Background of the Old testament

Master of Divinity

[DATE]
Eldamma. david. Living Water Institute of theology
[Company address]
THE HISTORY OF ISRAEL I-FROM PATRIARCHS
TO THE CONQUEST
The history of the Old Testament is the history of the people of Israel (also called Hebrews or
Jews). The history of Israel will be highlighted in the following periods: The Patriarchal Age,
The Exodus from Egypt, The Conquest of Canaan, The United Monarchy, The Divided
Kingdom, and The Exilic and Post Exilic periods.
The Patriarchal Age
After the accounts of creation and the flood (Gen. 1-11), the history of Israel begins with the
call and life of Abraham. Abraham, Isaac and Jacob were the patriarchs of Israel. The
patriarchs believed God would give them (or their descendants) Canaan as the Land of
Promise (Gen.12:1; 26:3; 18:13). While they never possessed the Land, their dead bodies
were buried in the Cave of Machpelah (Gen. 23:10-20) in Palestine. The sons of Jacob
became the twelve tribes of Israel (Gen. 35:22b-26). As a result of famine, they went to
Egypt. There Joseph took care of them. They settled in Goshen and they prospered greatly.
The Exodus from Egypt
Around the 13th (or 14th) century B. C. the Israelites left Egypt. With their exodus from
Egypt and deliverance at the Red Sea, they embarked on a journey to the wilderness to
worship the Lord under the leadership of Moses (Ex. 5:1-3). At Mount Sinai, they entered
into a covenant relationship with God and they became a nation (Ex. 19:1-25). Page H.
Kelley (1979, 5) explained the significance of the exodus event thus: “Few events in history
have had such far-reaching effects as Israel’s Exodus out of Egypt. The Exodus event lies at
the very heart of the Old Testament. The Exodus is to the Old Covenant what the resurrection
is to the New.”
The Conquest of Canaan
While very close to the Promised Land they hesitated to enter because of a costly unbelief
regarded to be rebellion against the Lord. They wandered in the wilderness and the generation
passed away. It was the task of Joshua to lead them to enter, fight, conquer and apportion the
land. While in the Promised Land they were ruled by judges, and charismatic leaders-
prominent among them were Deborah, Gideon and Samson. The period is said to be a dark
period for the Hebrews because “life consisted primarily of a struggle for survival.” However,
Samuel was born in that period (at 1105 B.C.) and his life became significant for the
establishment of Israel’s prophetic ministry, especially the seer type.
Self-Assessment Exercise
1. List the six main periods of the history of Israel.
2. Mention one significant event in each of the first three periods
From United Kingdom to The Restoration

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The United Monarchy While Samuel led the Israelites well his sons could not be trusted to
succeed him. Therefore, the people asked Samuel to give them a king especially, who could
lead them in wars (I Sam. 8:1-9). With the approval of God, Samuel anointed Saul who
, however, unfortunately, did not rule in obedience to God and the Kingdom was taken away
from him. David was anointed to rule in place of Saul. He united the tribes and defeated the
Philistines (2 Sam. 5:17-25; 8:1). His dynasty was powerful and it lasted four hundred years.
The reign of Solomon, son of David (970-930 B.C) can be said to be the golden era of
Israelites' history. He was wealthy and famous. He also built a great temple.
The Divided Kingdom
During the reign of Solomon, he used forced labour (1 Kings 12:1-4). When he died the
people rebelled. The Kingdom was divided into two. Rehoboam the Son of Solomon became
King of the Southern Kingdom with two tribes of Judah (922-915 B.C) and capital in
Jerusalem. Jeroboam, one of the officials of Solomon ruled the ten tribes of the Northern
Kingdom of Israel with its capital in Samaria (922-901). The Southern Kingdom was more
stable because of its devotion to the Davidic dynasty and also geographical location that
reduced its being constantly invaded. The Northern Kingdom was more unstable. In almost
200 years there were 9 dynasties and 19 kings, 10 of whom died violent deaths. However,
because of idolatry and related sins, God allowed the two kingdoms to fall (2 Kings 17:7-23).
The Northern Kingdom fell to the Assyrian invasion in 722 B.C. Samaria was captured and
the people were taken to exile by the Assyrians. Similarly, the Southern Kingdom fell in 597
and 589 B.C to Nebuchadnezzar. Jerusalem was destroyed and the people were deported to
Babylon.
Exilic and Post-Exilic Periods
During the exile, some faithful worshippers of Yahweh remained in Palestine (Jer. 41:4ff).
However, syncretism developed among some of those who remained and those whom the
Babylonians settled in their land. The Jews in Babylon practised a worship that did not
include Temple Sacrifices. Synagogue worship that centres on the reading of Torah most
likely developed during this period. Francisco explains (1973, 69): Such faithfulness under
trying circumstances encouraged an exclusivism that magnified the differences not only
between them and the Babylonians but also between them and those remaining in Judah…
Upon their return, this feeling of superiority forced a cleavage between them and those who
remained (Ezra 4:1ff)”. This development contributed to the rise of Judaism. During the
Persian Era Cyrus permitted Jews to return to Palestine (Isa. 45:1-6). The Temple was rebuilt
(538-516 B.C). Nehemiah rebuilt protecting walls in 444 B.C. while Ezra led in spiritual
reforms.
Self-Assessment Exercise 3.2
Mention one significant event in each of the last three periods of the history of Palestine.
THE OLD TESTAMENT WORLD

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The three parts of the Old Testament world are Palestine, Egypt and Mesopotamia. Palestine
was in the centre, Egypt was in the southwest and Mesopotamia was in the northeast.
Palestine is located between Mediterranean Sea (in the West) and Arabian Desert (in the
East). The areas of the Near East that were watered form a rough crescent-shaped
pattern called the Fertile Crescent. This is a kind of semicircle that runs from Mesopotamia to
Egypt. Actually, the really fertile portion lies at the two extremes. The four major
geographical divisions or zones of Palestine moving eastward are: The Coastal Plain, The
Western Mountain Range (also called the Lebanon Range, the Western Plateau or the Judean
Highlands), The Jordan Valley (or the Great Rift Valley), and The Eastern Plateau (Trans
Jordan). This is the land of the twelve tribes of Israel, the geographical setting of Old
Testament history.
THE SIGNIFICANCE OF THE HISTORICAL GEOGRAPHY OF PALESTINE
A few examples will help to buttress this point. The first is that given the geography of the
land, the rainy season is particularly irregular, it may start as early as October or as late as
January. The people thus believed that “weather was entirely in God’s hands” and God could
use it to bless or punish people (Isa. 5:6; 1 Kings 17:1-7). Another example is that a
knowledge of the routes helps to trace the journey of how the Israelites entered the Promised
Land. The “Kings Highway” as stated in Numbers 20:17is between Moab and Ammon.
Knowledge of the routes is also significant for an understanding of some migration, war and
commerce in the Old Testament. A study of the historical geography is necessary to
understand the people of the Old Testament. This is because the geography of their land
contributed significantly to their way of life. Scoggin (1973, 40) explains the point this way:
“The physical geography of Palestine left its indelible stamp on the “people of the Bible.” Its
very smallness contributed to their being welded into a community. Its rugged mountainous
terrain helped to form their spirit and influenced their language (Isa. 5:1-7; 44:3; 51:1). Its
rocky roughness forced them to toil unusually hard…
The Canon of the Old Testament
Generally, in literary studies the word Canon means “an official list of writings that are
recognized as being truly the work of a certain writer or as being part of a larger collection of
writings” (Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English, 1987 ed, p. 140). The word comes
from the Greek word Kanon and it means something straight. In a metaphorical sense, it
refers to any norm, rule or standard of measurement. To “Canonize” is thus to establish a
standard. When it applies to the Bible, canon refers to the issues related to the process of
compilation and the principles that led to the selection of books that are regarded as inspired
and authoritative. In the context of biblical study, canon, according to B. A. Sizemore, Jr.
(1973, 49): refers to the rigidly limited collection of literature which is believed by the
religious community to be given by inspiration of God and to be the basic guide for the
regulation of the religious life and the religious institution. Old Testament canon developed
from the Oral traditions of Israelites poems, stories, and memories – which they kept and
passed on to their children (Deut. 6:6-9). During the times of Moses or David and Solomon,
attempts could have been made to write the history of Israel.

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The stories of earliest interest were probably the Exodus, the patriarchs and the creation. The
personal name of God “Yahweh” appeared in these materials followed later by the ones that
used the general name “Elohim”. King Josiah of Judah (640-609 B.C) discovered “the book
of the law” in the temple (2 Kings 22:8) and it is traditionally identified as the book of
Deuteronomy. However, it was during the exile period in Babylon that many more materials
were written and including: the Torah (the first five books), the history and sayings of the
prophets, the wisdom and songs of the people. In the exilic and post-exilic periods, the priest
edited the law and the prophetic books. They also collected the books called Writings. Many
scholars believe that the final collection and preservation of the Canon was done by Ezra.
Self-Assessment Exercise
What is the meaning of “Canon” as it applies to the Old Testament?
How did it develop?

The Canon of the Old Testament

The number and arrangement of books in the Hebrew Bible is not the same as that of the
Christian Old Testament. However, the content is the same. The Roman Catholic and some
Orthodox Catholic traditions also include the Apocrypha. The twenty-four books in the
Canon of the Hebrew Scriptures are:
(1) The Law (Torah, Pentateuch): Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, Deuteronomy;
(2) The Prophets (Nevi’im): Former prophets – Joshua, Judges, Samuel, Kings (called
historical books in the Old Testament).
Latter prophets – Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel; The Book of the Twelve (the minor prophets). (3)
The Writings: (Ketuvim or Hagiographa) Psalms, Proverbs, Job, Song of Solomon, Ruth,
Lamentations, Esther, Daniel, Ezra-Nehemiah, 1 and 2 Chronicles. Note the following
differences when compared with the Christian Old Testament:
(1) Ruth now comes after Judges, 1 & 2 Chronicles come after Kings and Esther comes after
Nehemiah.
(2) The books of Samuel and Kings are split into two each.
(3) Ezra-Nehemiah has been split into two.
(4) Daniel, as a major prophet, is grouped along with other major prophets.
(5) The books of the Minor Prophets are counted individually.
Apocrypha
There are thirty-nine books in the Christian Old Testament. There are fifteen other books in
the Roman and Orthodox Catholic bibles called the Apocrypha. These books are contained in
the earliest Greek Bibles.
They are:

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(1) 1 and 2 Esdras,
(2) Tobith,
(3) Judith,
(4) The additions to the book of Esther,
(5) The wisdom of Solomon,
(6) Ecclesiasticus or the wisdom of Jesus the son of Sirach,
(7) Baruch
(8) The Letter of Jeremiah,
(9) Story of Susanna,
(10) The Prayer of Azariah and the Song of the Three Children (or Young Men),
(11) Story of Bel and the Dragon,
(12) Prayer of Manasseh, and
(13) 1 and 2 Maccabees.
Some Christians read these books today for their moral values. Some other important Hebrew
materials that were not canonized either in the Hebrew or Greek scriptures are known as
Pseudepigrapha, meaning “false writings”. These materials were attributed to ancient authors.
Examples are: Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs and The Book of Enoch.
Self-Assessment Exercise
Identify (with only one sentence each) the following terms in Old
Testament Study: The Law, The Prophets, The Writings, Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha
The Text of the Old Testament
Since the Old Testament is cherished by both Jews and Christians the text has been carefully
preserved. Our present Old Testament is based on the Masoretic Text. The Masoretic were the
Jewish scholars who preserved the textual tradition of the Hebrew Bible. Initially, there were
many textual traditions of the Hebrew Bible. However, the Palestinian canon became
definitive.
One of the problems of the study and history of the Old Testament text is that before the
Christian era the Sopherim were the scribes that preserved the text. Unfortunately, it is not
known if they preserved one particular text or a variety of competing text forms. The problem
is not solved by the Septuagint (LXX), the Greek translation of the Old Testament done be
seventy scholars in Egypt about 250 B.C. Unfortunately, it is also difficult to determine the
original LXX.
Another important Old Testament version is the Samaritan Pentateuch. This is the scripture of
the Samaritans in Palestine and it is said to be written before 400 B.C. When the Qumran

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Scrolls were discovered in 1947 it raised the hope of getting older Hebrew manuscripts. The
scrolls are dated from the third century B.C. to the first years of the Christian era. The scrolls
however support the earlier textual traditions used by the Septuagint, Samaritan Pentateuch
and the Proto Masoretic Text. Apart from the Septuagint, some other various versions of the
Old Testament are:
(1) Aramaic Translations (Targums) e.g. Targum Okello’s (the Pentateuch) and the Targum
Jonathan (the Prophets)
(2) Greek Versions/Translations: That of Aquila (a Jewish proselyte from Pontus), That of
Theodotion, Symmachus.
(3) Syriac Translations: The standard one was called Peshitta.
(4) Latin Versions: This appeared in North Africa in the late second century A.D. Vulgate
replaced the Old Latin versions and it became the Bible of the Roman Catholic Church.
(5) Other Ancient Versions: Gothic (fourth century), Armenian (fifth century), Georgian (fifth
century), Ethiopic (fourth century), Arabic versions (about the ninth century)
Poetry in the Old Testament
Poetry abounds in Psalms, Job, Songs, and other portions in the Old Testament. We see
poems in prayers, songs and liturgies. In the Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary (2000,
895) poem is defined as “a piece of writing in which the words are chosen for their sound and
the images they suggest, not just for their obvious meanings. The words are arranged in
separate lines, usually with a repeated rhythm, and sometimes the lines RHYME at the end.”
With this definition people expect to see in a poem rhythm and rhyme. Only in few cases do
we have rhyme in Hebrew poetry in the Old Testament. Examples are Judges 16:24; Psalms
14:1; some verses in Isaiah 40-60 (such as 43:2). However, these familiar features of
common, modern poetry are lacking in most Hebrew poetry as found in the Old Testament.
Hebrew poetry uses a rhythm of meaning and ideas and not that of sound and words. The
rhythm of thought in the Old Testament poetry is called parallelism and this is the most
important internal characteristic of Hebrew poetry. Hebrew poetry emphasise parallelism.
The second line echoes or reinforces the first. Some examples are (Ps. 14:1-2; Prov. 14:28
and Is. 1:3). The second line may repeat the thought of the first line (e.g. Ps. 2:4; Prov. 1:8;
Job 22:3-11). The second line may contrast with the first (e.g. Prov. 10:1, 5, 7; 22:16). The
second line may also supplement the thought of the first (e.g. Prov. 1:10; 3:27-30). What is
more important to the Hebrew writers as recorded in the Old Testament is to record the
mighty acts of God and to communicate the messages of God. In their songs, oracles and
sayings they were not particularly concerned with literary style. Of course, it is anachronistic
to expect ancient writings to conform to modern, contemporary styles.
Self-Assessment Exercise 3.2
What are the unique features of Hebrew poetry as seen in the Old Testament Other Literary
Forms in the Old Testament?

