BASIC TECHNOLOGY SUMMARY

1. Understanding Technology

• Technology: The use of resources and scientific knowledge to meet human

needs and solve problems.
• Basic Human Needs: Food, shelter, clothing, transportation, communication,
health, security, and natural resource processing.
• Products of Technology: Materials, machines, and equipment that make life
easier.
• Types of Technology:
o Highly Developed: Mechanized processes.
o Underdeveloped: Manual processes.
• Importance of Technology:
o Encourages creativity
o Promotes self-reliance
o Solves human problems
o Encourages skill acquisition
o Leads to job creation
• Career Prospects: Mechanical, electrical, civil, chemical, aeronautical, and
computer engineering.

2. Safety Guidelines

• Safety: Being accident-free and protected from harm.

• Road Safety Guidelines:
o For Pedestrians: Use footpaths, cross at pedestrian points, wear visible
clothing, never cross between parked cars.
o For Cyclists: Check bicycle condition, obey traffic rules, ride singly, use
cycle paths.
o For Motorcyclists: Use helmets and bright clothing, avoid dangerous
behavior, obey speed limits.
o For Motorists: Obey traffic rules, carry safety gadgets like fire
extinguisher and warning triangle.
3. Workshop Safety

• Workshop: A space designed for practical/technical activities.

• Workshop Accidents:
o Causes:
▪ Unsafe actions (e.g., horseplay, ignoring rules)
▪ Unsafe conditions (e.g., wet floors, faulty tools)
o Types:
▪ Mechanical, non-mechanical, electrical accidents
• Accident Prevention:
o Follow safety rules
o Use protective equipment
o Secure machines
o Keep workshop clean

4. Workshop Safety Rules & Devices

• Rules:
o Use tools/machines only with proper instruction
o Do not operate faulty machines
o Maintain orderly behavior
o Use protective wear (helmets, gloves, boots, overalls)
• Safety Devices:
o Fire extinguisher, first aid box, goggles, gloves, helmets, aprons, sand
buckets
• Uses:
o Gloves: Protect hands
o Goggles: Protect eyes
o Boots: Protect feet
o Helmet: Protect head
o Apron: Protect body

5. Identification of Materials

A. Wood

• Source: Trees (timber)

 • Tree Parts: Root, trunk, branches, leaves, fruits
• Classification:
o Hardwood: Broad leaves, dark/heavy (e.g., mahogany, iroko)
o Softwood: Needle leaves, light (e.g., spruce, pine)
• Uses: Furniture, housing, transport, paper, packaging

B. Metals

• Types:
o Ferrous (contains iron): e.g., steel
o Non-ferrous (no iron): e.g., copper, aluminum, tin
• Properties: Hardness, ductility, conductivity, malleability, etc.
• Alloys:
o Ferrous: Stainless steel, high-speed steel
o Non-Ferrous: Brass, bronze, duralumin
• Forms: Rods, sheets, wires, pipes
• Uses: Machines, construction, transport

C. Ceramics & Glass

• Ceramics: Made from clay, cement, mud

o Properties: Heat-resistant, brittle, non-conductive, durable
o Products: Bricks, pots, cups, tiles, spark plugs
• Glass: Also a ceramic product used in bottles, windows, etc.

D. Plastics & Rubber

• Plastics:
o Properties: Lightweight, non-conductive, moldable
o Types:
▪ Thermoplastics: Re-meltable (e.g., PVC, polythene)
▪ Thermosets: Heat-set, non-remoldable (e.g., bakelite)
• Rubber:
o Properties: Elastic, water-resistant
o Types:
▪ Natural: From latex of rubber trees
▪ Synthetic: Man-made from petroleum
1. Building

• Definition: A building is a structure constructed for shelter.

• Uses of Buildings: Shelter, privacy, protection, comfort, and security.
• Classification of Buildings:
o By Material:
▪ Mud, brick, sandcrete, wood, grass buildings
o By Size:
▪ Hut, bungalow, duplex, semi-detached, detached, storey building,
high-rise building, skyscraper
o By Use:
▪ Residential, commercial, educational, health, office, religious,
hospitality, industrial

2. Building Materials

• Examples: Cement, sand, gravel, metal, plastics, timber, glass, ceramics, grass
• Uses:
o Cement: binds materials
o Sand: mixed for blocks/mortar
o Gravel: concrete
o Metal: reinforcement, roofing, doors
o Timber: roofing, furniture
o Glass: windows, decoration
o Ceramics: bricks, tiles, dishes
o Grass: traditional, eco-friendly construction

3. Building Tools & Machines

• Hand Tools:
o Cutlass, axe, spade, hoe, pickaxe, shovel, tape, hand trowel, head pan,
spirit level, wheelbarrow, hammer, rake
• Machines:
o Block-making machine, dump truck, crane, forklift, concrete mixer,
compactor, excavator, grader, pay loader
4. Technical Drawing

• Definition: A visual language used by engineers, architects, and builders to

communicate design ideas.
• Instruments:
o Drawing board, tee square, set squares, pencils (HB, 2H, 4H), protractor,
scale rule, French curves, eraser, templates, compass, divider, drawing
paper, masking tape
• Drawing Practice:
o Prepare workspace, sharpen pencils, use uniform lines, follow border
and title block rules, and care for instruments properly

5. Scale Drawing

• Metric Rule: Used to measure in millimetres, centimetres, and metres.

• Types of Scales:
o Enlarged (e.g., 2:1, 10:1)
o Reduced (e.g., 1:2, 1:100)
o Full Scale (1:1)

6. Workbench & Fittings

• Workbench: A table used in woodworking to hold materials while working.

• Fittings & Appliances:
o Well: Holds tools temporarily
o Vice: Holds materials firmly
o Bench Stop: Prevents material from sliding
o Bench Hook: Steadies work for cutting or chiseling
o G-Clamp/F-Clamp: Clamps materials to bench
o Sash Clamp: Holds and tightens wood during assembly
7. Lettering (Drawing Practice Continued)

• Definition: Lettering is the process of adding information to a drawing using

letters and numerals.
• Qualities of Good Lettering:
o Easy to read
o Pleasing in appearance
o Uniform in style
• Importance: Well-formed and well-spaced lettering improves the appearance of
a drawing.
• Tip: Regular practice helps improve lettering quality.

8. Woodwork Hand Tools: Saws & Planes

Hand Saws

Used for cutting wood. Types include:

1. Rip-Saw – Cuts along the grain.

2. Cross-Cut Saw – Cuts across the grain.
3. Panel Saw – All-purpose saw.
4. Tenon Saw – For joints and recesses.
5. Dovetail Saw – For fine, accurate joints.
6. Coping Saw – Cuts curves; adjustable blade.
7. Fret Saw – Cuts complex shapes; finer than coping saw.
8. Bow Saw – Cuts circular/semicircular curves.
9. Compass Saw – For cutting curves; changeable blades.
10. Pad/Keyhole Saw – Cuts keyholes in wood.

Planes

Used for smoothing and sizing wood surfaces:

1. Jack Plane – For rough surfaces and straight planning.

2. Smoothing Plane – For final surface smoothening.
3. Trying Plane – Largest; for leveling surfaces.
4. Fore Plane – Similar to jack; rough cutting.
 5. Spoke Shaves – For shaping curves and light shaving (not a plane, but similar
function).

9. Workbench Fittings & Appliances

• Workbench – Table for holding wood while working; has a "well" to hold tools.

Fittings and Appliances:

1. Bench Vice – Holds wood securely.

2. Bench Stop – Prevents wood from slipping during planning.
3. Bench Hook – Holds material during chiseling or cutting.
4. G-Clamp – Metal clamp (G-shaped) for small jobs.
5. F-Clamp – Similar to G-Clamp but quicker to adjust.
6. Sash Clamp – Larger clamp for assembling/gluing wood.

