary landfills (SLFs) with
substantially reduced negative environmental impacts exist, the search for new
SLF sites is often accompanied by public protests. Moreover, space for new sites
is rarely available near metropolitan areas or urban centres due to land scarcity,
conflicting land use, and rapidly increasing land prices. Proper treatment and
disposal of waste remain highly challenging and often overwhelming for many
municipalities. Segregation at the source, collection, transportation, treatment
and proper disposal of MSW has become a very serious concern in many
developing countries. However, despite good progress in the past decades in
the recycling of materials such as paper, metal, glass or plastic, the current
recycling levels are still insufficient.
Now as far as Indian statistics are concerned according to CPCB, 2016, the
generation of MSW in India is 0.136 million tonnes per day, out of these 0.111
million tonnes per day are collected, 0.026 million tonnes per day are treated
and 0.073 million tonnes per day is landfilled. This shows that only 75-80% of
the municipal waste gets collected and only 22-28% of this waste is processed
and treated. The per capita waste generation rate in Indian cities ranges from 0.2
to 0.87 Kg/day. The quantity of waste depends on various aspects for example
living standards, food habits, commercial activity and population.
8.3.2 Problems Associated with Waste
Most wastes that are generated, find their way into land and water bodies
without proper treatment, causing severe water pollution. They also emit
greenhouse gases like methane and carbon dioxide and add to air pollution.
Any organic waste from urban and rural areas and industries is a resource due
to its ability to get degraded, resulting in energy generation. Solid waste has a
direct impact on the health of the community. If the solid waste is burned out in
the open, it produces uncontrolled emissions of pollutants in the air and ruins
the land, making it barren for a long time. More importantly, the emissions lead
to various respiratory issues. If it is left out in the open, it becomes a breeding
ground for various diseases, like cholera, dengue, malaria, etc. If it is dumped
in an unsustainable manner, it can cause problems for the settlements near the
dumpsites as well as for the rag pickers. Moreover, unsustainable dumping can
pollute waterways or block wastewater streams leading to the spread of diseases.
Open dumpsites are a major problem. They cause public health issues as well
as environmental ones. The production of methane in such dumpsites makes it
a source of greenhouse gas (GHG). Methane causes fires and explosions and
is a major contributor to global warming. There are also problems associated
with odour and migration of leachates to receiving waters. Odour is a serious
problem, particularly during the summer when average temperatures in India
can exceed 45°C. If the dumpsite is near a water body, it makes the water body
prone to pollution too.

Solid wastes generated by domestic, commercial and industrial activities are

often indiscriminately disposed of. Unscientific management of such wastes
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leads to serious environmental problems. The problems are already acute in Waste Management
cities and towns, as the disposal facilities are not keeping pace with the quantum
of waste being generated. It is very common to find large heaps of garbage in
a disorganized manner at every nook and corner of the cities. The unsanitary
method being adopted for the disposal of solid wastes is a serious health concern.
Particularly, during the rainy season, run-off and high humid conditions increase
the health hazards. The landfill sites, which are not well maintained, are prone
to groundwater contamination due to leachate percolation. Open dumping of
garbage serves as a breeding ground for disease vectors such as flies, mosquitoes,
cockroaches, rats and other pests. High risks of spreading diseases like typhoid,
cholera, dysentery, yellow fever, encephalitis, plague and dengue fever may not
be ruled out.
There are three major steps involved in the management of garbage viz.
collection, transportation and disposal (CTD). The modern society produces a
massive amount of waste daily of which a large part is hazardous and cannot
be disposed of using conventional treatment. Big projects are a nightmare and
more prone to failure. Government should try to create favourable policies for
the establishment of decentralised solid waste disposal plants. No “one solution”
or technology meets all needs. Some useful equipment using clean technology
to ensure the elimination of waste without atmospheric pollution and respecting
emission standards should be invented. Improper waste management would
negatively impact public health. Incidences of infections and diseases would
increase due to poor waste management. As regards our country, the challenges
about waste generation, collection and management are many, as it is projected
that increasing population in particular urban populations would increase waste
generation. Further, solid waste management is considered a major problem for
many urban local bodies in our country. Reducing waste volume is the most
effective and sustainable action but we are not doing this. Recycling is vital but
not everything can be recycled. There will always be residual waste items that
need to be managed after recycling has been optimized.