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Some other literary genres found in the Old Testament are prose, law, prophecy, apocalypse
and wisdom literature. These will now be highlighted. In a sense every part of the Old
Testament that is not poetry is prose. Prose occurs in various forms like speeches, sermons,
prayers and letters. Most prose sections of the Old Testament can be read and interpreted
literally. However, some are figurative. Examples of symbolic prose in the Old Testament are
allegory (Ezekiel 16) and apocalypse (Daniel 2:7-12). More will be said about interpretation
of the Old Testament in the next unit.
The laws have unique literary forms in the Old Testament. The Israelites did not think of the
law as legal codes as we do today. The law, as found in the Pentateuch is to them God’s
revelation; It is not judicial but instructional.
Prophetic utterance is another kind of literary genres in the Old Testament. To prophesy is to
speak for God under the inspiration of the Holy Spirit. A prophet communicates God’s
message by forth-telling (speaking about present situation) or foretelling (speaking about the
future).
Apocalypse is actually a type of prophecy. In apocalyptic writings the message is usually
presented in a hidden form. It is usually communicated in form of dreams, visions and
symbols. Popular apocalypses of the Old Testament are found in Daniel and Zechariah9-14.
Wisdom Literature constitutes a significant portion of The Writings, the third major division
of the Old Testament. The wisdom literatures are Proverbs, Job, Ecclesiastes and some
Psalms. They encourage godly choices in life. Proverbs are short parables. The wisdom
lesson of Job is enigmatic while that of Ecclesiastes is puzzling.
Self-Assessment Exercise 3.4
Write short notes on the following literary forms in the Old Testament:
1. Prose 4. Apocalypse
2. Law 5. Wisdom Literature
3. Prophecy
Basics of Bible Interpretation
Hermeneutics is the theory of text interpretation, in a biblical and theological context. It is the
process of determining what the Bible is saying. Biblical interpretation follows certain rules
or principles, it is thus a science. One important purpose of biblical hermeneutics is to derive
accurately from the text what it says in its original setting. This is technically known as
exegesis. The opposite of exegesis is eisegesis to read into the Bible pre-conceived ideas of
the interpreter.
Theological and Devotional Interpretation of the Old Testament
Biblical interpretation is a theological discipline. Hermeneutics and theology are related
because both are concerned with interpretation of the word of God. Christian interpretation of
the Old Testament is based on the conviction that the Bible is written to lead us to faith in

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God and the prophecies and promises of the Old Testament and fulfilled in the life, ministry,
death and resurrection of Jesus Christ the Messiah, as recorded in the New Testament. This is
a theological foundation on which the truths of Old Testament studies should stand.
Illustrative Examples
1. Old Testament students have asked for the meaning of “Yet I have loved Jacob, but Esau I
have hated” (Mal. 1:2-3). A critical study shows: One, this is the Hebrew way of stating “a
comparison rather than a direct opposite.” It is like saying loves Jacob more than Esau; Two,
from the perspective of the doctrine of election it means “I chose Jacob and not Esau”; Three,
theologically we cannot ascribe hatred to God who is loving, who is love (1 John 4:16).
2. How do we interpret Isaiah’s vision of “the king, the LORD Almighty” (Isa. 6:1-6)? What
of the throne, robe and bodily appearance? It is significant that this vision is remarkably
similar to that of Apostle John (Rev. 4:1-8). It teaches some abiding lessons; One, God is
personal, holy, and awesome; Two, the otherness and transcendence of God means we must
never identify (equate) God with man; Three, it is imperative to receive a vision of God as
part of one’s call and commission to serve the Lord.
Self-Assessment Exercise
Why is it necessary for the Old Testament to be interpreted theologically? Give one example.
Meaning and Rationale for Biblical Criticism
Biblical Criticism is a contemporary approach to the study of the Bible. It is a study of
biblical writings, according to Harrington (1987, 115), “to establish their text, understand
their context and style, and determine their origin and authenticity.” Issues examined in
critical biblical studies include title, date, authorship, setting, occasion/purpose, literary
features, theme/message/theology, and structure/outline.
Textual Criticism of the Old Testament
Textual criticism is the starting point of biblical critical methods and it is also called lower
criticism. Lower criticism, according to John I. Durham (1973, 87), “attempts the most
accurate reconstruction of the text which is possible with attention to its earliest known form
and the history of its transmission from earliest times to the present. Its object is to approach
as closely as possible the purest and most original form of the Old Testament text.” This task
is necessary because we do not have a single copy of any of the autograph (original) of any of
the Old Testament books The NIV Study Bible provides some textual critical information as
text notes. I will now direct you to study some of them.
Self-Assessment Exercises
1. What is textual criticism?
2. Study the text notes (not study notes) of the following passages in The NIV Study Bible
(1995): Gen. 4:8; 18:22; 22:13; Lev. 11:2; Gen. 4:8 read: “Samaritan Pentateuch,
Septuagint, Vulgate and Syriac: Masoretic text does not have “Let’s go out to the field.”

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Literary Criticism of the Old Testament (Source)
Literary criticism is also called higher criticism. The three categories of literary criticism and
their concerns are:
(1) Source Criticism: What are the sources of the literature? Who is (are) the author(s) of the
books?
(2) Form Criticism: In what forms or styles did the Old Testament text develop?
(3) Historical Criticism: What is the history behind the use of the sources and the
development of the forms and styles of the Old Testament
Source Criticism
Source Criticism of the Old Testament has deliberated much on the authorship of the
Pentateuch. Jewish and Christian traditions have identified Moses as the author. Internal
references support this position (e.g. Deut. 1:1; 2 Kings 14:6; Ezra 6:18; 2 Chr. 25:4; Mark
12:26). While some scholars deny Mosaic authorship most holds that Moses used available
traditions to write the books. In 1878 Julius Wellhausen, a German biblical scholar, suggested
that the Pentateuch evolved through four stages called JEDP hypothesis (1) Yahwistic history
written in the time of Solomon (J); (2) Elohistic history written in the eight century B.C. (E);
(3) Deuteronomic history, the book discovered by Josiah in 621 B.C. (D); (4) Priestly history.
Around 450 B.C. priests compiled the above and added legal materials (P). Some other
scholars have challenged the JEDP hypothesis. Like several other Old Testament books,
source criticism now claims that three sources were used to compose the Pentateuch: oral,
written and editorial.
Self-Assessment Exercise 3.3
1. What is source criticism?
2. How does source criticism apply to Mosaic authorship of the Pentateuch?
General Introduction to the Pentateuch
The first five books of the Bible are called “Pentateuch” (“meaning five scrolls”) or the Law
(Hebrew, Torah). They are Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers and Deuteronomy. Some
scholars speak of Hexateuch and consider the book of Joshua to be “the necessary conclusion
of the historical narratives” found in the other five books. While the Pentateuch contains
different literary materials (as discussed in unit five of module 1) it is homogeneous with
inherent unity, clear purpose and objectives that are recognizable. Pentateuch contains the
story of the people of God from the call of Abraham in the Ur of the Chaldeans (Genesis 11)
the death of Moses in the plains of Moab (Deut. 34). While it is extremely difficult for us to
be sure of the dates of this part of the history of Israel, it is certain that the period concerned

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about 600 years, 1900B.C. to 1250B.C. accordingly to The Lion Handbook to the Bible
(1983, 122), or 2100B.C. to 140B.C. according to The NIV Study Bible (1995).
The Pentateuch begins with a prologue (Genesis 1-11). The ancient records and tradition as
explained by John Taylor (1983, 122) “serve not only to introduce the main themes of the
narrative but also to relate them to God’s purpose in the world of fallen mankind.” The first
section of the Pentateuch deals with the generations of the four patriarchs –Abraham, Isaac,
Jacob and Joseph (Genesis 12-50). The second section
contains the history of the birth and life of Moses (Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers and
Deuteronomy).
Self-Assessment Exercise 3.1
Pentateuch is one book divided into five sections. Discuss.

General Introduction to the Pentateuch

Some important themes in Pentateuch are election, covenant, law and redemption. These and
some other doctrines will be studied in Old Testament Theology course not only in the Torah
but in the entire Old Testament Canon. The story of Pentateuch is that God chose and called
one man (Abraham) and through him and his descendants God gave his revelation and
blessing to the whole world. Another important aspect of a critical introduction to the
Pentateuch is the question of authorship. The traditional Mosaic authorship has been
challenged in modern scholarship with the JEDP hypothesis of Wellhausen as explained in
the last unit. It is significant to observe however, that the modern view lacks conclusive
evidence. According to Ronald Youngblood (1995, 2) “intensive archaeological and literary
research has tended to undercut many of the arguments used to challenge Mosaic authorship”.
Some related criticisms of the Pentateuch are that its history is incredible, that the account of
the supernatural is questionable and that the authors did not receive special revelation of God.
Over and against these sceptical scholarships we affirm the historicity of the records and the
inspiration of the word of God. As a matter of fact, both internal claims (e.g. Ex. 17:14; 24:4;
34:27; Num. 33:1-2; Deut. 31:9, 24) and external evidence (Josh. 1:7; Ezra 6:18; 7:6; Matt.
8:4; John 5:45-47) support mosaic authorship of the Pentateuch.
Self-Assessment Exercise 3.2
Write a short note to introduce a new Christian to the Pentateuch.

Introduction to Genesis
Title
The title of the first book of Pentateuch and the whole Bible, Genesis, is derived from the
Greek translation (Septuagint) of Gen. 2:4; 5:1. “Beheshti” (in the beginning) is the first
phrase in the Hebrew text. The book is actually a book of beginnings and origin.
Background

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A substantial part of the story of Genesis is located in Mesopotamia. A working knowledge of
the life and culture of ancient Mesopotamia will enrich our study and understanding of
Genesis. A number of ancient literary sources that come from Mesopotamia and are parallels
to Genesis are Enamellist, Gilgamesh epic, Atrahasis epic, Mari letters and The Nazi tablets.

Date

As discussed in the General Introduction to the Pentateuch, the dates of early Israel history are
approximate. Some scholars think that Moses most likely wrote the bulk of the Pentateuch during the
forty-years of the wonderings of Israelites in the desert which was about 1446 to 1406 B.C

Literary Features
After the introduction (1:1-2:3) the body of Genesis can be divided into ten accounts of Creation,
Adam, Noah, Shem/Ham/Japheth, Shem, Terah, Ismael, Isaac, Esau and Jacob. The introduction and
the first five accounts can be grouped together to form the “primeval” or general history (1:1-11:26)
while the last five can be called “patriarchal history” (11:27-50:26). However, theologically speaking,
the first part is described by the NIV Disciple’s Study Bible (1988, 2-3) as “The Nature of Human
Life” while the second part is called “The Mission and Nature of God’s Family”.

Theme Message and Theology Genesis highlights the relationship between God and nature, God and
humanity, man and fellow men. It teaches monotheism and opposes atheism, polytheism and
pantheism. It affirms the sovereignty of God over the entire creation. The theological nature of the
message of Genesis about the universe, human creation and the fall will be examined in the last unit
of this course. For now, it is sufficient to assert that in Genesis we find the beginning of biblical
doctrines of “creation, God, salvation, sin, family, mission, humanity and hope”. There are some
theological conclusions that can be drawn from genesis. The major ones are that God is the creator
and sustainer of the world, that human trouble is due to rebellion (sin), that humanity received great
potential and responsibility through creation in God’s image, that human sin will be punished, that
human hope lies in redemption, which human identity centres in missions (Disciple’s Study Bible,
1988, 2-3). The book of Genesis teaches us that as God dealt with Noah, Abraham and others God is
still speaking to us and is reaching out to us with a missionary purpose to bless all nations through us.

Self-Assessment Exercise

1. List seven tools of critical introduction to Genesis. 2. Write a concise note on the theme, message
and theology of Genesis

Critical Introduction to Exodus

Title

The name exodus is a Latin word derived from the Greek word exodus. It means exit, departure or
outgoing and it is retained in the LXX and Vulgate. In the Hebrew Bible, the title of the book is “And
these are the names” based on the first words in the book. This shows that the book is a continuation
of a narrative that began in Genesis.

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Author Discussion of the general introduction to the whole Pentateuch and the critical introduction to
Genesis apply to Exodus. Statements that indicate Mosaic authorship include Ex. 17:14; 24:4; 34:27
others are Jos. 8:31; Mk. 7:10; 12:26 and Luke 2:22-23.

Date The exodus event took place between 1450 B.C. and 1250 B.C. One principal view is that the
exit occurred during the 18th dynasty in Egypt. The Pharaohs of oppression and exodus are identified
as Thutmouse III and Amunhotep II respectively (see Ex. 2:15; 23:3, 10). Another view locates the
exodus during the 19th dynasty with Set I and Rameses II as Pharaohs of the oppression and the
exodus respectively (see Ex. 1:110). The traditional date that many scholars still affirm is 1440B.C.
For more discussion, please see Francisco (1977, 75-76) or The NIV Study Bible (1995, 83-84).

Outline The book of Exodus can be divided into five parts: - Introduction (1:1-7): Death of Joseph
and their multiplication; - Their experience of oppression (1:8-12:36); - The Exodus and journey to
Mount Sinai (12:37-19:1); - The Giving of the law, the covenant and its renewal (19:2-34); - The
construction of the Tabernacle (35-40).

Theme and Theology

In Exodus we have a record of the revelation of God especially his attributes, redemption, law and
how God is to be worshipped. The attributes of Yahweh revealed include justice, truthfulness, mercy,
faithfulness and holiness (Ex. 3:13-15; 6:3). It contains the Mosaic (or Sinaitic) covenant of God that
transformed Israelites from being a family to a nation.

Exodus emphasises theology of salvation as redemption (Ex. 6:6, 4:12; 15:13; 24). The Ten
Commandments and some other passages constitute the foundation of biblical ethics and morality.
Instructions concerning the Tabernacle (Ex. 25-40) constitute integral aspects of the biblical theology
of worship. Some theological conclusions that are derivable from Exodus include the ideas that God is
covenant-maker and keeper, the Lord of history, the Deliverer of the oppressed who calls and uses
people for service; he demands righteous living and he wants to be worshiped as he dwells among his
people (NIV Disciple’s Study Bible, 1988, 72-73).