10. Metal Work Hand Tools – Measuring & Marking

Measuring Tools

• Steel Rule – For linear measurement.

• Callipers:
o Inside: Measures internal dimensions.
o Outside: Measures external dimensions.
o Odd-leg: For centering and edge distances.
• Vernier Caliper – Measures internal/external dimensions with precision.
• Micrometer Screw Gauge – For precise internal, external, and depth
measurements.
• Centre Square – Draws center lines.
• Protractor – Measures angles.

Marking Out Tools

• Surface Plate – Flat platform for accuracy.

• Surface Table – Larger version of surface plate.
• Scriber – Marks straight lines.
• Try Square – Marks and checks 90° angles.
• Dividers – Draw circles, arcs, and transfer measurements.
 • Sliding Bevel – Marks and checks angles.
• Mitre Square – For 45° and 135° angles.
• Compasses – For scribing arcs.
• Trammels – For marking large diameters.
• Marking Gauge – For consistent marking of lengths.
• Centre/Dot Punches – For marking drilling centers and dots.

11. Metal Work Hand Tools – Cutting Tools

Chisels

Made of carbon steel:

1. Flat Chisel – General surface leveling.

2. Cross-Cut Chisel – For grooves and keyways.
3. Round Nose Chisel – Makes oil grooves.
4. Diamond Nose Chisel – For inside corners and “V” grooves.

Files

Used to remove small metal portions:

• Hand File – Flat surfaces near shoulders.

• Flat File – General flat surfaces.
• Round File – For holes and curves.
• Square File – For rectangular/narrow holes.
• Triangular File – For acute angles/corners.
• Half-Round File – Has curved and flat surfaces.

Scrapers

For smoothing irregular surfaces:

• Flat, Half-round, Three-square Scraper

Hacksaw

Used to cut metal:

• Parts: Frame and blade

 • Blades:
o Flexible – For curved/intricate cuts
o All Hard – For accuracy
o Spring Back – All-purpose
• Types: Standard and Junior hacksaw

12. Metal Work Hand Tools – Driving Tools

Hammers

• Ball Pein – General use, riveting

• Straight Pein – For awkward spaces
• Block Head – For shaping sheet metal
• Cross Pein – For riveting in corners
• Planishing Hammer – Finishing surfaces
• Claw Hammer – For driving and removing nails
• Mallets – Soft-faced, used on delicate surfaces

Screwdrivers

• Flat – For slotted screws

• Star – For star-head screws
• Offset – For hard-to-reach areas
• Allen Key – For hex/square-headed screws

Punches

• Dot Punch – Marks scribed lines

• Centre Punch – Enlarges points for drilling
• Pin Punch – Drives out pins, rivets, etc.
13. Metal Work Hand Tools – Holding Tools

Vices

1. Bench Vice: Fixed to a bench; holds workpieces for filing, cutting, etc.
2. Hand Vice: Held by hand for light drilling or riveting tasks.
3. Machine Vice: Bolted to machine tables; removable for different operations.

Clamps

1. G-Clamp & F-Clamp: Hold workpieces to the bench.

2. Sash Clamp: Larger clamp for assembling/gluing wood.
3. Tool Maker’s Clamp: Used in precision work, riveting, and drilling.

Pliers

Used for gripping, twisting, cutting wires:

• Combination Pliers
• Flat Nose Pliers
• Long Nose Pliers
• Side Cutting Pliers
• Gripping Pliers
• Wrench Pliers
Some are insulated for electrical work.

14. Care and Maintenance of Tools

• Clean tools after use, oil metallic surfaces, and store properly.
• Use brushes to clean file teeth.
• Avoid using damaged or loose-handled tools.
• Always use the correct tool for the task.
• Secure workpieces properly before operating on them.
15. Maintenance

Definition: The process of keeping tools/equipment in good condition or restoring

them to good working order.

Importance:

• Prevents equipment breakdown

• Reduces repair/replacement costs
• Improves performance
• Prolongs lifespan
• Prevents workplace accidents
• Saves time

Types of Maintenance:

1. Preventive Maintenance: Done regularly to avoid breakdown.

2. Corrective Maintenance: Repairs after equipment has broken down.
3. Predictive Maintenance: Uses sensors and indicators (e.g., noise, light) to
detect potential breakdowns early.

16. Basic Electricity

Electricity: Flow of free electrons.

• Conductors: Allow electrons to flow easily (e.g. copper, aluminum).

• Insulators: Do not allow electrons to flow easily (e.g. rubber, wood).
• Semiconductors: Partially conduct (e.g. silicon, germanium).

Electric Current:

• Measured in Amperes (A)

• Direct Current (DC): Flows in one direction (e.g. batteries)
• Alternating Current (AC): Changes direction periodically (e.g. mains supply)

Electric Circuit:

• A closed loop through which current flows.

• Must have: a source (battery), a load (bulb), and connections (wires).
 • Open Circuit = No current flow
• Closed Circuit = Current flows

Circuit Components & Symbols:

• Cell/Battery
• Switch
• Filament Bulb
• Resistor (measured in Ohms Ω)
• Capacitor (measured in Farads F)
• Inductor (measured in Henrys H)
• Diode (allows one-way flow of current)
• Transistor

17. Electrical Measuring Instruments

• Ammeter: Measures current (connected in series)

• Voltmeter: Measures voltage (connected in parallel)
• Ohmmeter: Measures resistance
• Multimeter: Measures voltage, current, and resistance
• Wattmeter: Measures electric power
• Watt-Hour Meter (Energy Meter): Measures total energy consumed over time

18. Electric Circuit Connections

Types:

• Series Circuit: Components connected end-to-end; same current flows through

all.
• Parallel Circuit: Components connected across common points; voltage
remains the same across each component.

Resistor Combinations:

• Series: Total Resistance = R₁ + R₂ + R₃ ...

• Parallel: 1/R_total = 1/R₁ + 1/R₂ + 1/R₃ ...
19. Ohm’s Law

States that current (I) is directly proportional to voltage (V) and inversely proportional
to resistance (R).

Formula:

V=I×RV = I \times R

Examples:

1. If V = 12V, R = 4Ω, then I=V/R=12/4=3AI = V/R = 12/4 = 3A

2. If I = 2A, V = 6V, then R=V/I=6/2=3ΩR = V/I = 6/2 = 3Ω

Rescue Operations

Meaning of Rescue Operations

Rescue operations are organized responses to save people from dangerous situations
or to prevent injury during accidents. They are typically carried out by trained personnel,
including firemen, police, military, and ambulance attendants.

Objectives of Rescue Operations

• To save lives.
• To prevent injury during accidents or dangerous situations.

Types of Rescue Operations

1. Air-sea rescue (ASR)

2. Combat search and rescue (CSAR)
3. Fire rescue operation
4. Highway and vehicle rescue operation
5. Mine rescue operation
6. Cave rescue operation
7. Mountain rescue operation
8. Animal rescue operation
9. Surface-water rescue operation
10. Confined space rescue operation
11. Urban search and rescue operation
Aspects of Rescue Operations

• Securing/accessing the environment

• Tools/personnel required
• Victim(s) or patient(s)

Steps Involved in Rescue Operations

1. Arrival and Size-up: Examine the environment, establish command, assess

risks, and determine the number of victims.
2. Hazard Control: Manage risks and hazards, ensuring safety for personnel.
3. Gain Access to the Victim: Determine the safest method to reach the victim.
4. First Aid/Medical Treatment: Apply necessary first aid or medical treatment.
5. Disentanglement: Release victims from physical entrapment using safe
methods and specialized equipment.
6. Packaging: Prepare victims for transportation with appropriate medical care.
7. Transportation: Safely transport victims for further medical treatment using
ambulances, helicopters, or other means.