8.4 INTERLINKAGES BETWEEN WASTE GEN-

ERATION AND CLIMATE CHANGE
It is reported that waste disposal and treatment can emit greenhouse gases.
Among the sources of greenhouse gases from waste treatment include landfill
methane, followed by wastewater methane and nitrous oxide and to a lesser
extent, carbon dioxide. The waste management technologies adopted till now by
many countries are efficient. Nevertheless, there is a scope to reduce greenhouse
gas emissions from the waste management sector. The IPCC estimates that
solid waste management accounted for around 3% of global greenhouse gas
(GHG) emissions in 2010, with most of that attributable to methane emissions
from landfill sites. Methane is released due to organic matter decomposition in
landfills. So the landfill gas is released due to microbial mediated organic matter
breakdown. Optimum environmental conditions within the landfill ecosystem 155
Land And Soil Issues result in increased microbial activity and consequent increase in landfill gas.
Methane is generated in landfills by the anaerobic biodegradation of organic
matter (food and municipal wastes, paper, wood, organic textiles, leather, etc.).
The maximum amount of methane generated during anaerobic decomposition
can be determined from the structural formula presented below:
C6H10O4 + 1.5H2O = 3.25CH4 + 2.75CO2
According to this chemical equation, the biogas generated in a landfill should
consist of ~54% methane and 46% carbon dioxide. For nearly one billion
tons of MSW landfilled, the annual generation of methane is 50 million tons.
However, some modern landfills are equipped for capturing some of the
generated methane. Therefore, the fugitive emissions of methane in landfill gas
have been estimated at 45 million tons, which is 4% of the anthropogenic GHG
emissions. This contribution is expected to increase because as estimated that
the global rate of MSW generation will increase based on projected population
growth and energy use per capita.
Minor sources of GHG from the waste sector at the global scale include
combustion of waste and biological treatment. Uncontrolled burning of waste
largely continues to be practised in developing regions, causing the release of
CO2. Controlled burning, in waste incinerators, also generates CO2 emissions.
Where incinerators generate energy, they also contribute to total GHG emissions.
Aerobic composting processes directly emit varying levels of methane and
nitrous oxide, depending on how the process is managed in practice.

8.5 WASTE MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES FOR

CLIMATE CHANGE MITIGATION
Waste management provides immense opportunities to mitigate greenhouse gas
emissions and towards this end, many environmentally friendly technologies
are developed which in addition to reducing greenhouse gas emissions aid in
delivering a sustainable living environment. These technologies can directly
reduce GHG emissions through
•• landfill gas recovery;
•• improved landfill practices;
•• controlled composting of organic waste;
•• state-of-the-art incineration;
•• expanded sanitation coverage; and
•• complementary measures (increased recycling, decreased landfilling, use of
alternative waste-management technologies).
Further, waste reduction, recycling, and reuse have huge potential to reduce
GHG emissions through increased resource use efficiency and conservation
of raw materials. In developing countries, landfill methane emissions are
increasing due to anaerobic landfilling practices. Steps like engineered landfill
gas recovery and advanced waste management strategies would greatly
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reduce GHG emissions from landfills. Further, state-of-the-art incineration and Waste Management
industrial co-combustion provide additional benefits. Additionally, thermal
processes combined with improved emission controls are gaining importance.
Nevertheless, the cost is an important barrier in the thermal process technology.
The reduction of GHG emissions from waste must be looked at through the
lens of integrated waste management. In this regard, Life Cycle Assessment
(LCA) is an important tool to gauge the impacts of waste management
technologies. Decision support tools including LCA provide opportunities to
adopt mitigation strategies that are cost-effective and sustainable in the long
run. While landfill methane recovery and improved wastewater treatment
technologies decrease GHG emissions directly, controlled aerobic composting
and thermal processes (incineration for waste-to-energy) have the potential to
minimise the GHG generation markedly. All said, waste prevention, reduction,
recycling and recovery of material, and re-use exhibit an increasing prospects
for GHG emissions reduction indirectly through reduced consumption and
waste generation; decreased energy demand, etc. Hence waste management has
huge potential for carbon emission reduction, and it should form an important
component of climate change mitigation strategy.
Check Your Progress 1
Note: a) Use the space given below for your answers.
b) Check your answers with those given at the end of the unit.
1. What are the main problems associated with waste?
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2. How waste is responsible for climate change?
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8.6 TECHNOLOGIES FOR GHG REDUCTION