Introduction to Leviticus
Title

The third book of the Bible takes its name from the tribe of Levi. More accurately, the title is derived
from Levitical priest who administered the law and assisted the Aaronic priests to take care of the
tabernacle. Leviticus is a book of laws about ritual and worship. The general discussions of the
mosaic authorship of the Pentateuch apply to Leviticus as well.

Theme

Three prominent issues in Leviticus are law, sacrifices and the tabernacle. Different kinds of sacrifices
are recommended in the book, these are:

(1) Sin Offering – the use of blood of animals to obtain forgiveness,

(2) Burnt Offering – burning the whole animal as a sign of dedication or consecration.

(3) Peace or fellowship Offering – a picture of communion between God and Man,

(4) Cereal or grain Offering – usually accompanying burnt and peace offerings,

(5) Guilt, repayment, motive or trespass Offering – for restitution, payment of a vow,

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(6) Thank Offering – to express gratitude for favour or blessing received,

(7) Freewill Offering – to voluntarily express love and devotion to God,

(8) Meal Offering – to dedicate fruits of labour to God,

(9) Drink Offering.

Many times, two or more types of offering go together in the sacrificial system. The sacrifices,
especially the ones which involved blood of animals, were a constant reminder of the sin which cut
off Israelites from the presence of God. This sacrificial system in Leviticus helps us to understand the
meaning of the death of Jesus, a sacrifice for the redemption of humanity. This is a “vital role in God’s
message of salvation”. The laws were given for the total welfare of the people of God and this
includes even matters of health and hygiene. The laws also concern regulations for worship in the
tabernacle with elaborate instructions about ceremonial cleanness, morality, holy days, the Sabbath
and the year of Jubilee.

Outline The major divisions of Leviticus are:

(1) Laws concerning sacrifice, purification and atonement (1-16)

(2) The Holiness Code – moral and ceremonial requirements with emphasis on holiness (17-26)

(3) Vows and Tithes (27)

Theological Significance

While God is holy the Israelites were sinful Leviticus deals with how a sinful people could relate
with and worship a holy God. It is always a sacred event to stand in the presence of God. Leviticus is
significant for the lessons on a life of consecration required of human beings to worship a holy God. It
teaches that God requires righteousness, holiness, purity and godliness from his people. Rituals and
sacrifices described in Leviticus are no longer applicable today because of the once-for-all perfect
sacrifice of Jesus for our sins. In Christ, we have been forgiven and cleansed from our sin.
Nonetheless, we need to continue to approach God with holy reverence.

Introduction to Numbers
Title
The title of the book is based on the Septuagint version because of the census figures found in
chapters 1 and 26. The Jewish title is “in the desert” (“bemidhbar”). This is very descriptive
of the contents since the book contains the wonderings of Israelites in the wilderness for 38
years.
Author
While we affirm Mosaic authorship of Numbers as discussed earlier for the entire Pentateuch,
it is quite possible that some scribes or editors are responsible for the complete and final form
of the book at later periods of the history of Israelites.
Outline

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The three major divisions of the book are based on geographical locations of Israelites at
Sinai, Kadesh and Moab. The NIV Study Bible (1995, 185-186) provide the following
structure:
(1) Israel at Sinai, preparing to depart for the Promised Land (1:1-10:10),
(2) Israel at Kadesh, the delay resulting from rebellion (13:1-20:13)
(3) The journey from Kadesh to the plains of Moab (20:14-22:1)
(4) Israel on the plains of Moab, in anticipation of taking the Promised Land (22:2-32:42)
(5) Appendices dealing with various matters (33-36).
Self-Assessment Exercise 3. Mention one key event that occurred in the three major
geographical locations of Israelites recorded in Numbers.

Introduction to Deuteronomy
Title
The title of the last book of the law is based on a wrong translation of a phrase in Deut. 17:18
which actually mean “a copy of the law”. However, the title, meaning second law or
“repetition of the law,” is fairly appropriate. In Deuteronomy the law found in the preceding
books are further stated, reaffirmed and explained. Based on the first two words the Jews call
the book ‘ella haddevarim (“there are the words”), or simply “debarim” (“words”).
Author and Development
Like other books of the law internal evidence show that Moses wrote most parts of it (1:5;
31:9, 22, 24). Moses gave the sermons at the territory of Moab, at the end of his life and in
the process of transferring leadership to Joshua. However, some other persons wrote the
preamble (1:1-5) as well as the account of the death of Moses (34). In contemporary
scholarship it is believed that the book originated before the reformation of Josiah (621 B.C.).
It took its final form before the seventh century B.C.
Self-Assessment Exercise 3.5
Write short notes on the title, authorship and setting of the book of Deuteronomy
Content and Outline
Moses delivered these discourses between the end of wanderings in the desert and entrance
into the Land of Canaan. It is a covenant renewal document as he appealed to the Israelites to
respond to the love and grace of God with worship, obedience and loyalty. He spoke to them
about the settled life they were about to start in Canaan. After the introduction (1:1-5), the
book can be divided roughly on the basis of the three addresses:
(1) Historical prologue (1:6-4:49);
(2) Stipulations of the covenant (5:1-26:19);

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(3) Curses and blessings (27:1-30:20).
The book ends with the song, blessing and the account of the death and burial of Moses
(31-34)
Value
Deuteronomy seems to be a favourite of the Lord Jesus Christ. He testified to its Mosaic
authorship (e.g. Mark 10:3-5; John 5:46-47) and he affirmed its authority (Matt. 4:4, 7, 10).
The book teaches the importance of love and loyalty to God because of his grace. However,
one theological issue that cannot be examined here because of lack of space is the nature of
holy war championed in the book (Deut. 7:1ff). Does the destruction of the Canaanites
contradict the love of God? This will be examined critically in the last unit.
Deuteronomy teaches us that when we enter into a covenant relationship with the sovereign
God he asks for total, unalloyed devotion. Blessing will result from obedience but rebellion
will attract judgement and curses. Isn’t that serious?
Self-Assessment Exercise 3.6
What is the theological value of the book of Deuteronomy?
CONCLUSION
The study of Leviticus, Numbers and Deuteronomy done in this unit leads to the end of
critical introduction to the Pentateuch. We wish to conclude our study of the Torah as follows:
- The Pentateuch contains many literary materials – narratives, laws, poetry, genealogies and
addresses,
- These materials are drawn together by Moses and others from a number of sources,
- Within a narrative framework, the Pentateuch speak of election, covenant, the law and
exodus,
- The story of Pentateuch is that, according to John Tailor (1983,126), in a world of disorder
and corruption God called out “Abraham and through him his descendants the Jews, to be the
channel of grace and revelation to all mankind” Deuteronomy.

FORMER PROPHETS
General Introduction to the Former Prophets
The account of the history of Israel is presented in two separate sections in the Hebrew Bible.
These are: The Former Prophets (Joshua, Judges, 1 & 2 Samuel, 1 & 2 Kings) and in The
Writings (1 & 2 Chronicles, Ezra and Nehemiah). Ruth will be studied along with the books
of Writings.
Nature

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The historical books from Joshua to 2 Kings are called “The Former Prophets” so as to
distinguish them from the latter prophets (Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel and the twelve minor
prophets). Daniel will be discussed along with these prophets. The historical books are
regarded as prophecy most likely because they were intended to teach and they are sometimes
called “Prophetic history”. Some scholars see them as “Deuteronomic history” because they
express a theological viewpoint similar to that of Deuteronomy.
Formation

The books were most likely written after release of Jehoiachin from prison in 561 B.C., the last event
in 2Kings. The books used court archives and histories like the Book of Jasher, the Book of the Acts
of Solomon and the Chronicles of the Kings of Judah and Israel (not the one in the Bible).

Content

These books covered the period from the time Joshua led Israelites to enter the Promised Land to the
middle of the exile (1400 B.C. to 560 B.C.).

Themes

According to John Taylor (1983, 205-208) four important themes of the prophetic history are:
Kingship with particular interest in the dynasty of King David,

The Prophets and the word of the Lord. The writer believed that the word of God controlled history
The Temple at Jerusalem. Concern for the ark of the Lord was especially demonstrated

Worship. The kings were assessed on the basis of their worship at Jerusalem in purity

Introduction to Joshua
The book of Joshua is the beginning of the section of the Old Testament known as the Former
Prophets (also called Historical Books). Others are Judges, 1 and 2 Samuel, 1 and 2 Kings.
Joshua is also the hero of the book. The book contains the history of Israelites from the time
Moses died to the conquest of Canaan and the death of Joshua. Scholars think that the book
of Joshua was written around 1045B.C. in the early days of Monarchy during the lifetime of
Samuel before David captured Jerusalem.
Joshua was born in Egypt during the time of bondage and suffering. The name Joshua means
“Yahweh is Saviour” or “Salvation of Yahweh” and it is equivalent to Jesus. He was the
faithful assistant of Moses during the experience of exodus and wonderings in the wilderness.
He also served as the commander of the Hebrew armies. Joshua and Caleb were the two spies
who urged the Israelites to believe God would give them the land. Out of the multitude that
left Egypt only the two entered the Promised Land. Joshua was the successor to Moses.
Joshua led the tribes of Israel to conquer the land in three stages: Central section at Jericho
and (6-9), defeat of the Kings of the South (10) and the victory over the northern strongholds
(11). The ethical question of the war will be examined later. The book is a story of conquest
and success and The NIV Study Bible (1995, 287-288) outlines it as follows:
(1) The Entrance into the land (1:1-5:12)

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(2) The Conquest of the land (5:13-12:24)

(3) The distribution of the land (13-21)

(4) Epilogue: Tribal unity and loyalty to the Lord (22-24).

Self-Assessment Exercise

In the book of Joshua what do we learn about the man Joshua and the conquest of Canaan?

Introduction to 1 & 2 Samuel

In the Hebrew Bible these two books were originally one. 1 and 2 Samuel tell the story of Israel from
the period of the end of the judges and the birth of Samuel to the last years of King David, a total of
about 100 years (about 1075-975) B.C). The books are named after Samuel though he was not the
author. Samuel anointed both Saul and David, the first two kings in Israel and thus God used him to
establish kingship in Israel. The author of the book of Samuel used a variety of sources which include
the following: the writings of Samuel (1Sam. 10:25), contemporary prophetical histories (1 Chr.
29:29), the poems of David (2 Sam. 1:19-27; 22:2-51; 23:1-7), national poetical literature (eg. 2 Sam.
1:18) and oral tradition.

Interpreters have observed that the account is religious (not political) history. According to The Lion
Handbook to the Bible (1983, 231), it is “the story of God and the nation particularly God and the
nation’s leaders.” It is difficult to state exactly the time he wrote the histories. The simple Hebrew
language used indicates an early period. Since the story include the whole reign of David (2 Sam. 5:5)
and he mention the “Kings of Judah” (1 Sam. 27:6) it shows that he wrote after the division of the
kingdom. He probably wrote around 900B.C. following the division of the kingdom after the death of
Solomon before the exile.

One question of interest in a critical study of 1&2 Samuel is if the books have one or more authors.
Some scholars argue for two major sources and authors in view of several “duplicate” accounts such
as the choice of Saul. One, possibly early source, presents this in a favourable light (1 Sam. 9:1-10;
16:11:1-13; 13:1-7a; 13:15b to 14:52). Another later source reports it as a mistake for Israelites to ask
for a king and points out the failings of Saul (1 Sam. 8:1-22; 10:17-27; 12:1-25; 13:7b-15a). Some
other scholars think that such repetition may be different opinions expressed in the days of Samuel
recorded faithfully by one author.

A concise outline of the two books, extracted from The NIV Study Bible (1995, 371), is:

(1) Historical setting for the establishment of kingship in Israel (I Sam. 1-7)

(2) The establishment of kingship in Israel under the guidance of Samuel the prophet (I Sam. 8-12)

(3) Saul’s kingship a failure (I Sam. 13-15),

(4) David’s rise to the throne; progressive deterioration and end of Saul’s reign (I Sam. 16:1-2 Sam.
5:5)

(5) David’s kingship in its accomplishments and glory (2 Sam. 5:6-9:12)

(6) David’s kingship in its weaknesses and failures (2 Sam. 10-20),

(7) Final reflections on David’s reign (2 Sam. 21-24).

Self-Assessment Exercise 3.4 Write a short note on the sources and authorship of 1 and 2 Samuel.

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Introduction to 1 & 2 Kings

Like Samuel, 1 and 2 Kings of our English Bible were actually one book initially. The Jews called it
“The Book of the Kings” or simply “Kings. The translators of the Septuagint introduced the division.
Latin Vulgate and modern versions followed it. The division of the book thus separated the reign of
Ahaziah King of Israel (see 1 Kings 22:51- 2 Kings 1:18).

Kings continued the story of Samuel and it covered four centuries of the history of Israel. In it we
find the account from the end of the reign of David, that of Solomon, the division between Israel and
Judah, the fall of Samaria (in 722 BC) and the destruction of Jerusalem (in 587 BC). When combined
Samuel and Kings tell the full story of the monarchy from its rise to its fall.

The writer of Kings is more of a compiler and editor. He was likely a prophet in Babylon during the
exile. He lived after 561 B.C. because he mentioned Amel-Marduk. However, he did not know about
the return under Cyrus in 539 B.C. He most likely wrote around 550 B.C. The sources that he used
include: “the book of the annals of Solomon” (11:41), “the book of the annals of the Kings of Israel”
(14:19), “the book of the annals of the Kings of Judah” (14:29).

The chronology of the Kings of Israel has been a problem in Old Testament Studies. Scholars are
trying to solve the problem through a study of factors like overlapping reigns, co-regencies of sons
with their fathers, etc. Please refer to and study: “Rulers of the Divided Kingdom of Israel and Judah,”
The NIV Study Bible (1995, 496-497); Arthur Cundall, “Unravelling the Chronology of the Kings”,
The Lion Handbook to the Bible, 1983, pp. 269-271.