Rescue Operation Situations

• Fire outbreak
• Plane crash
• Bomb blast
• Road accident
• Drowning
• Collapsed buildings
• Natural disasters (e.g., earthquakes, landslides)

Tools and Equipment Used in Rescue Operations

• Helicopters
• Stretchers
• Ropes
• Fire extinguishers
• Ambulance
• Airbags
• Ladder
• Hydraulic cutting and spreading tools
• Heavy rescue vehicles
• Search and rescue dogs/horses
First Aid

Meaning of First Aid

First aid is the immediate treatment given to an injured person or someone who
suddenly becomes ill, before they are taken to the hospital or receive medical attention
from a doctor.

First Aid Kit

A first aid kit is a small box or bag containing the necessary equipment for providing first
aid. It is typically marked with a red cross and can be made of wood or metal.

Aims and Objectives of First Aid

• To save life
• To prevent injury from getting worse
• To reduce pain as much as possible

First Aid Box Materials

• Cotton wool
• Safety pins
• Razor blade
• Clinical thermometer
• Bandage
• Embrocation
• Adhesive dressing plaster
• Scissors
• Antiseptic fluid
• Paracetamol
• Disposable gloves
• Iodine B.P.
• Methylated spirit
• Injection powder
• Splint
• Adhesive tapes
• Antibiotic ointment

Applications of First Aid

 • Simple cuts causing bleeding
• Snakebites or scorpion stings
• Respiratory problems
• High fever
• Bites and stings
• Burns
• Fractures
• Dislocations
• Strains
• Suffocation
• Poisoning
• Fainting
• Broken arms
• Electric shock
• Convulsions
• Epilepsy

ABC of First Aid

• A (Airway): Ensure the airway is clear.

• B (Breathing): Ensure the victim is breathing. Use mouth-to-mouth if necessary.
• C (Circulation): Ensure the victim has a pulse. Perform chest compressions if
needed.

Common First Aid Treatments for Specific Conditions

1. Bites and Stings: Clean with soap and water, apply iodine antiseptic, and seek
further treatment if necessary.
2. Burns: Apply cold water to first and second-degree burns; cover burns with
sterile non-adherent dressings.
3. Poisoning: Dilute the poison with water or milk, and administer specific
antidotes.
4. Severe Bleeding: Apply pressure to the wound; if bleeding continues, apply a
tourniquet if necessary.
5. Wounds: Cleanse with soap or disinfectant, and cover with a sterile bandage.
6. Fainting: Lay the victim down, loosen clothing, and ensure fresh air.

First Aid Box Materials for Specific Conditions

• Cotton Wool: Used as an absorbent material or as a pad.

• Bandages: To protect wounds, restrict movement, and support joints.
 • Antiseptic Fluid: Used to clean wounds.
• Splint: Used to immobilize broken bones or joints.

Class Activity and Assignment

• Fill in the Gaps:

o First aid is a simple initial treatment given to a patient before the arrival of
a doctor.
o Hanger is one of the materials found in the first aid box. (True/False)
o Embrocation is used in first aid to reduce muscle pain or inflammation.
o The letter “A” in the ABC of first aid stands for Airway.

Here is a summarized and organized version of the notes on materials and their uses,
excluding the learning objectives:

Common Uses of Wood

o Furniture Making: Beds, tables, cabinets, doors, windows, roofing.

o Industrial Buildings: Used in construction.
o Joinery: Making staircases.
o Packaging: Used for crates, pallets, and packaging electronics.
o Handles of Implements: Chisels, screwdrivers, hammers, axes, etc.
o Transportation: Railway wagons, lorry bodies, boats.
o Bridges: Farm and village bridges.
o Electric Poles: Some electric poles are made of wood.
o Pulp and Paper: Used in exercise books, textbooks, and magazines.
o Carving and Sculpture: Used in artistic carvings.
o Sports Equipment: Hockey sticks, bats, tennis rackets, etc.
o Medicine: Artificial limbs for amputees.
o Soles of Footwear: Wooden heels and soles.

Softwood and Hardwood Examples:

o Hardwood: Afromosia, Agba, Beech, Mahogany, Oak, Teak.

o Softwood: Cedar, Pine, Spruce.

Softwood Uses:

o Cedar: Roofing, garages, doors, partitions.

o Pine: Railway sleepers, heavy gate posts, stairways.
o Spruce: Aircraft industry, ship masts, packing cases.
Uses of Ferrous Metals

o Cast Iron: Engine cylinders, machine tools, sink covers.

o Wrought Iron: Nails, wire, vices, crane hooks.
o High Carbon Steel: Cutting tools (files, chisels, drills, etc.).
o Medium Carbon Steel: Nails, hammers, screws, bicycle rims.
o Low Carbon Steel (Mild Steel): Bolts, nuts, rivets, car bodies, house and
bridge building.

Uses of Non-Ferrous Metals

o Aluminium: Aircraft, electrical cables, cooking utensils.

o Zinc: Roofing sheets, galvanizing, brass alloys.
o Tin: Coating for food containers, copper wire.
o Copper: Copper alloys, electrical wiring, boilers.
o Lead: Car batteries, water pipes, roofing sheeting.

Uses of Alloys of Non-Ferrous Metals

o Duralumin (95% Aluminium, 4% Copper, 1% Manganese): Aircraft

bodies, vehicle parts, frames.
o Brass (35% Zinc, 65% Copper): Decorative items, plumbing, electrical
appliances.
o Bronze (10% Tin, 90% Copper): Statues, ship propellers, gears, machine
parts.

Uses of Ceramics

o Bakery Ovens
o Furnaces
o Building Construction: Bricks, cement blocks.
o Sanitary Ware: Wash hand basins, toilet bowls, sinks.
o Decorative Items: Vases, sculptures, utensils.
o Insulators
Uses of Glass

o Glassware: Bottles, bulbs, mugs, tumblers.

o Windows and Doors
o Eyeglasses
o Television Screens

Uses of Rubber

o Tyres: For cars, bicycles, motorcycles.

o Footwear: Shoes, sandals, boots.
o Belts
o Gloves
o Hoses
o Shock Absorbers: Engine mountings, dampers.

Uses of Plastics

Thermosetting Plastics:

o Buttons
o Electrical Switch Covers
o Kitchenware Handles
o Chairs and Tables

Thermoplastics:

o Bottles and Toys

o Food Containers
o Disposable Cutlery
o Display Signs and Cases
o Refrigerator Linings
o Toothbrushes
Geometrical Constructions: Lines and Angles

1. Lines

o Definition: A line is a narrow path between two points on a surface.

o Types of Lines:
▪ Thick continuous lines: Used for outlining or marking important
boundaries.
▪ Thin continuous lines: Used for general construction or smaller
details.
▪ Short dashes: Represent breaks or gaps in a drawing.
▪ Thin long chain lines: Used for short breaks or separating
sections.
▪ Thick long chain lines: Used for major boundaries or
demarcations.
▪ Ruled zigzag lines: Used for long breaks.
▪ Thick continuous wavy lines: Used for irregular boundary or short
breaks.
▪ Thin continuous arrow-head lines: Used for dimensioning.

2. Bisection of a Line

o Steps to Bisect a Line:

▪ Draw the given line AB.
▪ With center A and a radius greater than half of AB, draw arcs above
and below line AB.
▪ With center B, draw arcs of the same radius to intersect the
previous arcs at points C and D.
▪ Join points C and D to form the bisected line.

3. Division of Lines into Equal Parts

o Steps to Divide a Line into Equal Parts:

▪ Draw the given line AB.
▪ Draw line AC at any convenient acute angle to AB.
▪ Step off the required number of divisions along AC.
 ▪ Join the last division (point D) to point B.
▪ Using a set square and ruler, draw lines parallel to BD from the
other divisions to meet line AB.