8.6.1 Composting
Composting is a microbial mediated aerobic process of decomposition and
stabilization of the organic matter present in the solid waste. It is gaining
importance as a centralized waste management method due to its benefits in
the form of reduction in waste volume and generation of useful value-added
products. Composting is practised either at the household level or municipality
level. Composting creates benefits as it is not generating methane, and also
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Land And Soil Issues reduces the environmental burden. Further, it also meets four major objectives
of waste management such as: “to reduce the volume of waste, to stabilize
waste, to sterilize waste, and to produce a valuable product from the waste”.
The end product of composting is rich in excessive nutrients called humus or
compost. This compost solid product is used to fertilize crops and combustible
gas, a mixture of carbon dioxide and methane called biogas is used to produce
heat and/or electric energy.
Composting process enables the decomposition of organic matter in the
presence of oxygen, resulting in the reduction of volume and mass of the waste.
Being an exothermic process, the heat generated increases the temperature of
the compost which aids in the destruction of pathogens and weed seeds. It is
important to note that composting process demands the biogenic fractions of
waste. Further, the separation of waste into biogenic and non-biogenic fractions
has a beneficial impact on composting process. Concern about methane release
from landfills has resulted in increased interest in composting as a waste
management strategy.
8.6.2 Anaerobic Digestion
Anaerobic digestion is yet another bacterial driven process, occurring in
the absence of oxygen. Microbial communities decompose the waste and
release carbon dioxide and methane through processes such as “hydrolysis”,
“acidogenesis” and “methanogenesis”. The product of anaerobic digestion is
biogas which contains about 55-65 per cent of methane and is used as a renewable
fuel. Nevertheless, the anaerobic digestion process depends on environmental
factors like pH, temperature, moisture; and feedstock characteristics like carbon
to nitrogen ratio, and nitrogen content. Anaerobic digestion of waste offers a
wide range of benefits viz. reduction of waste volume, nutrient recovery, and
use of effluent as compost/fertilizer. Further, through this method of waste
management, even wet waste can be treated. Energy production is indeed an
extremely important benefit. The natural gas so produced can be used to power
the digester, for home use, and can be sold in the market as well. Currently
in India, many biomethanation plants are working to generate energy from
vegetable and food waste.
8.6.3 Mechanical Biological Treatment (MBT)
The mixed wastes are treated through mechanical operations and biological
methods to reduce the volume of the wastes. The mechanical operations such
as sorting, shredding and crushing result in waste fractions that can be either
recycled or treated with biological methods. Mechanical biological treatment
(MBT) of waste is a widely implemented method of waste management. The
biological methods in waste management mainly include aerobic composting,
anaerobic digestion, etc. Through MBT, a reduction of even 40–60% of the
organic carbon present originally in the waste are possible.
8.6.4 Incineration
158 One of the most common waste treatment technologies is incineration, in
which waste mass is reduced by 70% and waste volume is reduced up to 90%. Waste Management
Incineration is suitable for high calorific value wastes. Incineration is the
controlled burning of waste at a high temperature. The whole process is carried
out in three phases i.e. incineration, energy recovery and control of air pollution.
In the first phase (incineration process), waste is directly burned at 700-1000oC
in the combustion chamber by using flue gas and preheated air. Ultra-hot steam
is produced after the combustion of waste and this steam is used to create heat
energy. The turbine is connected to a generator which produces energy, heat and
bottom ash. Bottom ash primarily contains silicon, iron, calcium, aluminium,
sodium and potassium. Wastes like municipal solid waste, and refuse-derived
fuel (RDF) are burned in the incinerator. The advantage of waste incineration
includes but is not limited to volume reduction of waste; destruction of harmful
organisms; production of electricity and heat.
8.6.5 Pyrolysis
Pyrolysis is the thermal waste method, that uses heat at 300-800oC to break
down organic constituents in the anaerobic environment. It produces synthetic
gases also known as syngas (methane, carbon dioxide, hydrocarbons, hydrogen
and carbon mono-oxide), liquids and solids residues. The produced syngas can
be utilized in different energy applications such as engines, boilers, turbines, and
heat pumps. Small temperature pyrolysis can also be used to generate synthetic
diesel fuel from plastic waste.
8.6.6 Gasification
The gasification process contains partial combustion of waste to generate energy.
This is accomplished by providing a high temperature (>700oC) with a limited
amount of air (i.e. partial combustion). The final product of the gasification
process is char, tar and syngas. Syngas is energy-rich content and cleans through
a gas turbine or engine to produce energy and heat. This process can reduce
about 70% mass and 90% volume of waste.
8.6.7 Refuse Derived Fuel (RDF)
RDF technology stipulates safe and eco-friendly disposal of MSW. It is an
alternating fuel that can be used in boilers in place of fossil fuels. Processing
can include separation of recyclables and non-combustible materials, shredding,
size reduction, and pelletizing. RDF pellets are frequently used for pulp, paper
industry, wood industry waste and saw-mill industry