Out Line
(1) The Solomonic era (1:1-12:24),
(2) Israel and Judah from Jeroboam I/Rehoboam to Ahab/Asa
(12:25-16:34),
(3) The ministries of Elijah and Elisha and other prophets from
Ahab/Asa to Joram/Jehosaphat (17:1-2Kings 8:15),
(4) Israel and Judah from Joram/Jehoram to the exile of Israel
(8:16-17:41),
(5) Judah from Hezekiah to the Babylonian exile (18-25).
1 and 2 Kings describe the history of the Kings of Israel and Judah from the viewpoint of the
covenants of God. After introducing each king by giving information about his age, length of
reign and mother, he assessed the reign by conformity to the law. We can, therefore, infer the
theme or purpose of the book from the style of the accounts. The suggestion of The NIV
Study Bible (1995, 460) is: “The guiding thesis of the book is that the welfare of Israel and
her Kings depended on their obedience to their obligations as defined in the Mosaic
covenant.” God has not changed. Today, through 1 and 2 Kings, God calls us to obey and
serve him to fulfil His Kingdom's purposes through us.
CONCLUSION

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As stated at the beginning of this unit, while the books of Joshua, Judges, Samuel and Kings
are called “historical books” today the Jews refer to them as “Former Prophets”. This is not
just because they were written by prophets but according to J. N. Schofield (1964, 16)
“because they are recorded from a prophetic standpoint and with the prophetic purpose of
using history to reveal God.” We have therefore examined them as “Prophetic history”, a kind
of history lectures serving the purpose of prophetic sermons.

INTRODUCTION TO THE LATTER PROPHETS I

Main Content
General Introduction to the Major Prophets
Critical Introduction to Isaiah
Critical Introduction to Jeremiah
Critical Introduction to Ezekiel
Critical Introduction to Daniel
INTRODUCTION
In the last unit we studied the Former Prophets, the Old Testament books that deal with the
history of how the Israelites entered, conquered and settled in Canaan till they were carried to
Assyrian and Babylonian exiles. In this unit, we shall study some of the books of the prophets
that God sent to the people before and during the exilic periods. The Major Prophets and
books to be considered are Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel and Daniel. Lamentations will be studied
as part of The Writings in the next module. While chronologically Daniel is part of The
Writings it will be studied here as one of the prophetic books.
When the Israelites got to the Promised Land, they engaged in sinful practices like idol
worship, sexual immorality, and oppression of the poor. God raised individuals, called
prophets, to call the people back to the right kind of living: obedience and purity. Whereas the
Israelites have Testament become occupied with “other gods” and a new morality the
prophets reminded them of the requirements of their covenant relationship with God. The
term “prophet” (Hebrew, Navi) means to speak. The prophets were thus men and women
(like Mariam and Deborah – Ex. 15:20, Judg. 4:4) who were caused to speak for God (Amos
3:8). A prophet is called by God to speak the mind (word) of God (Jer. 1:9; Ezek. 2:7; 3:4).
He is a “seer” (e.g. Samuel) seeing the mind of God and the affairs of men (I Chr. 29:29).
Prophets have the privilege of close fellowship and consultation with the Lord as they stand
in his council (Jer. 23:18, 22). They proclaimed the message given to them by God as they
declared, “Thus says the Lord.” Of course, they could claim because the word of the Lord
came to them (e.g. Jer. 47:1; Ezek. 17:1; Zech. 8:1).

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Out of their communion with God, the prophets declared the message of God for their
contemporaries and people of all ages (I Kings. 17:1; Acts 7:38). Most of their messages were
carefully constructed and prepared before they were spoken to people. Some prophets like
Jeremiah (e.g. chapter 19) and Ezekiel (e.g. chapter 4) also used dramatic means to
communicate their messages.
Prophecy is the word of God both for contemporary situations (forth-telling) and also for the
future (foretelling). More often than not in the Old Testament predictive prophecy concerns
warning and judgement that will follow obedience and promises of blessing due to obedience.
The prophets were rooted in specific social, economic and political situations and they spoke
the word of God to social injustice, economic oppression and political disorientation. Some
of the prophetic messages sound like civil and human rights campaigns today. Study “The
Prophets in Their Setting” in The Lion Handbook to the Bible (1983, 374-375).
According to Alec Motyer (1983, 372-373), the themes that constitute the core of the message
or teaching of the prophets are The Lord as Ruler of all history, the primary need to be right
with God, the moral foundation of religion and society, a blend of judgement and hope and
the messianic kingdom. In the next sections, I will introduce you one by one, though briefly,
to the Major Prophets – Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel and Daniel.
Their Directive or Message
As a mouthpiece or spokesman for God, the prophet’s primary duty was to speak forth God’s
message to God’s people in the historical context of what was happening among God’s
people. The broadest meaning is that of foretelling; the narrower meaning is that of
foretelling. In the process of proclaiming God’s message, the prophet would sometimes
reveal that which pertained to the future, but, contrary to popular opinion, this was only a
small part of the prophet’s message. Forthtelling involved insight into the will of God; it was
exhortative, challenging men to obey. On the other hand, foretelling entailed foresight into
the plan of God; it was predictive, either encouraging the righteous given God’s promises or
warning given coming judgment. So, the prophet was the divinely chosen spokesman who,
having received God’s message, proclaimed it in oral, visual, or written form to the people.
For this reason, a common formula used by the prophets was, “Thus says the Lord.”
As God’s spokesman, their message can be seen in a three-fold function they had among the
people of God in the Old Testament:
First, they functioned as preachers who expounded and interpreted the Mosaic law to the
nation. It was their duty to admonish, reprove, denounce sin, threaten with the terrors of
judgment, call to repentance, and bring consolation and pardon. Their activity of rebuking
sin and calling for repentance consumed far more of the prophets’ time than any other feature
of their work. The rebuke was driven home with predictions about the punishment that God
intended to send on those failing to heed the prophet’s warning (cf. Jonah 3:4).
Second, they functioned as predictors who announced coming judgment, deliverance, and
events relating to the Messiah and His kingdom. Predicting the future was never intended
merely to satisfy man’s curiosity, but was designed to demonstrate that God knows and

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controls the future, and to give purposeful revelation. The prediction given by a true prophet
would be visibly fulfilled. The failure of the prediction to be fulfilled would indicate that the
prophet had not spoken the word of Yahweh (cf. Deut. 18:20-22). In 1 Samuel 3:19 it is said
of Samuel that the Lord was with him and let none of his prophetic words fail (lit., “fall to the
ground”).
Finally, they functioned as watchmen over the people of Israel (Ezek. 3:17). Ezekiel stood
as a watchman on the walls of Zion ready to trumpet a warning against religious apostasy.
He warned the people against political and military alliances with foreign powers, the
temptation to become involved in idolatry and Canaanite cultic worship, and the danger of
placing excessive confidence in religious formalism and sacrificial ritual.
While the prophets functioned in various ways as they communicated God’s message, they
occupied one major role in Israel’s religious system. The prophets in Israel occupied the role
of a royal diplomat or prosecuting attorney, indicting the nation for violations of the Mosaic
covenant.
Comparison of the Four Major Prophets1

Comparison of the Four Major Prophets

Isaiah Jeremiah Ezekiel Daniel

Prophesie Jews in Judea Jews in Judea and Jews captive in Jews captive in
d To: captivity Babylon Babylon and Gentile
kings

Concernin Judah and Judah and The whole house of Israel and Gentile
g: Jerusalem Nations (Jer. 1:5, Israel Nations
(Isa. 1:1; 2:1) 9-10; 2:1-2) (Ezek. 2:3-6; 3:4-10, (Dan. 2:36ff; 9)
17)

During the Uzziah, Josiah, Jehoahaz, Zedekiah Jehoiakim, Jehoiachin,

reigns of: Jotham, Ahaz, Jehoiakim, (king of Judah); Zedekiah
Hezekiah Jehoiachin, (kings of Judah).
Nebuchadnezzar
(kings of Zedekiah
(king of Babylon) Nebuchadnezzar
Judah) (kings of Judah)
(king of Babylon

Dates: 740-680 B.C. 627-585 B.C. 592-570 B.C. 605-536 B.C.

Historical 2 Kings 15- 2 Kings 22-25 Daniel 1-6 Daniel 1-6

Setting: 21;
2 Chronicles
26-30

1
The following chart comparing the four major prophets is taken from The Ryrie Study Bible, Expanded
Edition, Moody Press, 1995, p. 1151.

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Self-Assessment Exercise: Write a short note on the meaning and task of Old Testament
prophets.
Introduction to Isaiah
Many scholars consider Isaiah to be the greatest of Old Testament prophecies and it is the
head of the prophetic books. Isaiah lived in Jerusalem in the 8th century B.C. He prophesied
for over forty years during the reigns of Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah. The vision of the glory
of God that he experienced during his call influenced the whole of his life and ministry. He
spoke about the holiness and righteousness of God, the sin of people, and the forgiveness
available from God.
An important issue of scholarly interest in the study of Isaiah is that the visions and
prophecies are probably not all by the same prophet. It is clear that Isaiah wrote down some
of the prophecies (6, 8; 30:8). Many scholars have pointed out the differences between
chapters 1-39 and 40-66 and so have argued for more than one author of the single Scroll of
Isaiah. However, some other scholars think that the structure and language found throughout
Isaiah speak for its unity. While the debate continues the opinion of Clyde T. Francisco (1977,
169) is educative: “Whether Isaiah is the author of the entire book or whether his disciples
added to it in later times cannot be determined with finality. It is sufficient to know that the
book is the word of God. Regardless of the human authors it speaks with divine authority.”
The three main divisions of Isaiah are chapters 1-39, 40-55, 56-66 and they speak about the
Messiah as King, the Suffering Servant, the shame and future glory of Israel respectively. An
outline of the book adapted from The NIV Study Bible (1995, 1009-1011) is:
Part 1: The Book of Judgement (1-39)
(1) Message of rebuke and promise (1-5)
(2) Prophecies occasional by the Aramean and Israelites threat against Judah (7-12).
(3) Judgement against the nations (13-23).
(4) Judgement and promise (the Lord’s Kingdom) (24-27).
(5) Six woes: five on the unfaithful in Israel and one on Assyria (28-33).
(6) More prophecies on judgement and promise (34-35).
(7) A Historical transition from the Assyrian threat to the Babylonian exile (36-39).
Part 2: The Book of Comfort (40-66)
(8) The deliverance and restoration of Israel (40-48).
(9) The servant’s ministry and Israel’s restoration (49-57),
(10) Everlasting deliverance and everlasting judgement (58-59).
Title of the Book:

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The title, Isaiah, is obviously taken from the name of the human author who, under the
inspiration of the Holy Spirit, composed it. The Hebrew name of this prophet, Yes„aàya„hu‚,
means Yahweh is salvation, which appropriately, is an excellent summary of the theme and
contents of the book.
Theme and Purpose:
As just mentioned, Isaiah’s name provides the theme of the book, “salvation is of Yahweh.”
This is most evident by the fact the term “salvation” occurs some twenty-six times in Isaiah
but only seven time in all the other prophets combined. Because of this, Isaiah has been
called “the evangelical prophet” because he says so much about the salvation and redemptive
work of Messiah. In fact, more is said about the person and work of Messiah in His first and
second advents than in any other Old Testament book. In some respects, Isaiah is a miniature
Bible. It has sixty-six chapters while the Bible has sixty-six books. The first thirty-nine
chapters of Isaiah correspond to the thirty-nine books of the Old Testament which largely
anticipate the coming of Messiah. The last twenty-seven chapters of Isaiah neatly parallel the
twenty-seven chapters of the New Testament because they speak a great deal about Messiah
and His Kingdom as the Servant of the Lord. Chapters 1-39 speak of man’s great need of
salvation while chapters 40-66 reveal God’s provision of Salvation in Messiah and His
kingdom.

Introduction to Jeremiah
Jeremiah probably means “The LORD throws or hurls” and it either indicates that God
“hurled” the prophet into a hostile world or judges, throws the nations down for their sins. He
was born about 650B.C. into a priestly family in Anathoth (Anata), a few miles north of
Jerusalem. God called him to be his prophet in 627 B.C. He started his prophetic ministry
about 100 years after Isaiah.
The historical background of his prophecies includes the following (2Kings 22-25; 2 Chr. 34-
36): The wicked King Manasseh was ruling Judah at the time of Jeremiah’s birth, the power
of Assyria was already crumbling; he prophesized during the reigns of the last five kings of
Judah: Josiah (640-609 B.C.), Jehovah (609 B.C.), Jehoiakim (609-597B.C.), Jehoiachin (597
B.C.) and Zedekiah (597-587 B.C.). The people rejected his call for repentance and
Nebuchadnezzar of Babylon broke into Jerusalem in 587 B.C. Later, Jeremiah left Judah for
Egypt along with some people who had remained in Judah. Prophets who were
contemporaries of Jeremiah were Habakkuk, Zephaniah, Daniel and Ezekiel. The prophet
was a lonely figure. His messages make him unpopular, such as: the call for submission to
Babylon before 587 BC, the prediction that the exile will last seventy years. He also
prophesized hope; that after the judgement and the exile God will restore the people and bless
them with joy and prosperity in their homeland (Jer. 29). Unlike the other prophets, Jeremiah
had a personal secretary/scribe, Baruch (Jer. 36). His book has various literary forms like
prose and poetry and it is difficult to identify a particular theme and central purpose in the
unrelated prophecies. Also, the arrangement is not chronological. For instance, the message
of comfort to the exiles in Babylon is presented in chapter 31 before the prediction of the

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exile in chapter 36. It has been suggested that the arrangement is topical with the stories of
the life of the prophet inserted between them.
Seven major collections of the book are:
(1) The earlier prophecies of Jeremiah (1-6),
(2) False and true wisdom (8:4-10:25),
(3) Pessimistic messages (11-20),
(4) Polemics against Kings and prophets (22-29)
(5) Passages of hope (30-33)
(6) Historical section (from the siege of Jerusalem into the flight into Egypt, 37-44).
(7) Foreign prophecies (46-51). Jeremiah (and his ministry) was like that of Jesus in some
respects so much that people thought Jesus was Jeremiah come back from the dead!
Self-Assessment Exercise
The arrangement of the book of Jeremiah is not chronological but topical. Discuss.
Critical Introduction to Ezekiel
The name Ezekiel means “God will strengthen” or “God strengthens.” He was the Son of
Buzi (1:3). He was most likely training to be a priest for service in the temple when King
Jehoiakim surrendered Jerusalem to the Babylonian army in 597B.C. Ezekiel was a part of
the aristocracy of Jerusalem, about 10,000 men consisting of statesmen, soldiers and
craftsmen taken into exile (2 Kings 24:14). In Babylon Ezekiel lived at Telabib by the Keber
River (3:15; 1:1). Ezekiel had a wife but they appear to be childless (24:16-18). Five years in
exile, about the age of 30, he was called to be a prophet (1:1). In his call he received a vision
of the awesome majesty, fire and glory of God. Against this dazzling brilliance, he preached
about the sin of people and the inevitability of judgment.
Ezekiel was seen to be an extraordinary (even, abnormal) personality. He was a priest by
training but a prophet by call and practical ministry. His prophecies are full of visions,
ecstasies and symbols. With the prophet Ezekiel, prophecy merges into “apocalyptic.” He
used the method of pantomime to communicate his message: “mud pies” (4:1ff), eating a
meal publicly (4:9ff), the use of a knife to cut his beard (5:1ff) and the death of his wife
(24:15ff).
There are some problems associated with the book of Ezekiel in critical scholarship. The first
is that some laws appear in the book of Ezekiel which are not found in the Pentateuch (e.g.
Ezekiel 45:18-20). The rabbis were thus reluctant to canonize the book. This is because the
“prophetic books were considered to provide a commentary on an interpretation of Torah,”
according to Davidson (1964, 18). Another problem is that the visions and symbols are
difficult to interpret and so the speculation can lead to fanaticism. The third is the question of
background, whether the prophecies were given in both Jerusalem and Babylon. Did the
prophet visit Jerusalem in body or in his spirit?