4. Angles

o Definition: An angle is formed when two straight lines meet at a point.

The unit of measuring angles is degrees (°), and a protractor is used to
measure them.
o Types of Angles:
▪ Straight Angle: 180°.
▪ Right Angle: 90°.
▪ Acute Angle: Less than 90°.
▪ Obtuse Angle: More than 90°.

5. Angle Bisector Construction

o Purpose: To divide an angle in half.

o Steps:
▪ Place the compass at the vertex of the angle.
▪ Draw arcs over both lines forming the angle.
▪ With the same compass radius, draw two arcs from the points
where the first arcs intersect the angle sides.
▪ The intersection of these two arcs determines the bisector of the
angle.

6. Construction of Specific Angles

o Angle 60°:
▪ Draw line AB.
▪ With center A, draw an arc to meet AB at C.
▪ With center C and the same radius, draw another arc to meet the
first at D.
▪ Draw line AD to complete the 60° angle.
o Angle 90°:
▪ Draw line AB and mark point C where the angle is needed.
 ▪With center C and any convenient radius, draw a semicircle to cut
AB at points D and E.
▪ With centers D and E, draw arcs to intersect at point F.
▪ Draw line CF to form the 90° angle.
o Alternative Method for Angle 90°:
▪ Draw line AB.
▪ Draw arcs from points D and E with the same radius to intersect at
point F.
▪ Draw line CF to form the 90° angle.
o Angle 45°:
▪ Construct a 90° angle.
▪ Bisect the 90° angle to obtain a 45° angle.
o Angle 30°:
▪ Construct a 60° angle.
▪ Bisect the 60° angle to obtain a 30° angle.

Geometrical Construction Summary

Triangles (6th - 10th Nov, 2023)

Definition of Triangle:
A triangle is a plane figure with three sides, and the sum of its angles is always 180°.

Parts of a Triangle:

o Sides: The three straight lines forming the triangle.

o Angles: The three angles within the triangle.

Construction of a Triangle Given 3 Sides (SSS):

o Draw a horizontal line AB of 8 cm.

o From point A, with a radius of 7 cm, draw an arc.
o From point B, with a radius of 6 cm, draw another arc to intersect the first
at point C.
o Join points A to C and B to C to complete the triangle.

Construction of Triangles with Given Sides:

 o You can construct a triangle with side lengths 7 cm, 9 cm, and 4 cm,
using the SSS construction method.
o The construction may not be unique for all sets of side lengths.

Circles (13th - 17th Nov, 2023)

Definition of a Circle:
A circle is a plane figure bounded by a curved line called the circumference. The sum of
angles in a circle is 360°.

Parts of a Circle:

o Circumference: The distance around the circle.

o Diameter: A line passing through the center, connecting two points on
the circumference.
o Radius: A line from the center to the circumference.
o Chord: A line connecting two points on the circumference.
o Sector: The part of the circle between two radii and the arc.
o Arc: The curved part of the circumference.
o Segment: The area between a chord and an arc.
o Tangent: A line touching the circle at one point.

Division of a Circle into Four Equal Parts:

o Draw a horizontal line AB.

o Draw a circle with center O and radius OB.
o Use a T-square to draw a perpendicular line passing through the center O
to divide the circle into four equal parts.

Drawing a Tangent at a Given Point on the Circumference:

o Draw the circle with center O and a point P on the circumference.

o Extend line OP outside the circle to point Q.
o Mark the radius OP on line OQ at point R.
o Bisect line OR with a compass and draw a perpendicular from O to form
the tangent at point R.

Circumscribing a Triangle:

o Draw the given triangle.

o Bisect any two sides of the triangle.
 o The bisecting lines will intersect at O, the center of the circle.
o Using O as the center and radius OA, draw the circle passing through the
triangle's vertices.

Inscribing a Circle in a Triangle:

o Draw the given triangle ABC.

o Bisect two angles of the triangle.
o The bisecting lines will meet at point O, the center of the circle.
o Draw a perpendicular from O to any side of the triangle (AB, BC, or AC),
marking the point D.
o Using O as the center and radius OD, draw the inscribed circle.
Quadrilaterals
A quadrilateral is a two-dimensional shape with four straight sides and
four angles. The sum of its interior angles is 360°. It is formed by four
straight lines, and a diagonal joins two opposite corners. Drawing one
diagonal divides the quadrilateral into two triangles, while two diagonals
divide it into four triangles.

Types of Quadrilaterals:

▪ Square:
• Four equal sides
• Four right angles (90°)
• Opposite sides are parallel
▪ Rectangle:
• Four right angles (90°)
• Opposite sides are equal and parallel
▪ Rhombus:
• All four sides are equal
• Opposite angles are equal
• Two acute angles and two obtuse angles
• Opposite sides are parallel
• Diagonals bisect each other at right angles
▪ Trapezium:
• Only one pair of opposite sides are parallel
▪ Trapezoid:
• No opposite pairs of parallel sides
▪ Parallelogram:
• Two pairs of equal parallel sides
• Diagonally opposite angles are equal
 • Two acute angles and two obtuse angles
▪ Kite:
• Two pairs of equal, adjacent sides
• Diagonals bisect each other at right angles
• One pair of opposite angles are equal

Construction of Quadrilaterals:

▪ Square:
• Given side (e.g., 5 cm). Draw a right angle at one corner,
then construct arcs from the corners to form the square.
▪ Rectangle:
• Given length (e.g., 9 cm) and breadth (e.g., 4 cm). Draw a
right angle at one corner and then construct arcs to
complete the rectangle.
▪ Parallelogram:
• Given length (e.g., 9 cm) and angle (e.g., 60°). Construct
arcs from the corners to form the parallelogram.
▪ Rhombus:
• Given diagonal (e.g., 8 cm) and side length (e.g., 5 cm). Use
arcs from the corners to form the rhombus.

Evaluation:

▪ Quadrilaterals have 4 sides and 4 angles.

▪ Parallelogram: Opposite sides are equal and parallel.
▪ Trapezoid: One pair of opposite sides are parallel.
▪ Rectangle: 4 right angles and opposite sides are equal and
parallel.
▪ Rhombus: 4 equal sides and opposite sides are parallel.
▪ Square: 4 equal sides and 4 right angles.

Assignment:

▪ Construct a square with a side of 60 mm.

▪ Construct a rectangle with sides AB = 40 mm and BC = 70 mm.
Polygons Definitions and Key Concepts:

• Polygon: A polygon is a flat, two-dimensional shape with

straight sides that are fully closed.
• Polygons are named based on the number of sides they
have. Examples include:
o Pentagon: A five-sided polygon.
o Hexagon: A six-sided polygon.
o Heptagon: A seven-sided polygon.
o Octagon: An eight-sided polygon.
o Nonagon: A nine-sided polygon.
o Decagon: A ten-sided polygon.

Types of Polygons:

• Regular Polygon: All sides and angles are equal.

• Irregular Polygon: The sides and angles are not all equal.

Constructing Regular Polygons:

The lesson guides students in constructing various regular polygons (such as hexagons,
octagons, pentagons, etc.) using a protractor. For each polygon, students are tasked
with creating equal angles around a central point. The steps involve:

• Drawing a circle to inscribe the polygon.

• Dividing 360 degrees by the number of sides to determine
the angle for each side.
• Using a protractor to measure and mark each angle.
• Connecting the marks to complete the polygon.