8.6.8 Engineered Landfills

An engineered landfill presents an opportunity for proper waste management
that allows resource recovery from waste. However, for this to be achieved
several technical parameters must be considered when designing a sanitary
landfill. These technical parameters include proper site selection with minimal
environmental and hydrological negative impacts and selection of a liner network
that will not allow the leachate to infiltrate into the ground. Furthermore, there
is a need to have an integrated network for monitoring the movement of the 159
Land And Soil Issues waste as well as the quality of the leachate. Anaerobic bacteria in the landfill
break down the organic waste in the absence of oxygen because the landfill
is airtight. Anaerobic breakdown results in biogas production, which contains
approximately 70% methane and 25% carbon dioxide with trace amounts of
nitrogen, oxygen and hydrogen sulphide. The biogas composition varies from
the landfill site to landfill site and is dependent on the waste types. The biogas
can be removed via a collection network and to attain this, a chain of pipes is
fixed within the landfill to harness the biogas.
8.6.9 Biofuel and Biodiesel Production
New technologies are on the anvil, to convert solid waste into biofuel. The
technology to transform solid waste particularly municipal waste management
into biofuel (ethanol) is technically possible. Improvements in technology in
terms of technical aspects, and economic aspects would provide an impetus for
biofuel production from waste.
8.6.10 Waste to Energy Technologies
“Waste to Energy” is a comprehensive term, which refers to a series of
technologies that transform/convert a waste, particularly a non-recyclable
portion of waste into energy (heat, fuels, electricity). Waste to Energy involves
processes like “incineration”, “gasification”, “pyrolysis”, “anaerobic digestion”,
and “landfill gas recovery”. The feedstocks to waste to energy technologies
include but are not limited to “municipal solid waste” (MSW); “construction
and demolition (C&D) debris”; “agricultural waste”; and “industrial waste”.
Aided by Kyoto mechanisms such as the Clean Development Mechanism
(CDM) and Joint Implementation (JI), as well as other measures to increase
worldwide rates of landfill CH4 recovery, the total global economic mitigation
potential for reducing landfill CH4 emissions in 2030 is estimated to be >1000
MtCO2-eq (or 70% of estimated emissions) for waste-to-energy.
The Ministry of New and Renewable Energy is actively promoting all the
technology options available for energy recovery from urban and industrial
wastes. MNRE is also promoting the research on waste to energy by providing
financial support for R&D projects on a cost-sharing basis following the R&D
Policy of the MNRE. In addition to that, MNRE also provides financial support
for projects involving applied R&D and studies on resource assessment,
technology up-gradation and performance evaluation.
Check Your Progress 2
Note: a) Use the space given below for your answers.
b) Check your answers with those given at the end of the unit.
1. What are the biological methods for waste management?
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2. Discuss non-biogenic methods of waste management. Waste Management
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8.7 WASTE HIERARCHY