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Introduction to Ezekiel
The name Ezekiel means “God will strengthen” or “God strengthens.” He was the Son of
Buzi (1:3). He was most likely training to be a priest for service in the temple when King
Jehoiakim surrendered Jerusalem to the Babylonian army in 597B.C. Ezekiel was a part of
the aristocracy of Jerusalem, about 10,000 men consisting of statesmen, soldiers and
craftsmen taken into exile (2 Kings 24:14).
In Babylon Ezekiel lived at Telabib by the Keber River (3:15; 1:1). Ezekiel had a wife but
they appear to be childless (24:16-18). Five years in exile, about the age of 30, he was called
to be a prophet (1:1). In his call he received a vision of the awesome majesty, fire and glory
of God. Against this dazzling brilliance, he preached about the sin of people and the
inevitability of judgment.
Ezekiel was seen to be an extraordinary (even, abnormal) personality. He was a priest by
training but a prophet by call and practical ministry. His prophecies are full of visions,
ecstasies and symbols. With the prophet Ezekiel, prophecy merges into “apocalyptic.” He
used the method of pantomime to communicate his message: “mud pies” (4:1ff), eating a
meal publicly (4:9ff), the use of a knife to cut his beard (5:1ff) and the death of his wife
(24:15ff).
There are some problems associated with the book of Ezekiel in critical scholarship. The first
is that some laws appear in the book of Ezekiel which are not found in the Pentateuch (e.g.
Ezekiel 45:18-20). The rabbis were thus reluctant to canonize the book. This is because the
“prophetic books were considered to provide a commentary on an interpretation of Torah,”
according to Davidson (1964, 18). Another problem is that the visions and symbols are
difficult to interpret and so the speculation can lead to fanaticism. The third is the question of
background, whether the prophecies were given in both Jerusalem and Babylon. Did the
prophet visit Jerusalem in body or in his spirit?
One of the themes of the book is the principle of individual responsibility before God: The
book can be outlined as follows:
(1) Oracles of judgement against Israel (1-24),
(2) Oracles of judgement against the nations (25-32),
(3) Oracles of consolation or restoration of Israel (33-48).
Self-Assessment Exercise:
Mention (1) Some peculiarities of the person and prophecy of Ezekiel, (2) Three critical
problems in the study of the book of Ezekiel.
Introduction to Daniel
Daniel was a man of Nobel birth (1:3). He was part of the first batch of Judean exiles taken to
Babylon by Nebuchadnezzar in 605 B.C. (1:1f). Daniel grew up as a youth during the reign
of Josiah and the reform most likely influenced his character. He was a man of good physical

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quality combined with marked ability and exceptional intelligence (1:4f). His life was also
characterized by faithfulness, discipline, excellence and devotion to God (1:20; 2:48; 6:4).
Daniel was not a typical kind of prophet; he was more of a statesman. He served in the
Babylonian court. For the whole period of the exile, he was “in a position of influence at the
political centre of the Babylonian Empire.” Here was a statesman-prophet who won victory
for God and God’s people in a foreign land.
Like most other Old Testament books, much of the book of Daniel was written in Hebrew but
a part (2:4-7:28) is Aramaic. By internal evidence (9:2; 10:2) Daniel is to be regarded as the
author of the book. The debate about the date and authorship of Daniel continues. Some
scholars argue in favour of an exilic period by the 6th-century prophet while others prefer a
later date because the work looks like some other apocalyptic writings of the Maccabean
period and that it was written in the 2nd century B.C. The good thing is that the dating does
not affect the interpretation of the book.
The book of Daniel teaches the sovereignty of God (5:21). The visions of Daniel consistently
show God triumphing (7:11, 26-27; 8:25:9:27; 11:45; 12:13). The book is structured into
three parts: (1) The prologue, the setting (1) (2) The destinies of the nations of the world (or
the history of Daniel) (2-6).
CRITICAL INTRODUCTION TO THE LATTER PROPHETS II
General Introduction to the Minor Prophets
It was Jesus ben Sirach (Sira) who is known to have first referred to “the twelve prophets”
and named the books. He did this in Ecclesiasticus, one of the books of the Apocrypha around
190 B.C. The twelve prophecies were written together as a unit in a scroll. Josephus, the first-
century Jewish historian, also mentioned the grouping. It appears as if Augustine gave them
the name “Minor Prophets” because of the small size of the prophetic books when compared
with those of Isaiah, Jeremiah and Ezekiel. The idea of “minor” does not imply less
importance but the volume of the prophecies.
The arrangement of the twelve works as done below is based on the traditional Jewish canon
according to the chronological order:
- Hosea, Joel, Amos, Obadiah, Jonah and Micah were written (around 8th century B.C.)
during the time of the Assyrian power,
- Nahum, Habakkuk and Zephaniah belong to the period of the decline of Assyria (around 7th
century B.C.)
- Haggai, Zechariah and Malachi are post-exilic prophecies (from the end of the 6th century
B.C.)
Please note that the arrangement is not the order found in the Septuagint. In the traditional
Jewish canon, as in modern versions, the twelve books are placed after the Major Prophets.
Literary Features of the Minor Prophets

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When we study the prophets, we find they all pretty much have the same basic ingredients:
(1) warning of impending judgment because of the nations’ sinfulness; (2) a description of the
sin; (3) a description of the coming judgment; (4) a call for repentance; and (4) a promise of
future deliverance.
If you want to outline a prophetic book, how do you recognize where one unit begins and
ends?2 They use an introductory or concluding formula like “This is what the Lord says…”
They then use what is called “inclusio” (they begin and end a section with the same word or
phrase). And they use several common literary forms:
1. Judgment speech which contains two parts: (a) Part One—The Accusation; (b) Part
Two—The Judgment
2. A Woe oracle—like a judgment speech, except that it starts with “Woe...”
3. Exhortation/call to repentance—consists of appeal with motivation (in the form of a
promise and or threat). (Amos 5:4-6; Joel 2:12-14)
4. Salvation announcement—often alludes to a lamentable situation and focuses on the
Lord’s saving intervention (Amos 9:11-12)
5. Salvation oracle—introduced by the exhortation “fear not” (Isa 41:8-16)
6. Salvation portrayal—a description, often idealized and in hyperbolic terms, of God’s
future blessings on his people (Amos 9:13).
Chronology Overview
Their Order in the English Bible

1. Hosea 4. Obadiah 7. Nahum 10. Haggai

2. Joel 5. Jonah 8. Habakkuk 11. Zechariah
3. Amos 6. Micah 9. Zephaniah 12. Malachi

Their Grouping According to the Exile and The Kingdoms of Israel and Judah

Group Book Approximate

Dates

Pre-Exilic Jonah (preached to Nineveh) 780-850

Amos 765-750
Prophets of Israel
Hosea 755-715

Prophets of Judah Obadiah 840

Joel 835-796
Micah 740-690
Nahum 630-612
Habakkuk 606-604
2

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 Zephaniah 625

Post-Exilic Prophets Haggai 520

Zechariah 515
Prophets of the Returned
Malachi 430
Remnant

Introduction to Hosea
The name Hosea means “salvation” and it is equivalent of the names Joshua and Jesus. Hosea
was an 8th century prophet from northern Israel who prophesized to his own people. He
became a prophet at the end of the reign of Jeroboam II, a powerful King of Israel. The whole
of his ministry lasted for forty years. His ministry ended just before the fall of Samarian to
Assyria in 722 B.C. The period of his prophecy (2 Kings 14:13-17:6) in Israel was
characterized by rejection of God, idolatrous practices, and moral and political degradation.
Hosea was an evangelist of God’s grace and love. Through a bitter personal experience of a
wife who betrayed and deserted him, he spoke passionately about how Israel has spurned the
covenant love of God for them. He called for repentance because the steadfast love of God
would not abandon his people (Hos. 11). A concise outline of the book is:
(1) The unfaithful wife and the faithful husband (1:1-3:5),
(2) The unfaithful nation and the faithful God (4-14)
Introduction to Joel
The name Joel means “Yahweh is God”. Not much is known about this prophet apart from
the name of his father (1:1). There is also the problem of the date of the prophecies. Two
suggestions are: either an early date, 8th century B.C., during the reign of Joash in Judah
(around 837 B.C.) or a late date, 4th century B.C. in post-exilic times (around 400 B.C.).
Joel called for true repentance (2:13) because “physical disaster accompanies moral
disintegration. How a man lives about his God vitally influences his earthly joys and
sorrows” according to Francisco (1977, 230), Joel is popularly known today as a prophet of
Pentecost because of the prophecy of the coming of the Holy Spirit upon all flesh (2:28-32).
A brief outline of the book is:
(1) Judah experiences a foretaste of the day of the lord (1:1-2:17),
(2) Judah is assured in the day of the Lord (2:18-3:21).
Introduction to Amos
The name Amos means “sustained”. He lived in or around Tekoa, about twelve miles south of
Jerusalem. He was a shepherd and dresser of fig trees (1:1; 7:14-15) when he started to
prophesy to the northern Kingdom of Israel. He preached in the market in Bethel, the
religious centre of the worship of calf-image set up by Jeroboam I (I Kings12:25-33).

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Amos lived in the reign of Jeroboam II (793-753 B.C.). It was a time of military success and
great material prosperity for Israel. However, beneath the superficial affluence the nation was
rotten with social and religious corruption as well as oppression of the poor (3:12; 41; 6:4).
After denouncing the sin of the surrounding nations (1:1-2:3), Amos prophesied against the
evil and wickedness of Judah and Israel (2:4-16). Amos cried for justice and righteousness in
the land (5:24). He opposed a religion of sacrifice that lacked social morality. However, he
was not a prophet of doom as he is sometimes wrongly labelled, for he ended his message
with the hope of restoration and blessing for Israel (9:11-15). The people in pleasure rejected
the message, ignorant of their impending doom. Just thirty years after the death of Jeroboam
II the Assyrians invaded and destroyed Samaria and took the people to exile.
Scholars have observed that the language of the Book of Amos is pure and classical Hebrew.
The shepherd did not only know sound theology he also demonstrated superb literary skill to
communicate God’s message to the elite of his days. An outline of the book provided by
Millard and Stek in The NIV Study Bible (1995, 1338-1339) is:
(1) Superscription and introduction (1:1-1:2)
(2) Judgement on the nations (1:3-2:16)
(3) Oracles against Israel (3:1-5:17)
(4) Announcements of exile (5:18-6:14)
(5) Visions of divine retribution (7:1-9:10)
(6) Restored Israel’s blessed future (9:11-15)
Introduction to Obadiah
The name Obadiah means “servant (or worshipper) of the LORD” and it was a very common
name in the Old Testament (e.g. 1 Chr. 3:21; 2 Chr. 17:7; Ezra 8:9; Neh. 10:5). He is not the
same as the Obadiah of the day of Prophet Elijah (I Kings 18). The book has only twenty-one
verses and it is the shortest in the Old Testament.
The occasion of the prophecy is the capture and devastation of Jerusalem by the Babylonians
and the Edomites’ support of the invasion. The prophecies of the book most likely referred to
the destruction of Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar of Babylon (around 605-586 B.C.). In that
case, he was a contemporary of Jeremiah and the two prophets may have shared a common
source given the parallels between Obadiah 1-9 and Jeremiah 49:7-22. Some scholars hold to
an early date (853-841 B.C.) because of the invasion of Jerusalem by the Philistines and the
Arabs (Arabians) at that period.
Obadiah prophesied the downfall of Edom (vv. 4, 15). The Edomites were descendants of
Esau and lived in the mountainous region Southeast of the Red Sea. The Edomites took pride
in their strongholds. Obadiah then prophesied the prosperity of Israel (v. 21). An outline of
the books offered by Francisco (1977, 213) is:
(1) Destruction of Edom inevitable (1-9, 15b),

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(2) Reasons for the destruction (10-14)
(3) Day of Yahweh near (15a, 16-21).
Introduction to Jonah
The name Jonah means “dove”, the principal character of the book. Though there is no
internal evidence, the prophet Jonah has been traditionally recognized as the author. He was
the son of Amittai (1:1) from Gath Hepher in Zebulum (2Kings 14:25; Jos. 19:10, 13). The
prophet ministered in 800-750 B.C. during the time of King Jeroboam II of Israel (793-753
B.C.). Some scholars think that the book was written after 612 B.C. There are two schools of
thought in the interpretation of Jonah. The first is that it is a literal account and experience of
the prophet. The other argues that it is an allegory like the parable of the Good Samaritan.
Whatever is the position the lessons of the story is not debatable. God’s people have a
missionary task to the whole world. It was particularly, primarily directed at Israel to make
Yahweh known to the Gentile nations. The book can be divided into two parts:
(1) Jonah flees his mission (1-2),
(2) Jonah reluctantly fulfils his mission (3-4).
Introduction to Jonah
The name Jonah means “dove”, the principal character of the book. Though there is no
internal evidence, the prophet Jonah has been traditionally recognized as the author. He was
the son of Amittai (1:1) from Gath Hepher in Zebulum (2Kings 14:25; Jos. 19:10, 13). The
prophet ministered in 800-750 B.C. during the time of King Jeroboam II of Israel (793-753
B.C.). Some scholars think that the book was written after 612 B.C.
There are two schools of thought in the interpretation of Jonah. The first is that it is a literal
account and experience of the prophet. The other argues that it is an allegory like the parable
of the Good Samaritan. Whatever is the position the lessons of the story is not debatable.
God’s people have a missionary task to the whole world. It was particularly, primarily
directed at Israel to make Yahweh known to the Gentile nations. The book can be divided into
two parts:
(1) Jonah flees his mission (1-2),
(2) Jonah reluctantly fulfils his mission (3-4).