Key Examples:

• Hexagon (6 sides):
o Divide 360° by 6 = 60°.
o Draw 6 equal angles of 60° each.
• Octagon (8 sides):
o Divide 360° by 8 = 45°.
o Draw 8 equal angles of 45° each.
• Pentagon (5 sides):
o Divide 360° by 5 = 72°.
o Draw 5 equal angles of 72° each.
 • Nonagon (9 sides):
o Divide 360° by 9 = 40°.
o Draw 9 equal angles of 40° each.

Area of Plane Figures

Introduction:
Plane figures are two-dimensional geometric figures that exist on a flat surface, known
as a plane. The area of a plane figure is the amount of space enclosed within its
boundary. Scaling involves enlarging or reducing the size of a drawing, and can be used
to alter the dimensions of a figure to fit a given space.

Enlargement and Reduction:

▪ Enlargement: Making something bigger

(Scale factor > 1).
▪ Reduction: Making something smaller (Scale
factor between 0 and 1).

Woodwork Machines

Definition:
A woodworking machine is designed to process wood, typically for cutting and
smoothening. These machines are powered by electric motors and are extensively used
in woodworking.

Types of Woodwork Machines:

▪ Circular Sawing Machine: Used for

preparing and re-sawing timber into suitable
sizes for joinery and furniture.
▪ Band Sawing Machine: Used to cut curves
and straight lines in wood.
▪ Surface Planer: Removes marks and twists
on wood to produce flat surfaces and straight
edges. Also used for rebating, chamfering,
and tapering.
▪ Thicknessing Machine: Used to plan wood
surfaces to specific thicknesses.
▪ Drill Press: Used to drill holes in wood and
can be adapted for other operations like
mortising and sanding.
 ▪ Wood Lathe: Used for turning wood, with two
common methods: turning between centres
and turning on the face plate.

Care and Maintenance of Woodwork Machines:

▪ Use the right tool for the right job.

▪ Clean machines after use.
▪ Switch off the power supply when not in use.
▪ Cover sharp or pointed tool edges.
▪ Ensure machines are in good working
condition before use.
▪ Machine: A device that makes work easier.
▪ Woodworking Machine: A machine intended
to process wood.
▪ Examples:
• Circular sawing machine
• Band sawing machine
• Surface planer
• Thicknessing machine
• Drill press
• Wood lathe
▪ Maintenance:
• Use the right tool for each job.
• Clean after use.
• Switch off when not in use.
• Cover sharp edges.
• Ensure good working condition.

Metalwork Machines

Machine Tools
Machine tools are machines designed to cut metals and perform other operations by
manipulating their parts. The basic metalworking machines include:

• Lathe: Used for facing, plain and

stepped turning, taper turning,
knurling, drilling, boring, parting off,
and screw cutting.
• Shaper and Planer: Used primarily for
machining flat surfaces.
 • Milling Machine: Used for cutting
metals with a multiple-tooth cutting
tool, with common types being
plain/horizontal, vertical, and
universal milling machines.
• Grinding Machine: Used for
sharpening tools and grinding
surfaces to the desired shape.
• Drill Press: Used to drill holes or
increase the size of a hole on metal.

Care and Maintenance of Metalwork Machines

• Clean tools after each use before

storing them.
• Ensure metal parts are free from
corrosion or rust.
• Regularly grind off metal edges.
• Lubricate adjustable parts with WD-
40.
• Apply rust removers on surfaces
showing rust.

Friction

Definition
Friction is the force that opposes the motion between two surfaces. It occurs because
surfaces, even if smooth, have microscopic hills and valleys that interact when in
contact.

Types of Friction

• Static Friction: Occurs when surfaces

are at rest (e.g., a book on a desk).
• Sliding Friction: Occurs when
surfaces slide over each other (e.g.,
pencil on paper, comb on hair).
• Rolling Friction: Occurs between
surfaces in motion involving rolling
 objects (e.g., bike tires on the ground,
bowling ball on the lane).
• Fluid Friction: Occurs when objects
move through a liquid or gas, known
as drag or air resistance (e.g., airplane
or swimmer).

Causes of Friction

• Molecular Adhesion
• Surface Roughness
• Deformations

Applications of Friction

• Transportation: Used in automobile

brakes to slow down vehicles.
• Rail (Train): Friction helps train
wheels grip the rails.
• Walking: Enables walking without
slipping.
• Automobile Tires: Tire-road friction
ensures safe vehicle movement.
• Sharpening Tools: Friction helps
sharpen knives and other tools.

Advantages of Friction

• Enables walking without slipping.

• Helps support ladders against walls.
• Facilitates energy transfer.
• Allows objects to be stacked without
slipping.
• Brakes in vehicles work due to friction.
• Friction holds nails in wood.

Disadvantages of Friction

• Produces heat in machines.

• Opposes motion.
• Causes noise in machines.
 • Increases fuel consumption in
automobile engines.
Friction (II) Summary

Methods of Reducing Friction:

o Polishing or smoothing
surfaces: Helps to reduce
surface roughness and friction.
o Use of lubricants: Increases
the smoothness of surfaces,
reducing friction.
o Streamlining shapes: Giving
objects such as submarines
and jets streamlined shapes
reduces air resistance.
o Ball bearings: Convert sliding
friction into rolling friction,
which is less.

Lubrication:

o Lubrication is the application

of a substance (e.g., oil or
grease) to minimize friction and
enable smooth movement of
components.

Lubricant:

o A lubricant is a substance,
usually organic, introduced to
reduce friction between
surfaces in mutual contact. It
can also transmit forces,
transport particles, or regulate
temperature.

Types of Lubricants:

o Oils: All liquid lubricants,

including mineral oils, natural
oils, and synthetics.
 o Greases: Semi-solid lubricants
that contain a thickening agent.
o Dry lubricants: Solid
lubricants, including powders
or paint-like coatings.
o Gases: Gases (e.g., air) used in
gas bearings to reduce friction.

Uses of Lubricants:

o Prevents corrosion
o Reduces friction
o Reduces temperature
o Minimizes wear
o Improves the efficiency of
machines

Evaluation Questions:

o Ways to reduce friction:

Polishing surfaces, using
lubricants, streamlining
shapes, and using ball
bearings.
o Lubricants types: Oils,
greases, dry lubricants, and
gases.
o Lubricants uses: Prevent
corrosion, reduce friction,
reduce temperature, reduce
wear, improve machine
efficiency.

Additional Activities:

o Friction in Daily Life:

▪ Road and car tyre
adhesion (Advantage of
friction).
▪ Wax as a lubricant
(False).
 ▪ Reducing friction and
wear by oil is called
lubrication.
▪ Lubricant oil and grease
in engines reduce
friction.
▪ A force that can slow
moving objects is called
friction.
▪ Heating is not a method
to reduce friction (True).
▪ Rough surfaces
increase friction (True).
▪ Air molecules
interacting with moving
objects cause fluid
friction.

True/False Questions:

o Reducing friction and wear by

oil is called lubrication. True
o Friction can slow moving
objects. True
o Rough surfaces increase
friction. True
o Wax is not a lubricant. False

📘 DRIVE MECHANISMS – SUMMARY

🔹 WEEK 2: BELT DRIVE

✅ Definition

▪ Belt: A looped strip of

flexible material used to
link rotating shafts.
▪ Belt Drive: A system for
transmitting power
between shafts over
long distances using
friction.

🧩 Parts of a Belt Drive

▪ Belt
▪ Pulleys (Driver and
Driven)
▪ Shaft

🔄 Types of Belt Drive

▪ Open Belt
▪ Cross Belt
▪ V-Belt

⚙️ Applications/Uses

▪ Sewing machines
▪ Automobile timing belts
▪ Treadmills
▪ Lathe machines
▪ Drilling machines
▪ Pepper and melon
grinders
▪ Cooling systems in cars
➕ Advantages

▪ Smooth power
transmission
▪ Less noise
▪ No lubrication needed
▪ Simple and cost-
effective

➖ Disadvantages

▪ Slips and creep

▪ Belt wear
▪ Elongation over time
▪ Heat build-up

📌 Assignment

Explain critically the major application of belt drive.