The waste hierarchy is a tool to reckon with, as they aid in creating and organizing
waste management scenarios, which are subsequently analysed to provide
inputs to decision-makers. International Solid Waste Association (ISWA 2009):
“the waste hierarchy is a valuable conceptual and political prioritisation tool
which can assist in developing waste management strategies aimed at limiting
resource consumption and protecting the environment”. In effect, as regards the
waste management, priority is provided to “minimization of waste”, “re-use”,
“recycling”, “waste-to-energy”, and “landfill”. The waste hierarchy is a set of
priorities for the efficient use of resources.
8.7.1 Avoiding and Reducing the Generation of Waste
Waste prevention and reduction are provided top priority in the waste hierarchy.
This is important as it greatly reduces the demand for raw materials. Emissions
from fossil fuel use are lessened due to the reduction in transportation of raw
materials. Waste prevention is perhaps a critical step in waste management as it
has huge potential to mitigate greenhouse gases emissions. Avoidance includes
action to reduce the amount of waste generated by households, industry and all
levels of government. The highest priority encourages the community, industry
and government to reduce the number of virgin materials extracted and used.
The goal is to maximise efficiency and avoid unnecessary consumption through
behaviours such as selecting items with the least packaging or that require the
fewest resources to produce avoiding disposable goods or single-use materials
buying products that are recycled, recyclable, repairable, refillable, re-usable or
biodegradable using leftover food rather than throwing it away.
8.7.2 Resource Recovery
The second priority, resource recovery, maximises options for re-use, recycling,
reprocessing and energy recovery. Where avoiding and reducing waste is not
possible, the next most preferred option is to re-use the materials without
further processing, avoiding the costs of energy and other resources required for
recycling. For example, many household and industrial items can be repaired,
reused, sold or donated to charities. Re-use (without further processing) and
recycling (processing waste materials to make the same or different products)
keep materials in the productive economy and benefit the environment by
decreasing the need for new materials and waste absorption. Where further
recycling is not feasible, it may be possible to recover the energy from the
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Land And Soil Issues material and feed that back into the economy where this is acceptable to the
community.
Recycling is yet another step in waste management and it is very crucial for
climate change management. For instance, recycling materials in addition to
saving energy, reduce resource consumption. Further, a series of biological
treatment technologies are available for converting organic wastes into valuable
organic soil amendments. These soil conditioners aid in sequestering carbon
and subsequently improve the biological properties of soil.

8.7.3 Disposal
Some materials may be inappropriate to re-use, recycle or recover for energy and
instead require treatment to stabilise them and minimize their environmental or
health impacts. It includes the management of all disposal options in the most
environmentally responsible manner.

Goal Attribute Outcomes

Reduce
Preventative
Predominantly ameliorative, partly
Reuse Most desired
preventative
Predominantly ameliorative, partly
Recycle
preventative
Predominantly assimilative, partly Least desired
Treatment
ameliorative
Disposal Assimilative
Table 8.1: The Waste Hierarchy
Check Your Progress 3
Note: a) Use the space given below for your answers.
b) Check your answers with those given at the end of the unit.
1. What is waste hierarchy? Give various goals of waste hierarchy in climate
change mitigation.
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8.8 LET US SUM UP

Irrespective of countries, growing population and associated developments such
as urbanization, and industrialization contribute largely to waste generation.
Waste management is a critical issue for urban planners and environmental
engineers. It is also a challenge for urban local bodies to collect, recycle,
reuse, and disposal of waste products. In addition, public health issues related
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to waste management are critical particularly in over-populated developing Waste Management
countries. Nevertheless, effective and advanced waste management techniques
provide opportunities in terms of environmental benefits and greenhouse gases
emission reduction. Integrated waste management strategies must be adopted
to cut down the emissions from waste processing and treatment. The solution
for greenhouse gases mitigation in the waste management domain include
prevention, recycling, reuse of waste; biological treatment coupled with energy
recovery and production of valuable by-products; and adoption of engineered
and improved landfilling practices. In effect, the hallmark of waste management
includes waste prevention, waste minimization, recycling and reuse of wastes.
In this unit, we have learnt about the status of the waste sector and associated
problems; inter-linkages between waste generation and climate change; waste
management strategies for climate change mitigation; and various technologies
options for greenhouse gas mitigation.