Introduction to Micah
The name Micah means “Who is like Yahweh?” His home town is Moresheth or Moresheth
Gath (1:1; 1:14) in southwest Judah. Micah was thus a simple countryman. He spoke like a
village person and straight forward. Both as a result of his apparent dislike of cities as well as
the sufferings of common people, he “denounces rulers, priests and prophets; Deplores the
money-grubbing exploitation of the helpless; dishonesty in business; sham religion”
according to The Lion Handbook to the Bible (1983, 449).

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Micah was particularly concerned about how the social ills of both Judah and Israel affected
people in small towns and villages like his homeland. He thus directed his messages to
Samaria and Jerusalem, the capital cities of the two kingdoms.
Micah is regarded as an 8th-century prophet along with Amos, Hosea, and Isaiah. Most
scholars agree that he wrote the first three chapters (which describe the doom of Samaria and
Jerusalem) sometime between 724 and 701 B.C. However, he did not only proclaim
judgement and the fall of Samaria and Jerusalem' he also prophesied restoration. As
explained by David and Pat Alexander (1983, 449), he sees a glorious future, when Jerusalem
will become the religious centre of the world, and Bethlehem give birth to a greater David
who will rule over all God’s people” (Micah 5:2cf; Matt. 2:3-6).
MacRae and McComiskey offer this outline Micah in The NIV Study Bible (1995, 1364):
(1) Superscription (1:1),
(2) Judgement against Israel and Judah (1:2-3:12),
(3) Hope for Israel and Judah (4-5),
(4) The Lord’s case against Israel (6),
(5) Gloom turns to triumph (7).
INTRODUCTION TO THE LATTER PROPHETS III

Introduction to Nahum
Nahum expresses the idea of consolation and it means comfort. He is called “the Elkoshite”
(1:1) and this suggests that he was a native of Elkosh, a town of uncertain location. He seems
to come from Judah. Prophet Nahum uttered the oracles recorded between the sack of Thebes
by the Assyrians (663 B.C.) and 612 B.C. The fall of Nineveh appears to be imminent (2:1;
3:4, 19) and this was fulfilled in 612 B.C. with the attack of the Babylonians and the Medes.
Nahum ministered during the reign of Josiah and he was thus a contemporary of Zephaniah
and Jeremiah.
Like that of Jonah, the subject of Nahum is also Nineveh, the capital city of Assyria.
However, while Jonah reports that Nineveh repented and was not punished Nahum predicts
its destruction. He pronounced the judgement of God on the city because of her sins like
idolatry, cruelty, oppression and wickedness.
To the Hebrews Assyria was a symbol of their treachery and oppression. Some scholars think
that Nahum was guilty of “shallow and narrow vindictiveness” since the prophet did not point
out the sins of his people. Theologically, according to Livingston and Barker, “Nahum
declares the universal sovereignty of God. God is Lord of history and of all nations as such he
controls their destinies” (The NIV Study Bible, 1995, 1374). A simple outline of the book is:
(1) Title (1:1)
(2) Nineveh’s judge (1:2-15)

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(3) Nineveh’s judgement (2)
(4) Nineveh’s total destruction (3)

Introduction to Habakkuk
Habakkuk means “embrace” and true to his name, he embraced the people of Judah in his
arms. He was a contemporary of Jeremiah and he most likely lived in Judah towards the end
of the reign of Josiah (640-60B.C) or at the beginning of Jehoiakim (609-598). The book was
most likely written at the latter part of the 7th century B.C.
Habakkuk is a unique prophetic writing. It does not include oracles to be addressed to people.
The record is a dialogue between him and God. The concern of the prophet was the
oppression and wickedness that was going on in Judah. He was worried that God did not do
anything about the situation. The prophet became more troubled when God decided to use
evil, “ruthless” Babylonians to judge his own people (1:6, 12, 13). He thus wrestled with the
same problem recorded in Psalm 73: Why do evil people sometime prosper while the
righteous suffers? Why do God’s people sometime suffer why the wicked go free?
We see him as a man of vigorous and deep faith. He engaged in religious speculation and
questioned God but he did not lose his faith Introduction to Habakkuk
Habakkuk means “embrace” and true to his name, he embraced the people of Judah in his
arms. He was a contemporary of Jeremiah and he most likely lived in Judah towards the end
of the reign of Josiah (640-60 B.C.) or at the beginning of Jehoiakim (609-598). The book
was most likely written in the latter part of the 7th century B.C.
Habakkuk is a unique prophetic writing. It does not include oracles to be addressed to people.
The record is a dialogue between him and God. The concern of the prophet was the
oppression and wickedness that was going on in Judah. He was worried that God did not do
anything about the situation. The prophet became more troubled when God decided to use
evil, “ruthless” Babylonians to judge his people (1:6, 12, 13). He thus wrestled with the same
problem recorded in Psalm 73: Why do evil people sometimes prosper while the righteous
suffer? Why do God’s people sometimes suffer why do the wicked go free? We see him as a
man of vigorous and deep faith. He engaged in religious speculation and questioned God but
he did not lose his faith
Title (1:1)
(2a) Habakkuk’s first complaint: why does the evil in Judah go unpunished? (1:2-4)
(2b) God’s answer: The Babylonians will punish Judah (1:5-11)
(3a) Habakkuk’s second complaint: How can God use wicked Babylon to punish a people
more righteous than themselves? 1:12-2:1).
(3b) God’s answer: Babylon will be punished, and faith will be rewarded (2:2-20)
(4) Habakkuk’s prayer: After asking for manifestations of God’s wrath and mercy, he closes
with a confession of trust and joy in God (3).

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Introduction to Zephaniah
The name Zephaniah means “Yahweh hides” or the person “whom Yahweh has hidden.” He was a
descendant of the royal family of King Hezekiah and so was a person of high social standing (1:1). He
was born during the evil reign of Manasseh king of Judah. He lived in the Southern Kingdom and he
was most likely a citizen of Jerusalem (1:4, 10-11).

Zephaniah prophesied during the reign of King Josiah (640-609 B.C.). He was a contemporary of
Jeremiah, Nahum and most likely Habakkuk. He must have prophesized before the reform of Josiah
and the death of Ashurbanipal, the king of Assyria in 627 B.C. Scholars question the authenticity of
many verses in chapters one, two and three of Zephaniah. The prophet announced the approaching
judgement on Judea with the central theme of “the day of Yahweh”. The outline of the book provided
by Francisco (1977, 194) is:

(1) The coming day of Yahweh (1:1-6)

(2) Judah shall be punished severely (1:7-2:3)

(3) Heathen also shall be punished (2:4-15)
(4) Through deserving complete destruction, a remnant of Judah and of the heathen shall be
saved (3:1-20).

Introduction to Haggai
Haggai means “festal” and he was probably born during one of the pilgrimage feasts of Israel
(Unleavened Bread, Pentecost/weeks or Tabernacles; cf. Dot. 16:16). Haggai and Zechariah both
encouraged exiles who returned to build the temple. It has been suggested that Haggai was one of
those who saw the Solomon Temple in its glory and also witnessed the destruction (2:3). If this is
true, he must be old (probably in early 70s) when he prophesized. Haggai, Zechariah and Malachi are
the last three books of the Old Testament and they are post exilic. Cyrus king of Persia who
conquered Babylon issued a decree in 538 B.C. which allowed the Jews led by Zerubbabel to return
to Jerusalem. The exiles returned from Babylon in 537B.C. with enthusiasm but they met a sparse
and dispirited population that was poor unlike the prosperity that they enjoyed in Babylon. Prophet
Haggai gave these messages in 520 B.C. He stated the consequences of obeying and disobeying the
Lord (1:6, 11, 12:16-17 cf. 2:7-9, 19). One important permanent relevance of the little book is that he
like Malachi called the people to right priorities. An outline of the book based on the four messages
structured by Herbert Wolf in The NIV Study Bible (1995, 1394) is:

(1) First Message: The call to rebuild the temple (1:1-11)

(2) The response of Zerubbabel and the people (1:12-15)

(3) Second Message: The temple to be filled with glory (2:1-9)

(4) Third Message: A defiled people purified and blessed (2:10-19)

(5) Fourth Message: The promise to Zerubbabel (2:20-23).

Introduction to Zechariah
Prophet Zechariah was born in Babylonia while people were in Exile. He saw Jerusalem for
the first time when he travelled with the exiles who returned home after the exile. He also

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came from a family of priests. Along with Haggai he was involved in the rebuilding of the
temple. While both Haggai and Zechariah were passionate for the restoration of the temple,
they were different in some respects. Haggai was old and straightforward in presenting his
message. His ministry was brief. Zechariah was youthful and his ministry which also started
in 520 B.C. lasted for some years. Zechariah was also visionary like Ezekiel and Daniel.
The book of Zechariah has two major sections: There is a significant difference between he
visions of chapter 1-8 and the messages of chapters 9-14. Some scholars even suggest a
change of authorship. While the first section was based on the immediate historical situation,
written by the prophet in his early life, the second was written later in life as an apocalyptic
drama. Zechariah contains many references to the messiah which were fulfilled in the life of
Jesus Christ. A brief form outline of the book is as follows:
(1) Introduction. Return to Yahweh (1:1-6)
(2) Messages of encouragement to the builders (1:7-8:23)
(3) The burden of Hadrach and other heathen cities, together with messages of mingled
promise and warning for Israel (9-11)
(4) A group of prophecies concerning Israel (Judah and other tribes who returned) (12-14).

Introduction to Malachi
Malachi means “My Messenger.” It may have been a proper noun, the actual name of the prophet or a
pseudonym. The authorship of the book is identified with Ezra in Jewish tradition. Nehemiah and
Malachi were likely to be contemporaries because of the similarity between the sins denounced by
both prophets.

Under the leadership of Zerubbabel, the governor, the exiles who returned finished the temple in 516
B.C. In the last two sections we discussed how the prophetic activities of Haggai and Zechariah
encouraged the work. It is now about 80 years later and The Lion Handbook to the Bible (1983, 459)
explain the prevailing conditions as follows:

And since then disillusionment had set in. Times were hard, and the promised prosperity had not been
realized. The people tended to feel that the prophets had been shooting them a line; that God was a bit
of a let-down. This showed in an increasingly casual attitude to worship and the standards God has
set.

This was the occasion for the prophetic ministry of Malachi.

The book was written around 460-430 B.C. before Nehemiah became governor of Jerusalem or
during his absence later. The style of the book is didactic based on a series of questions asked by both
God and the people: God makes a charge; the people reply; the prophet teaches a lesson. The
approach is academic and the prophecy assumed a form of teaching and it resulted in the
scholasticism of rabbinic. It has been described as “prophecy within the Law” (4:4). The outline of
the book

looks thus:

(1) Title and Introduction (1:1-5)

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(2) Neglect of Yahweh by Israel, especially by the priests (1:6-2:9)

(3) Taking of heathen wives, and divorcing of Jewish wives forbidden (2:10-16)

(4) Scepticism rebuked (2:16-4:3)

(5) Conclusion. Keep the Law of Moses and wait for the forerunner, who will promote love and unity
(4:4-6).

INTRODUCTION TO THE WRITINGS I – WORSHIP BOOKS

The books that constitute the third section of the Old Testament are called the “Writings” or the
scriptures. The Greek title is Hagiographa meaning the sacred writings. They are a varied collection
of three major kinds of literature as will be studied in this module.

The first are the books of worship. The Psalms are for private devotion and corporate hymn singing.
Five scrolls (Megilloth) are used in religious festivals: Song of Songs (Passover), Ruth (Harvest/
weeks/Ingathering), Lamentations (Destruction of Jerusalem) and Esther (Purim). (Sometime
Ecclesiastes is also regarded to be a festival scroll of the Feast of Tabernacles).

The second are the history books which retell the story of Israel. They are 1 & 2. Chronicles, Ezra,
and Nehemiah. (While Daniel was written about the same period, we have discussed it in unit 9 as a
major prophet).

The third is wisdom literature. The essential wisdom literature books of the Old Testament are
Proverbs, Job and Ecclesiastes. Please refer to Unit 2 Section 3.1.2 and revise how the Writings were
canonized. In spite of the variety of the collection of the Writings, their emphases and uses, they have
one thing is common. Like it applies to the rest of the Old Testament and the entire Bible, they teach
us about God and humanity and the relationships between God and man, and man with fellow men.

Introduction to Psalms
The Hebrew title of Psalms is Tehilim meaning “praises” or “song of “praises.” Many of the psalms
are also prayers. The Greek title is psalmoi, melodies or songs set to music. The word Psalter is used
today to refer to the entire collection and it has to do with the musical instrument used to play and
sing the psalms.

The Psalter is made up of five books; this is the traditional grouping. Each book/division is provided
with an appropriate concluding doxology. Many scholars have suggested the theme/emphasis of each
division and its correspondence to a book of the Pentateuch.

The Psalms can also be classified by theme: pleading with God, praising God appealing for
forgiveness, destruction of enemies, prayers for the King or nation, and wisdom. Another possible
grouping of psalms is according to the literary types: hymns, community laments, individual laments
and thanksgivings, and royal psalms. The psalms are poems written by several authors/collectors.
Please refer to and revise poetry in the Old Testament (unit 3, section 3.1.2). The authors of Psalms
include David, Moses, Solomon, Asaph, “Sons of Asaph”, Sons of Korah, Heman, and Ethan.

It is extremely difficult to date individual psalms. They were written over a long period, about 1,000
years from around 1405 (the exodus or desert wandering) to 500 BC (during or after the Babylonian
captivity). The overall teaching, importance and relevance of Psalms that have made them very
popular has been summarized well in The Lion Handbook to the Bible (1983, 327) thus: “The psalms
express the whole range of human feeling and experience, from dark expression to exuberant joy.

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They are rooted in particular circumstances, yet they are timeless, and so among the best-loved most
read, parts of the Bible. In our modern age, we are stirred by the same emotions, puzzled over the
same fundamental problems of life, cry out in need, or worship, to the same God, as the psalmists of
old.”

Testament Critical Introduction to Book 1

By their titles, Psalms 1 to 41 are attributed to David (with the exceptions of 1, 2, 10 and 33). The
frequent use of Yahweh is a distinguishing feature of the psalms in Book One. We will highlight some
psalms in this and other divisions.

Psalm 1: The blessedness of the righteous life (vv.1-3) is contrasted with the destruction that awaits
the wicked (vv. 4-6). The things that make for blessing are the study and practice of God’s law, to
turn away from evil life and associations.

Psalms 8: The transcendence of God and the vastness of the universe (vv. 2-3). Man is insignificant
when compared with God’s greatness (v. 4) but significant as the crown of creation (vv. 5-8). God is
to be praised (vv. 1, 9).