🔹 WEEK 3: CHAIN DRIVE

✅ Definition

▪ Chain: A series of pin-

connected links used to
transmit power.
▪ Chain Drive: A
mechanical system that
uses a chain and
sprockets to transmit
power without slip.

🧩 Parts of a Chain Drive

▪ Chain
▪ Sprockets (Driver and
Driven)
▪ Shaft
🔄 Functions of a Chain Drive

▪ Transmitting power
▪ Conveying materials
▪ Timing purposes

⚙️ Applications/Uses

▪ Bicycles and
motorcycles
▪ Timing chains in cars
▪ Machine tools and mills
▪ Hydraulic lift trucks
▪ Conveyor belts
▪ Overhead hoists

➕ Advantages

▪ High power
transmission
▪ No slip or creep
▪ Works in abrasive/wet
conditions
▪ Good for reversing
drives

➖ Disadvantages

▪ Requires lubrication
▪ Noisy
▪ Complex design
▪ High cost
▪ Needs precise
alignment

🔁 Comparison: Belt Drive vs. Chain Drive

Feature Belt Drive Chain Drive

Material Polymers Alloys

Lubrication Not required Required

Noise Quiet Noisy

Can work in wet/moist

Environment Dry
conditions

Power Less efficient (can

More efficient (no slip)
Transmission slip)

🔹 WEEK 4: GEARS

✅ Definition

▪ Gear: A toothed wheel

used to transmit power
and motion between
machine parts.

⚙️ Types of Gears

▪ Spur gear
▪ Helical gear
▪ Bevel gear
▪ Spiral bevel gear
▪ Crown gear
▪ Worm gear
▪ Worm & wheel gear
▪ Rack and pinion gear

🔄 Operation

▪ Driver gear supplies

power.
 ▪ Driven gear receives
power.

🔧 Uses/Applications

▪ Bicycle gear systems

▪ Car gear boxes
▪ Vehicle rear axles
▪ Palm oil extractors

🔹 WEEK 5: GEARS CONTINUED (Gear Ratio & Speed)

🔁 Gear Ratio

▪Ratio of driven gear

movement to driver gear
movement.
▪ Formulas:
Gear Ratio = Teeth on driven gear / Teeth on driver gear
Gear Ratio = Speed of driver / Speed of driven

⏱️ Gear Speed

▪ Speed is inversely
proportional to the
number of teeth.
More teeth → Slower speed
Fewer teeth → Faster speed
▪ Formula:
SpeedA × TeethA = SpeedB × TeethB

🛢️ Functions of Lubricants in Gears

▪ Reduce friction and

wear
▪ Increase efficiency and
gear lifespan
▪ Minimize noise and
vibration
 ▪ Ensure smoother
operation

✅ GENERAL SIMILARITIES BETWEEN BELT & CHAIN DRIVES

▪ Both transmit
mechanical power.
▪ Both involve driver and
driven components.
▪ Both use loops
(belt/chain) for motion
transfer.

Hydraulic Machines (JSS 2)

Key Concepts:

▪ Pressure: Defined as
the force acting per unit
area.
Units: N/m² or Pa (Pascal)
Atmospheric Pressure: Approx. 76cm of mercury at sea level (105 N/m²).
▪ Pressure in Liquids:
Pressure acts equally in all directions in liquids.
Example: Squeezing a polythene bag with water shows how pressure is
transmitted.
▪ Hydraulic Machines:
Machines that use liquid
fluid power to perform
work.

Types of Hydraulic Machines:

▪ Syringe
▪ Simple Force Pump
▪ Centrifugal Pump
▪ Hydraulic Disc Brakes
 ▪ Hydraulic Press
▪ Hydraulic Jack
▪ Simple Garden Sprinkler
▪ Water Wheel

Principles of Operation:

▪ Hydraulic systems use a

pump to push hydraulic
fluid, creating fluid
power.
▪ The fluid passes through
valves and flows to
cylinders, where
hydraulic energy
converts back into
mechanical energy.

Examples of Hydraulic Machines:

▪ Syringe: Uses
atmospheric pressure to
pull liquid into the
cylinder and force it out
during injection.
▪ Force Pump: Works like
a syringe with valves to
control the flow of
water.
▪ Centrifugal Pump:
Uses rotating vanes to
suck and expel water.
▪ Hydraulic Disc Brakes:
Apply pressure to
pistons on either side of
a disc to slow down a
vehicle.
▪ Hydraulic Press: Uses a
small force applied on a
small piston to generate
 a larger force on a large
piston.
▪ Hydraulic Jack: Lifts
heavy loads using
hydraulic principles.
▪ Simple Garden
Sprinkler: Uses
hydraulic pressure to
distribute water.
▪ Water Wheel: Converts
hydraulic power into
mechanical work.

Applications:

▪ Hydraulic press
▪ Lifts
▪ Brakes in vehicles
▪ Office chairs
▪ Boats, airplanes,
excavators, and dump
trucks.

Pneumatic Machines (JSS 2)

Key Concepts:

▪ Pneumatic Machines:
Machines operated by
compressed air (or
gas/vacuum).

Types of Pneumatic Machines:

▪ Air Pumps
▪ Air Brakes on Buses,
Trucks & Trains
▪ Air Compressors
 ▪ Air Engines for
Pneumatically Powered
Vehicles
▪ Dental Drill
▪ Cable Jetting
▪ Inflatable Structures
▪ Lego Pneumatics
▪ Pipe Organ

Principles of Operation:

▪ Pneumatic machines
use air compressors to
compress air, increasing
its pressure.
▪ The compressed air
moves through filters,
valves, and pneumatic
tubing before reaching
an actuator that
performs the work.

Applications:

▪ Air compressors
▪ Air brakes in vehicles
(buses, trucks, trains)
▪ Pressure sensors and
regulators
▪ Vacuum pumps
▪ Pneumatic vehicles

TOPIC: BUILDING CONSTRUCTIONS

1. SITE PREPARATION

▪ Definition: All activities

done on a construction
site before the actual
building begins.
▪ Activities include:
Removing trees
Demolishing old structures
Clearing underground infrastructure

Tools for Site Preparation

A. Hand Tools:

▪ Spade
▪ Shovel
▪ Hoe
▪ Axe
▪ Machete
▪ Wheelbarrow
▪ Chainsaw

B. Mechanical Plants:

▪ Bulldozer
▪ Tractor
▪ Grader

2. SETTING OUT

▪ Definition: The act of

transferring building
plans from drawings
onto the actual site.
▪ Method: Driving pegs
into the ground
according to
measurements on the
drawing.
Tools for Setting Out

▪ Steel rule
▪ Measuring tape
▪ Pegs
▪ Builder’s square
▪ Theodolite
▪ Profile board

3. EXCAVATION

▪ Definition: The process

of digging the ground to
remove earth in
preparation for
foundation work.
▪ Use: Begins after setting
out, especially for
foundations.

4. TIMBERING

▪ Definition: Supporting
the walls of excavated
pits with timber.
▪ Purpose: Safety and
preventing collapse
during work.

5. BUILDING SERVICES

▪ Definition: Facilities
installed in buildings for
comfort and
functionality.
 ▪ Examples: Electrical
wiring, plumbing, water
supply, air conditioning.

6. TAPS

▪ Definition: A valve used

to control the flow of
liquid or gas.

Types of Taps

▪ Ball tap
▪ Cartridge tap
▪ Ceramic disc tap

7. FITTINGS

▪ Definition: Connectors
used in plumbing to join
or redirect flow in pipes.