8.9 KEY WORDS

Municipal Waste
Waste originates from, households, commerce and trade, small businesses,
office buildings and institutions (schools, hospitals, government buildings).
Hazardous Waste
Categories of waste are to be controlled according to the Basel Convention on
the control of transboundary movements of hazardous waste and its disposal.
Recycling
Any reprocessing of waste material in a production process that diverts it from
the waste stream, except reuse as fuel.
Anaerobic digestion
A method of composting that does not require oxygen. This composting method
produces methane. Also known as anaerobic composting.
Composting
Biological decomposition of solid organic materials by bacteria, fungi, and
other organisms into a soil-like product.
Energy recovery
The process of extracting useful energy from waste, typically from the heat
produced by incineration or via methane gas from landfills.
Incineration
The process of burning solid waste under controlled conditions to reduce its
weight and volume, and often to produce energy.
Landfill gases
Gases arise from the decomposition of organic wastes; principally methane,
carbon dioxide, and hydrogen sulfide.
Refuse-derived fuel (RDF)
Fuel produced from MSW has undergone processing. 163
Land And Soil Issues
8.10 SUGGESTED FURTHER READING/REFER-
ENCES
•• Bogner, J., M. Abdelrafie Ahmed, C. Diaz, A. Faaij, Q. Gao, S. Hashimoto,
K. Mareckova, R. Pipatti, T. Zhang, Waste Management, In Climate
Change 2007: Mitigation. Contribution of Working Group III to the Fourth
Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [B.
Metz, O.R. Davidson, P.R. Bosch, R. Dave, L.A. Meyer (eds)], Cambridge
University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA.
•• IPCC (2006). IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories:
Vol. 5 “Waste”, Chapter, IPCC/OECD/IEA, Paris, France.
•• IPCC (2013) Summary for policymakers. In: Climate Change 2013: The
Physical Science Basis. Contribution of working group I to the Fifth
Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
[Stocker, T.F., D. Qin, G.-K. Plattner, [Link], S.K. Allen, [Link],
[Link], [Link], [Link] and [Link] (eds.)]. Cambridge University
Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA.
•• IPCC (2014) Climate Change 2014: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability.
Part A: Global and Sectoral Aspects. Contribution of Working Group II to the
Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
[Field, C.B., V.R. Barros, D.J. Dokken, K.J. Mach, M.D. Mastrandrea, T.E.
Bilir, M. Chatterjee, K.L. Ebi, Y .O. Estrada, R.C. Genova, B. Girma, E.S.
Kissel, A.N. Levy, S. MacCracken, P .R. Mastrandrea, and L.L. White
(eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New
York, USA, 1132 pp.
•• IPCC (2014) Climate Change 2014: Mitigation of Climate Change.
Contribution of Working Group III to the Fifth Assessment Report of the
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Edenhofer, O., R. Pichs-
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 Waste Management
8.11 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
Check your progress 1
1. Your answer should include:
Health hazards, groundwater contamination due to leachate percolation, a
breeding ground for disease vectors such as flies, mosquitoes, cockroaches,
rats and other pests, and high risks of spreading diseases like typhoid,
cholera, dysentery, yellow fever, encephalitis, plague and dengue fever,
etc.
2. The disposal and treatment of waste can produce emissions of several
greenhouse gases (GHGs), which contribute to global climate change. The
most significant GHG gas produced from waste is methane. It is released
during the breakdown of organic matter in landfills. Other forms of waste
disposal also produce GHGs but these are mainly in the form of carbon
dioxide (a less powerful GHG).
Check your progress 2
Your answer should include:
1. Biological methods include composting, anaerobic digestion, MBT, etc.
2. Non-biogenic methods include incineration, pyrolysis, gasification, RDF,
etc.
Check your progress 3
Your answer should include:
1. The waste hierarchy is a valuable conceptual and political prioritisation
tool that can assist in developing waste management strategies aimed at
limiting resource consumption and protecting the environment. The goals
are to reduce, reuse, recycle, treat and disposal.

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