Psalm 22: Triumph over suffering. The two distinct parts of this Psalm are: prayer of suffering (vv. 1-
21), and song of triumph (vv. 22-31). Note that psalm 22:8 is applied to Jesus Christ in the New
Testament (Matt 27:43). The psalm teaches that, to a godly life, defect is temporary, victory is certain.

Psalm 23: The Lord is our shepherd: who provides food and drink (vv. 1, 2a, 5, 6), who gives rest (vv.
2a, 2b, 3a), who leads and guides (vv. 2b, 3a), who gives courage and comfort (vv. 4a, 6).

Introduction to Psalms: Books 2

Some of these psalms were written by “Sons of Korah” (42-49) and some by King David (51-
65, 68-70). The name Elohim predominates in these Psalms compiled for tabernacle and
temple services. Psalms 42 and 43: These two psalms constitute only one poem in many
Hebrew manuscripts. The two have the same theme and the same refrain (42:5, 11; 43:5).
They portray aspiration of the psalmist(s) for God. The three main emphases are: expressions
of aspirations for God (42:1-2, 5); reasons for the aspirations (42:6, 11; 43:1-5); a vow to
praise God (43:4). It teaches the longing of the soul for God when in exile, away from God’s
purpose, plan and promise. Psalm 51: This psalm is a prayer of repentance. Verses 18 & 19
seem to belong to a later period, the fall of Jerusalem to Babylonians. The occasion is the sins
of David: adultery with Bathsheba and the death of Uriah (2 Sam 11, 12). David made this
confession when Prophet Nathan confronted him. The prayer contains: the basis of
repentance (v.1), the need for repentance (v. 5), expressions of repentance (vv. 1-2, 9-10, 12)
and the results of repentance (vv. 13-15). The prayer teaches about the mercy and the gravity
of sin. Psalm 65: It is a song of praise and Thanksgiving. We should praise and thank God
because: He forgives sins (vv. 3-4), He is sovereign (vv. 5-8), He provides miraculously for
his people (vv. 9-13).

Introduction to Psalms: Book 3

Most of these psalms are called “Psalms of Asaph” (73-83). Some others belong to “Sons of
Korah” and one is attributed to David. Asaph was one of the leading musicians in the court of
David (see 1 Chr. 6:33; 2 Chr. 5:12). his sons continued the “ministry” after his death.

Psalm 73: Why Does the wicked prosper? This psalm deals with an important issue about the
providence of God, and how God is ordering the world. The question is, why does God (who

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is good) allow evil people to suffer? Why does trouble fall on those who do not deserve it?
This theme is called theodicy in theology and some other bible passages that wrestle with the
issue are Psalms 37, 49 and the book of Job. Psalm 73 discusses the prosperity of the wicked
as outlined by John Stott (1988, 70-72) thus: the problem (vv. 1-14); approaches of perplexity
and hopelessness, envy, bitterness, temptation) (vv. 15, 16); solution to the problem (vv. 17-
27). The wicked will be destroyed finally. The righteous need not envy them.

Psalm 84: This psalm is like a pilgrim’s song. It presents longing for the temple as found in
some of the pilgrim psalms (120-134). Israelites loved the Jerusalem temple and most likely
sang these Psalms as the three annual festivals. The two emphases of the psalm are the desire
to be in God’s dwelling place for blessing (vv. 1-7); and a personal prayer for the experience
(vv. 8-12). The psalm teaches the modern man the happiness we derive in corporate worship.

Introduction to Psalms: Book 4

One of the psalms of this book is attributed to Moses (90), two to David (101,103), while the
others are anonymous. Yahweh is constantly used.

Psalm 91: A Psalm of Security in God. While there may be troubles in the life of a person
who trusts God (v. 15) he will be protected from man or beast, by day or night, from war or
disease. The poem can be analysed thus: the basis of the assurance of the believer in God’s
protection (vv. 1-2); the perils that may face the godly (vv. 3, 5, 6, 13, 16); the deliverance of
the believer (vv. 9, 10, 14-15). The psalm teaches the need for the godly to trust God for
security in life.

Psalm 98: A song of God’s sovereignty. God is great. God rules over the nations and direct
the affairs of humanity. The three major parts of the psalm are: God the Saviour (vv. 1-3),
God the King (vv. 4-6) and God the Judge (vv. 7-9). God the righteous King and Judge is the
one reigning over the nations. We have reasons for joyful, wild celebration.

Self – Assessment Exercise: Write a short note on the security of the godly as found in
Psalm 91.

Introduction to Psalms: Book 5 Most of the songs of this book are the Psalms of Ascents, and
include the Yahweh Hallelujah psalms (113-118). It is a book of liturgy.

Psalm 107: The Steadfast love of God for his people. The occasion of the psalm is the
deliverance of Israelites from Babylonian captivity. The psalm drew from the history of Israel:
their oppression in Egypt and their deliverance at the Red Sea (vv. 33-34); provision in the
wilderness (v. 35); occupation of Canaan (vv. 36-38). Response: the redeemed should be glad
(v. 42) because God’s love is unchanging (v. 43).

Psalm 126: A psalm of restoration. Israelites sang this poem when there was physical
restoration - the construction of the temple, followed spiritual restoration – the dissolution of
mixed marriages. The two parts are: joy (vv. 1-3) and prayer for national restoration (vv. 4-6).

Psalm 133. God’s people dwelling together in unity. The short psalm contains: assertions on
the unity - it is good and pleasant (v. 1); the basis of the unity – God’s people are brothers,
members of the same family (v. 1); description of the unity, it is like anointing oil of
consecration and dew that brings blessing (vv. 2-3).

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Psalm 150. Choral symphony of praise. The song begins and ends with Halleluiah (meaning.
Praise the LORD). This psalm is a call for us to praise and worship God: Where should we
praise God? - In the sanctuary, heavens, everywhere (v. 1b); Why should we praise God? –
Because of His power and greatness (v. 2); Who should praise God? – Everything life (v. 6),
How should we praise God? – With prayer, songs, instruments and dance (v. 3-4). There can
be no better final doxology and climax to the whole collection of psalms.

Introduction to Song of Songs

As stated in the last unit this book is associated with one of the great occasions in the
religious year of the Jews, the Passover. In the Hebrew text, the title is “Solomon’s Song of
Songs.” This may mean they are songs by, for or about King Solomon. “Song of Songs” may
also mean the greatest of songs. Concerning the authorship, it appears as if, by internal
evidence, the book is ascribed to Solomon (1:1). He is referred to in several places (1:1, 5;
3:7, 9, 11:8:11-12). The opinion of most scholars today is that while parts of the book refer to
him another author wrote it about him.

There are two theories about the date of the Song. The first is tenth century B.C. during the
reign of Solomon. The second is a later date based on the language. The “Song of Songs” is a
collective of lyric love poems (with pastoral settings) that are passionate. The inclusion of the
book in the Old Testament canon was controversial because it does not mention God and it
appears to be merely a celebration of physical lovemaking.

The “Song of Songs” has been interpreted in different ways. The first interpretation is
allegorical. The poems are considered to be allegories of the love of God for Israel or the
present and relationship between Jesus Christ and the church. This is the traditional view. The
second interpretation which is modern is that it is a poetic drama between two characters, a
bride and the royal bridegroom. A similar view is that the poems involve three characters –
King Solomon, the Shaunamite and her shepherd lover. It is therefore a celebration “of a
maiden’s pure, spontaneous love for her rustic shepherd lover over the country blandishments
of Solomon, who sought to win her for his royal haven.” (The NIV Study Bible, 1955, 996).

However, the song can be interpreted as a celebration of human love that is seen to be
exclusive (2:16), spontaneous (2:7), overwhelming, intense, unquenchable (8:6-7a) and
precious (8:7b). Such beautiful and wonderful even sexual love is a gift of God that should
enrich marital life and relationship. It is not carnal for delightful physical attraction to enrich
faithful, godly, Christian marriage. After all, the husband and wife illustrated the union of
Christ and the church in the New Testament (Eph. 5:32).

A theological outline of the book provided by the NIV Disciple’s Study Bible (1988, 802)
based on the theme of celebration of human love is:

(1) Longing Is a Part of Love (1:1-8)

(2) Love Will Not Be Silent (1:9-2:7)

Spring and Love Go Together (2:8-17)

Love Is Exclusive (3:1-5)

Love Is Enhanced by Friendship (3:6-11)

Love Sees Only the Beautiful (4:1-7)

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 Love Involves Giving and Receiving (4:8-5:11)

Love Means Risking the Possibility of Pain (5:2-6:3)

Words Fail for Expressing Love (6:4-7:9) Love Must Be Given Freely (7:10-13)

True Love Is Priceless (8:1-14)

Introduction to Ruth
This little book is one of the scrolls used for religious festivals in ancient Israel. Ruth is associated
with the harvest feast of weeks of Pentecost. The historical setting of the book is the period of the
judges. Interestingly, this “quiet tale of ordinary life,” contrasts the war strife of the period. Scholars
disagree about the time of writing. Some hold to a post-exilic time. This is because: Ruth is included
among the writings which were canonized late and the author used some Aramaic style. Francisco
(1977, 267) suggests that the book was written late to solve a post-exilic problem. His theory is:
“Naomi is the returning exile, Ruth represents the foreigners who came along at the same time and
Boaz represents the people of the land who were left behind when the others were taken into
captivity. As in Obed, the three were united to bring David, just so these three groups, united, would
produce a great and permanent Kingdom.” Francisco also critiqued the above theory by explaining
two points that may favour pre-exilic time: the style is very close to that of 1 and 2 Samuel; its
canonization was probably delayed because it sanctioned foreign marriages.

The book of Ruth raises certain theological issues about the response of God to human crises,
tragedies and pains of life. How should God’s people respond to disappointments and tragedies of
life? This issue about the providence of God will be examined more in the last unit from the
perspective of the entire Old Testament.

The book of Ruth has some practical lessons. It shows that God can turn bitterness into sweetness.
God can use even ordinary people, even foreigners, to give favour to his people. Also, if the book was
written during the period of the judges, the normal peaceful lives of Naomi, Ruth and Boaz are
significant and the personal faith of the women when the Israelite religion was at a low ebb is
particularly commendable. The sacrificial love of Ruth (a Moabite girl) for Noami, her mother-in-
law, is part of the gracious plan of God for universal salvation. It is a drama of redemption that King
David descended from Ruth and the Messiah comes from the Davidic lineage. An outline of the book
provided by Francisco (1977, 268) is:

(1) Sojourn in Moab for Ten Years, during which Time Naomi’s Husband and Two Sons Die (1:1-5).

(2) Return of Naomi with Ruth to Bethlehem (1:6-22).

(3) Struggle with poverty, Relieved by the Kindness of Boaz (2:1-23)

(4) Bold Act of Ruth (3:1-18)

(5) Redemption of Naomi’s Property, and Marriage of Ruth (4:1-22).

Introduction to Lamentations
Lamentations are read by orthodox Jews in the synagogues in the middle of July to mark the
anniversary of the destruction of Solomon’s temple in 586 B.C. and the destruction of Herod’s temple

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in A.D 70. The title of the book in Hebrew scripture is ̉ekah (“How…!”) the first word in 1:1; 2:1;
and 4:1. In Jewish tradition the book is referred to as qinot(“Lamentations”). The book appears
among the Writings in the Hebrew Bible. However, in the Septuagint and some other texts it appears
with the book of Jeremiah.

While the book is anonymous the authorship was ascribed to Jeremiah in ancient Jewish and
Christian tradition, Jeremiah authorship is based on reasons like external Bible passages (2 Chr.
35:25; Jer. 7:29, 8:21; 9:1, 10, 20, (2) Similarity of vocabulary between the books of lamentations and
Jeremiah, (3) Jeremiah witnessed the destruction of Jerusalem in 586 B.C. If Jeremiah did not write
the laments the author must have been his contemporary. The book was likely written around 575
B.C., between 586 BC and 517 BC (when the rebuilt Jerusalem temple was dedicated).

The people of Judah lamented when Jerusalem was burned, the temple was destroyed and they went
into exile because it meant “God had given them up to the enemy…so these laments express the
poet’s grief, not simply over the suffering and humiliation of his people, but over something deeper
and far worse, that God had rejected his people because of their sin.” (The Lion Handbook to the
Bible, 1983, 414).

The literary feature of Lamentations is interesting. There are five poems in the book corresponding to
the five chapters. The whole book is poetic. The first four are alphabetic acrostics. Each verse starts
with a letter of the Hebrew alphabet. Chapter three is a triple acrostic. While each of the five laments
has 22 verses, the third has 66 verses. This literary structure shows that the laments were carefully
composed. Lamentations is the only book of the Old Testament that consists solely of laments. Many
psalms are lament poems and most of the prophetic books contain different types of laments. The
outline of the book in The NIV Study Bible (1995, 1208) is:

(1) Jerusalem’s Misery and Desolation (1:1-22)

(2) The Lord’s Anger Against His People (2:1-22)

(3) Judah’s Complaint and Basis for Consolation (3:1-66)

(4) The contrast between Zion’s Past and Present (4:1-22)

(5) Judah’s Appeal for God’s Forgiveness (5:1-22)

Introduction to Esther

The book of Esther is associated with the Jewish feast of Purim. The origin of the feast is contained
in the book. The book is the story of a plot to exterminate the Jewish nation in the days of Ahasuerus
(Xerxes) the Persian King and how the plot was thwarted.

We do not know who wrote the book. However, from the internal evidence, the author was a Jewish
resident in a Persian city. Some scholars think that Mordecai wrote the book (9:20). The book was
most likely written between 460 B.C (before the return of Ezra to Jerusalem) and 331 B.C (when the
Persian Empire fell to Greece).

While some scholars treat the book as fiction others regard it as a historical novel because of the
available knowledge of the 5th century B.C. Persian life. One major problem of the book is that it has

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no explicit reference to God, worship, prayer or sacrifice. It has been observed, however, that while
the book lacks a divine name, religious elements are present in the account. This is because (1) The
providential care of God is taught, (2) Mordecai demonstrated trust in God, who he believes is the
Sovereign Lord over all, and (3) Sin and retribution are taught.

The central purpose of the book appears to be the interest of the author “to record the institution of
the annual festival of Purim and to keep alive for later generations the memory of the great
deliverance of the Jewish people during the reign of Xerxes.” (The NIV Study Bible, 1995, 709). A
concise outline of the book is:

(1) How Esther came to be the Queen of Persia (1-2)

(2) How the Jews Fell Under the Ban of Extermination (3-5)

(3) How Danger was turned to Deliverance (6-10).