Examples of Fittings

▪ Elbows
▪ Tees
▪ Wye
▪ Cross
▪ Gate
▪ Drain
▪ Stop cork
8. WATER SUPPLY

▪ Definition: One of the

main building services.
Provides water for:
Drinking
Cooking
Bathing
Washing
Gardening
Flushing toilets
Transportation
Electricity generation

Week 2: Foundation

Learning Objectives:

• Define a building foundation

• State the types of foundation
• Sketch each type of foundation

Introduction:

A building is a structure constructed for shelter.

Components of a Building:

1. Foundation
2. Walls
3. Floors
4. Roof
5. Doors & Windows

Building Foundation:

• The foundation is the part of a building in direct contact with the ground, carrying
its weight.
• It supports walls, roofs, property, and inhabitants.
• It also resists forces like strong winds.
Types of Foundations:

1. Strip Foundation: A continuous concrete deposit in the foundation trench,

commonly used for simple buildings on firm ground. Types include:
a. Ordinary strip
b. Wide strip
c. Deep strip
d. Stepped strip
e. Reinforced strip
f. Footed strip
2. Raft Foundation: Used in weak soils (e.g., swampy or waterlogged areas) to
distribute building weight evenly.
3. Pad Foundation: A reinforced concrete base for columns, often used in storey
buildings.
4. Pile Foundation: Made of reinforced concrete piles driven into weak soil to
reach a firm base, commonly used for high-rise buildings, bridges, and oil rigs.

Week 3: Floors & Walls

Learning Objectives:

• Define and understand walls and floors.

• Identify types of walls and floors.
• Learn about floor finishes.

Walls

• Purpose: Enclose or divide building spaces and provide safety/security.

• Types by Material: Mud, grass, brick, block, concrete, stone, cavity, timber,
veneer, fiber/plastic, and metal sheet walls.
• Types by Purpose: Load-bearing, non-load-bearing, external, internal, partition,
and movable partitions.

Floors

• Definition: Support loads from people, furniture, and equipment.

• Importance: Particularly relevant in traditional societies for comfort, hygiene,
and multi-functional use.
• Types: Timber and concrete floors (solid ground or suspended).
 • Finishes: Examples include screeds, tiles, rubber carpets, terrazzo, marble, and
rugs.

Week 4: Roofs

Learning Objectives:

• Define a Roof
• State the types of Roof
• Make simple sketches

Definition:

A roof provides cover for a building, protecting internal decorations, fittings, and
occupants from weather and other dangers.

Functions/Qualities of a Roof:

1. Weather resistance
2. Strength
3. Durability
4. Fire resistance
5. Insulation
6. Aesthetic value
7. Accommodation of services

Types of Roofs:

• Single Roofs: Consist only of spars secured at the ridge and wall plates.
Examples include:
o Pitched Roofs (Gable)
o Hipped Roof
o Mansard Roof
o Gambrel Roof
o Butterfly Roof
o Jerkin
o Monitor Roof
o Shed Roof
o Dome Roof
 • Flat Roofs

Week 4: Doors & Windows

Learning Objectives:

• Define a Door
• State the types of door
• Make simple sketches
• Define a Window
• Give types of windows
• Sketch types of windows

Doors

• Definition: Provide closure or separation between rooms or areas, serving as

barriers against pests, intruders, and external threats while beautifying the
building.
• Types of Doors:
o Interior Doors: Used inside buildings, such as panel doors, flush doors,
French doors, and louvre doors.
o Exterior Doors: Open to the outside, made of solid materials like
hardwood or metal. Examples include sliding doors, revolving doors, and
roller shutter doors.

Windows

• Definition: Allow light and ventilation into a building, provide security, and
enhance aesthetics.
• Functions:
o Ventilation
o Lighting
o Outside views
o Security
o Beautification
• Types of Windows:
o Casement Window: Hinged on the side, opens outward or inward like a
door.
 o Louvre Window: Made of adjustable horizontal slats to control airflow
and light while blocking rain and direct sun.
Production of Ceramics, Plastics, and Rubber

Production of Ceramics

Ceramics are materials made from clay, mud, and cement, hardened by heat.
Common ceramic products include pottery, bricks, cement blocks, and concrete.

▪ Pottery: The art of using clay to make objects like pots, tea cups,
and flower vases.
• Process:
o Digging out clay materials.
o Preparation of clay for molding.
o Shaping using methods like pinch pot or potter’s
wheel.
o Heating (baking) to harden the shaped articles.
▪ Mud Bricks: Made from earth mixed with water and pounded into
shape.
▪ Bricks & Cement Blocks: Used for building, ceramics can carry
heavy loads (e.g., roof support).
▪ Concrete: Formed by mixing cement, sand, and water, or with
gravel and stone for reinforced concrete.
▪ Uses of Ceramics:
• Building materials (bricks, cement blocks).
• Household items (vases, sculptures, utensils).
• Insulators in electrical power transmission.
• Glass products (e.g., bottles, windows, eyeglasses, and TV
screens).
▪ Glass: Made from sand, soda, potash, and lead oxide.
• Process:
o Mixing raw materials.
o Heating to form molten glass.
o Cooling to form rigid glass.
o Annealing (gradual cooling).
Production of Plastics

There are several methods of processing plastics, including:

▪ Extrusion Moulding: Heated plastic mixture is forced through a

die to form shapes (e.g., pipes, rods, tubes).
▪ Injection Moulding: Heated plastic is injected into a mold cavity,
cooled to form the desired shape.
▪ Calendaring: Heat and pressure are applied by rollers to smooth
and finish plastic.
▪ Compression Moulding: Moulding powder is heated, pressed into
a mold, and shaped.
▪ Transfer Moulding: Plastic is transferred into a mold under heat
and pressure.

Production of Rubber

Natural Rubber: Extracted from the rubber tree (Hevea tree) as latex, which changes to
solid rubber upon heating.

▪ Vulcanization: A chemical process where sulphur is added to raw

rubber and heated to improve elasticity, durability, and heat
resistance.
▪ Synthetic Rubber: Made from petroleum, coal, oil, natural gas,
and acetylene.

Drawing Practice (Pictorial Drawing)

Pictorial Drawing

Pictorial drawings represent objects in three dimensions, showing length, breadth, and
width.

▪ Types of Pictorial Drawing:

• Isometric Drawing: Uses isometric axes (three lines at
120° from each other).
• Oblique Drawing: Viewed at a right angle to one face and
45° to the others.
 • Perspective Drawing: Represents objects in a way that
mimics how the human eye perceives them in the real
world.
▪ Isometric Drawing: Equal measure drawing where all axes are at
120° angles to each other.
▪ Oblique Drawing: Objects are drawn at a 45° angle to the main
face.
• Types of Oblique Drawings:
o Cabinet Projection: Dimensions on oblique lines
are shortened to half the original size.
o Cavalier Projection: Projection lines make 45°
angles with both horizontal and vertical planes.

Woodwork Projects: Simple Woodwork Joints

Woodwork Joints

Woodwork joints are used to assemble and fasten two or more pieces of wood
together. The art of joining wood is known as joinery. Common woodwork joints include:

▪ Butt Joints:
• The simplest joint where the squared end of one piece fits
against the flat edge of another. Common in roof
construction and box building.
• Not very strong due to the weak end grain of wood.
▪ Halving Joints:
• Half of each piece is cut away to create a flush surface.
• Variations include corner, cross, and tee joints. Used in
frames for doors, tables, and chairs.
▪ Mortise and Tenon Joints:
• A recess (mortise) in one piece receives a projection
(tenon) from another.
• Strong joint used in furniture like tables, chairs, and doors.
▪ Bridle Joints:
• Similar to mortise and tenon joints but with increased
surface area. Used in roof construction, particularly for tie
beams.
▪ Dovetail Joints:
 • A strong corner joint used in cabinet work. One piece has
dovetails, and the other has pins that fit into the sockets.
• Common types: Single dovetail, common/through dovetail,
and lap dovetail.
▪ Tongue and Groove Joints:
• Used to join planks to increase width. One plank has a
tongue, and the other has a groove for the tongue to fit into.
• Used in flooring, packing cases, table tops, and wall
cladding.

Metalwork Projects: Metalwork Joints

Methods of Joining Metals

Various methods are used to join metals:

▪ Soldering:
• A process of joining metal surfaces using an alloy (solder)
with a lower melting point than the metal being joined.
• Types of Soldering:
o Soft Soldering: Uses low-melting-point solders.
Common in electronics and tin-plate work.
o Hard Soldering: Uses higher temperatures and is
suitable for strong joints.
• Brazing: A type of hard soldering that requires higher
temperatures and is used for strong joints.
• Silver Soldering: A lower-temperature soldering technique
used to join brass or dissimilar metals.
▪ Welding:
• Metals are heated to their melting points and fused
together.
• Types of Welding:
o Arc Welding: Common and uses electricity to
create the weld.
o Gas (Oxy-Acetylene) Welding: Uses a flame to heat
the metal.
• Special protective gear is required due to the intensity of
the welding arc.
▪ Riveting:
 • Uses a headed pin or bolt to join two pieces by passing the
shank through a hole and securing it with a second head.
▪ Mechanical Fastening:
• Involves using bolts, nuts, and screws to join metal parts.

Machine Motion (Motion in Engineering Systems)

Types of Motion:

Motion refers to the change in position of an object over time.

▪ Linear Motion:
• Movement in a straight line.
▪ Rotary/Circular Motion:
• Movement in a circular path.
▪ Vibratory/Oscillatory Motion:
• To and fro movement about a fixed point.
▪ Random Motion:
• Erratic, non-directional movement.

Motion Conversion:

Motion can be converted from one form to another using various devices, including:

▪ Cams
▪ Lever Arms
▪ Pins
▪ Linkages
▪ Clutches
▪ Threads
▪ Springs
Simple Electrical Wiring

Circuit Diagrams

• Circuit Diagram: A graphical representation of an

electrical circuit using standardized symbols for
components.
• Pictorial Diagram: Uses images to represent components.
 • Schematic Diagram: Simplified symbols for components
showing their interconnections, without considering their
physical placement.

Electrical Symbols

• Circuit diagrams use internationally standardized symbols

to represent electrical components.
• Example: The symbol for a resistor has evolved from a wire-
wound symbol to a simple oblong shape.

Simple Electrical Wiring Tools and Materials

Wiring Tools:

• Hammer: Used to drive wiring nails that hold clips in place.

• Pliers: Used for holding or twisting cables, and cutting
them (especially combination pliers).
• Knife: Used to cut open cable protection and expose wires
without damaging them.
• Gimlet: A tool for boring holes in wood to allow for wire
passage or to hold screws.
• Screwdriver: Used to drive screws to secure accessories
(flat or star-shaped tips).
• Hacksaw: Used for cutting pipes and wooden blocks in
conduit wiring.
• Fishing Tape: A tool used to draw wires through conduit
pipes.
• Cutter: A tool for cutting cables or wires when combination
pliers are not available.
• Spirit Level: Used to check the straightness of cables,
ensuring they are neatly installed.
• Bending Machine: Used to bend conduit pipes in conduit
wiring.
• Bending Blocks: A cheaper alternative to the bending
machine for bending conduit pipes.
• Tester: A tool used to detect the presence of electric
current in circuits.
 • Ohmmeter: Used to test the continuity of wiring and detect
faults such as open or short circuits.
• Multimeter: A device that can measure voltage, current,
and resistance, combining multiple functions in one unit.
• Scraper: Used to scrape the insulation off wires for proper
connections.
• Pipe Vice: Holds conduit pipes securely while cutting or
threading.
• Stock and Die: Used to cut threads at the ends of conduit
pipes to allow for proper fitting.

These tools and materials are essential for effectively wiring simple electrical circuits.

BASIC TECHNOLOGY – JS3

TOPIC 1: MOTION – TRANSMISSION SYSTEM

Definition of Transmission System:

The Transmission System is the system in a vehicle that transmits power from the
engine to the wheels, enabling the vehicle to move.

Parts of the Transmission System:

• Clutch
• Gearbox
• Propeller shaft
• Universal joints
• Differential
• Axles
Types of Transmission System:

• Front Engine - Rear Wheel Drive (FR):

o The engine is in the front bonnet.
o Power is sent to the rear wheels.
o Examples: Toyota Camry (older models), BMW 3
Series.
• Front Engine - Front Wheel Drive (FF):
o Both the engine and the driving wheels are in the
front.
o Examples: Honda Civic, Toyota Corolla.
• Rear Engine - Rear Wheel Drive (RR):
o Both the engine and the driving wheels are at the
rear.
o Examples: Volkswagen Beetle (classic), Porsche
911.
• Four-Wheel Drive (4WD):
o The engine is in front but power is transmitted to all
four wheels.
o Examples: Toyota Hilux, Jeep Wrangler, Land Rover
Defender.

CLASS ACTIVITY (To be done in B Tech Notebook):

• What do you understand as “The Transmission System”?

• List the composition (parts) of The Transmission System.
• List and sketch the types of Transmission System.

BASIC TECHNOLOGY – JS3

TOPIC 2: BASIC ELECTRONICS – ELECTRON EMISSION

Definition of Electron Emission:

Electron Emission is the liberation of free electrons from the surface of a material,
usually a metal.

Types of Electron Emission:

• Thermionic Emission:
o Electrons are emitted by heating the material.
o Examples/Applications: Vacuum diodes, triodes,
cathode ray tubes (CRT).
• Photoelectric Emission:
o Emission occurs when light (photons) hits a metal
surface.
o Examples/Applications: Solar panels, electric eye
doors, light meters, photocopiers.
• Field Emission:
o Occurs by applying a strong electric field to the
metal surface.
o Examples/Applications: Scanning electron
microscopes, e-beam lithography.
• Secondary Emission:
o Caused by high-speed electrons hitting a metal
surface, causing more electrons to be emitted.
o Examples/Applications: Williams tube and
Selectron tube in early computer memory.

🔌 BASIC ELECTRONIC DEVICES

Electronic devices operate based on the movement of electrons. The key components
commonly found in electronic appliances include:

1. Resistor

• Function: Controls the flow of current in a circuit.

 • Importance: Prevents damage to components by limiting
current.

2. Capacitor

• Function: Stores electric energy in a circuit.

• Usage: Temporarily holds charge and releases it when
needed.

3. Diode

• Function: Allows current to flow in one direction only.

• Structure: Has two terminals — one positive and one
negative.
• Usage: Used for rectifying AC to DC.

4. Inductor

• Structure: Made of coils of wire, sometimes wound on a

core.
• Function: Stores energy in a magnetic field.

5. Transistor

• Function: Amplifies electric signals.

• Structure: Has three terminals — emitter, base, and
collector.

6. Integrated Circuit (IC)

• Function: A single unit that contains multiple electronic

components such as resistors, capacitors, diodes,
inductors, and transistors.
• Usage: Simplifies circuit design by combining many
components into one chip.

7. Circuit Boards

• Function: Platform on which electronic components are

mounted to form complete circuits.
• Types:
o Breadboard: Made of plastic with holes for inserting
components; connections are made with flexible
wires on the reverse side.
o Perf Board: Made from a laminated insulating sheet;
metal pins are inserted into holes and wires are
soldered to form a circuit.
o Printed Circuit Board (PCB): Most commonly used;
made from insulating material with copper paths
onto which components are soldered.