From our study of four worship books of the Old Testament in this unit (Song of Songs, Ruth,
Lamentations and Esther) the following conclusions can be made:

Song of Songs is a collection and celebration of human love poems with allegorical or dramatic
interpretation

Ruth teaches the providential care of God and the reward for personal faith and sacrificial love

Lamentations is not only an expression of grief for the physical destruction of Jerusalem and the
temple but of God’s rejection of his people.

Esther contains the origin of the feast of Purim and preserves the record of the deliverance of Jews in
Persia.

Introduction of I & 2 Chronicles I

Title I and 2 Chronicles was originally one book with the title dibre hayyamim which mean “the
events of the days.” The events and days may also mean annals and years respectively. Later on the
translators of the Septuagint called the book “the things omitted” showing that they regarded it as a
supplement to the accounts in Samuel and Kings. They were also the first to divide the book into two
parts. Jerome, who translated the Latin Vulgate, suggested the name “Chronicle” to the accounts.

Author/Editor Ezra the scribe and reformer probably wrote Chronicles as well as the books of Ezra
and Nehemiah. If Ezra was not the writer the author appears to have shared some of the concerns of
his reforms Scholars have doubted the traditional view that Chronicles were written from a priestly
viewpoint. There is more evidence to show that the author was a Levite, perhaps a Levitical priest (2
Chr. 29:34).

Date

Chronicles were most likely written during the lifetime of Ezra. The terms, style, theology, religious
interest and ethical outlook indicate a date late in the Persian period. Chronicles were thus probably
written in the latter half of the fifth century around 450 to 425 B.C. They come at the end of writings
because of the lateness of composition or admission for canonization.

Original Readers

Another important basic issue worthy of note about Chronicles is the question of the original leaders.
They were written for those who had returned from exile with Ezra and Nehemiah to rebuild

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Jerusalem. They were written to give this new community a sense of their religious history. The
author gave them historical facts for the sake of true worship, to avoid the mistake of the past that led
God’s people into exile. The history was therefore meant to be a sermon “that prosperity and well-
being depend absolutely on faithfulness to God. Idolatry and neglect of God’s law always has and
always will result in judgement and disaster,” according to The Lion Handbook to the Bible (1983,
286).

Self–Assessment Exercise 3.1 Write short notes on the title, author/editor, date, and original
readers of 1 & 2 Chronicles.

Introduction to 1 & 2 Chronicles II Repetition It is commonly known by Bible readers that

Chronicles is a repetition of the information in 2 Samuel, 1 & 2 Kings. It should be noted that the
repetition is done with some particular interests. One of these is that he laid special interest on Judah
(the Southern Kingdom) instead of Israel (the Northern Kingdom). He also seems to have moralized
the information selected. Within the historical framework, he emphasized true “worship and true
kingship”. He showed concern for Jerusalem's worship and tried to show that worship was more
important than the political state.

Sources

The chronicler is better seen as an editor and not as a writer or author. To compose the book, he
selected and arranged ideas taken from many sources to present a narrative for the reorientation of the
people of God. He used many sources which include the following: 1. 2 Samuel, 1 & 2 Kings 2.
Pentateuch, Judges, Ruth, Psalms, Isaiah, Lamentations and Zechariah 3. “The book of the Kings of
Israel” (2 Chr. 20:34) 4. “The book of the annals of King David” (I Chr. 27:24) 5. “The book of the
Kings of Judah and Israel” or “… of Israel and Judah” (2 Chr. 16:11). 6. “The annotations on the
book of the Kings” (2 Chr. 24:27)

Purpose

Building on some of the points mentioned above, we can see that the chronicler was especially
interested in the reigns of David and Solomon. He devoted the bulk of his account to both of them. In
addition to this observation, he idealized both. He omitted difficulties and anything in his sources that
would tarnish them. He did not mention the sin of David with Bathsheba, the flight from Jerusalem
and such information that can diminish the glory of his reign. He also refrained from mentioning the
terrible sins of Solomon like the execution of those who had wronged David, his idolatry, foreign
wives, failures and rebellions against his rule. Such is the idealization of Davidic and Solomonic
reigns in Chronicles.

Some other features/issues of Chronicles that will not be considered are: high figures like amounts of
money or size of armies; the writing style of two-fold stress; historicity; the sources he used were not
available to others; the use of genealogies. For these and some other literary issues please refer to and
study The NIV Study Bible (1995). An Outline of the two books is: 1. The Genealogies of the Tribes
of Israel, from Creation to Restoration (I Chr. 1-9) 2. The Reign of David (I Chr. 10-29) 3. The Reign
of Solomon (2 Chr. 1-9) 4. The Schism and History of the Kings of Judah to the Restoration of
Jerusalem (2 Chr. 10-36).

Introduction to Ezra – Nehemiah I

Title

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 Ezra and Nehemiah were combined as one in the early Hebrew manuscripts. Josephus (the first
century Jewish historian) and Jewish Talmud refer to them as the book of Ezra. The Septuagint also
regarded them to be one. The beginning of both (Ezra 1.1, Neh. 1:1) can be taken as either two
separate compositions or the same. Origen distinguished between the two calling them I Ezra and II
Ezra. Jerome who translated the Latin Vulgate called Nehemiah “the second book of Esdras (Ezra).”
That tradition continued till 1448 when the two were separated.

Author/Date

It appears as if the same person(s) wrote the two books as well as Chronicles. The most popular
opinion is that Ezra wrote the two books but the personal pronouns show that the chronicler used the
personal memoirs of the two. The four books share the same historical perspective. Actually “Ezra,
Nehemiah and Esther cover the last century of Old Testament Jewish history, roughly 538-433 B.C.
… the Jewish events belong to the time following the overthrow of the Babylonian Empire by Cyrus,
King of Persia, in 539,” according to The Lion Handbook to the Bible (1983, 306). The composition
of Ezra may be dated around 450-440 BC and that of Nehemiah around 433-430 B.C. Both Ezra and
Nehemiah were written in Late Hebrew. A part was written in Aramaic, the international language
during the period.

Order of Ezra and Nehemiah

2 Chronicles ended with the destruction of Jerusalem while the people were carried to Babylonian
exile by Nebuchadnezzar in 586 B.C. Ezra follows from the end of Chronicles (Study 2 Chr. 36:22-23
and Ezra 1.1-3). The three-stage return of the exiles to Jerusalem is:

1. The first party which returned with Zerubbabel in 538/7 B.C. to rebuild the temple at Jerusalem.
The story of Esther belongs to this period, before the return of Ezra (7:1).

2. The Second party arrived in Jerusalem in the seventh year of Artaxerxes (Ez. 7:8). This took place
around 458 B.C.

3. The third party led by Nehemiah arrived in the 20th year (Neh. 2:1) at 445 B.C. This is the
traditional position. An alternative view that suggests that Nehemiah arrived before Ezra is more
problematic.

Ezra and Nehemiah Ezra were a scribe who was well educated. He was also a priest with deep
spiritual piety. His interest was to carry out a religious reform in Jerusalem based on Mosaic Law. It
was he who closed the Canon. Unfortunately, Ezra was not popular among the ancient Jews. On the
other hand, Nehemiah appears to be more appreciated by the people. Francisco (1977, 135) described
him as being “quite humane and, with all his faults, possessed much nobility of character. Generous,
faithful, with a splendid patriotism he at once arouses our interest. Nehemiah was a businessman with
a love for God in his heart. This heart kept him true, and his cleverness kept him successful. While
the two contemporary men had similar spiritual interests, they probably had different dispositions.

Lists and Documents/Letters

One of the literary features of Ezra and Nehemiah like that of Chronicles

is the prominence of various lists. Examples are:

(1) The temple articles (Ezra 9-11)

(2) The returned exiles (Ezra 2 cf Neh. 7:6-73)

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(3) The genealogy of Ezra (Ez 7:1-5)

Examples of official documents or letters in Ezra are:

(1) The decree of Cyrus (1:2-4)

(2) The accusation of Rehum and others against the Jews

(4:11-16)

(3) The Replay of Artaxerxes I (4:17-22)

Value

One of the values of the books of Ezra and Nehemiah is that they give information of the period after
the return from exile. Ezra gives the account of the religions restoration which took place in Judah.
Nehemiah complements this with the history of the re-establishment of the government and worship
in Jerusalem.

Outlines of Ezra and Nehemiah

A simple outline of Ezra is:

1. The First Return under Zerubbabel and the Rebuilding of the Temple (1-6)

2. The Second Return under Ezra and Reforms (Effort to break up mixed marriages, 7-10).

A broad outline of Nehemiah is:

(1) The Third Return under Nehemiah: The Rebuilding of the Walls of Jerusalem in the Face of Much
Opposition (1-6).

(2) Continuation of the First Administration of Nehemiah and Outbreak of Revival and Dedication of
the wall (7:1-12:47)

(3) Second Administration of Nehemiah: Absence, Return, Reorganization and Reforms (13:1-31).

Self–Assessment Exercise 3.6

Explain: (1) The differences in the characters of Ezra and Nehemiah

CONCLUSION

With our study of 1 & 2 Chronicles, Ezra and Nehemiah three important observations can be made.
The first is that while the accounts of Chronicles are historically reliable, he “Contemporized” for the
benefit of the returned exile. The second is that while he did not include new facts, he used facts at
hand to moralize and sermonize for the worship of God. The third is that in Ezra and Nehemiah, we
find accounts of the postexilic and restored lives of Israelites.

Introduction to Wisdom Literature

What is wisdom in the Old Testament? The answer provided by Derek Kidner (1983, 377) is, “the
voice of reflection and experience, rather than of bare command or preaching.” This makes the
wisdom literature of the Old Testament to have some similarities with that of the ancient Near East-
Egypt and Mesopotamia. The two types of wisdom literature are:

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Practical wisdom and contemplative/speculative wisdom. Practical Wisdom Practical wisdom is
intended to give “practical advice on how to live happily and successfully.” The Old Testament
example of this is the book of Proverbs.

Contemplative/Speculative Wisdom

Contemplative wisdom is intended to probe “the mysteries of human existence often with
considerable scepticism.” The book of Job and especially the book of Ecclesiastes are good examples
of this type of wisdom in Israel.

The Development of Wisdom in Ancient Israel

The level of the development of wisdom in ancient Israel is so high that one cannot but ask: How did
the wisdom literature of Israel develop? What is the source or origin of ancient Israel’s wisdom? It
has been observed that the Old Testament wisdom literature did not develop in an intellectual
vacuum. We find in Israel’s wisdom sayings some concerns that are similar to the wisdom writings of
Egyptians, Babylonians and Canaanites. Some of these are “teachability, sobriety, wise speech,
kindness, trust in divine help, magnanimity, friendship,” according to The Lion Handbook to the
Bible (1983, 318). The Israelites must have been influenced by the wisdom of their environment.

In the Old Testament Solomon has an outstanding reputation for wisdom and his openness to and
interaction with foreigners is well known. Solomon was acquainted with other world courts (I Kings
4:32-34) as exemplified by the visit of the Queen of Sheba. The wisdom of men and circles in Israel
must have received their impetus from Solomon.

Despite the similarity of Old Testament wisdom literature to that of the Ancient Near East, biblical
wisdom is distinct because of its God centredness. Consistently it is asserted that wisdom is to fear
God and to live rightly. Ecclesiastes concludes on this note (Beck. 12:13-14) and it is the starting
point of Proverbs (1:7) and the focus of all the wisdom literature (Job 28:28; Psalm 111:10; Prov.
9:10). With this general introduction to wisdom literature of the Old Testament I will lead you to
examine Proverbs, Job and Ecclesiastes in the next sections.

Self-Assessment Exercise

Write short notes on the meaning, types of wisdom and development of Old Testament Wisdom
books.

Introduction to Proverbs
Title Proverb is a translation of the Hebrew term “marshal” which means “to be like”. Because of the
primary meaning of comparison or similitude, the term is applied to diverse discourses, sentences and
expressions. Some examples are the prophecy of Balaam (Num. 23:7), the poems of Job and the
parables of Ezekiel (17:2; 20:49). It is more accurate then to describe an Old Testament proverb
simply as “a wise saying of any form”. In Proverbs wisdom is based on the fear of God and
obedience to his word. Hence, Proverbs is mainly concerned with what is right and what is wrong.

Author/Date

Traditionally, Solomon the King of Israel has been recognized as the author of Proverbs. However,
the book itself claims three authors. While Solomon appears in the title, three sections are prefaced
with the name of Solomon but two are attributed to Agur and Lempel. It may be best then to regard

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Solomon as the author/compiler (I Kings 3:32-34) who, with others, incorporated the wisdom of the
East in line with the standards of God.

Given this explanation, most of the proverbs would have been written during the 10th century B.C.,
the days of the first kings of Israel. It must be recognized, however, that editing continued for some
centuries. King Hezekiah (who reigned 715-686 B.C) arranged for compilation of the work (Prov.
25:1-29:27). The present form of the book was finalized at the time of Ben Sira (180 B.C.)

Types/Themes

Five types of proverbs in the Old Testament according to Francisco (1977, 265) are: Historical
proverbs, a popular saying based on a past event (e.g. I Sam. 10:12; 19:24); Metaphorical proverbs;
Enigmas; Parables; Didactical proverbs, information and behaviour. Proverbs can also be grouped
according to the subject. Important themes in Proverbs 10-31 from The Lion Handbook to the Bible
(1983, 358) are:

(1) The fear of the Lord (e.g. 1:7; 3:7; 10:27);

(2) Wisdom and folly – the wise man and the fool (e.g. 9:8; 14:8, 15; 26:1,3)

(3) The righteous and the wicked (e.g. 1:10-19; 3:1-2; 11:3-11; 21:7-8; 26-27)

(4) Words and the tongue (e.g. 12:6, 14, 17-19; 18:4, 6, 13, 20-21)

(5) The family, parents, children and wives (e.g. 1:8; 4:2-4; 20:11; 22:6, 15)

(6) Laziness and hard work (e.g. 10:4-5, 26; 18:19; 22:13)

Nature/Interpretation

Proverbs should be understood as generalizations based on observation about life. They are not to be
understood as formula or promise of God for success. For example, some proverbs teach that
prosperity comes when a person live by God’s standards (Prov. 3:2). While this is generally true there
are many godly people who have no wealth to show for it. On the other hand, even, wicked people
may even prosper through bribe.

Outline

The main sections of Proverbs are:

(1) A general introduction (1-9)

(2) Six collections of sayings (10:1-31:9)

(3) An acrostic poem on the ideal woman (37:10-31)

Self-Assessment Exercise

Who is the author of Proverbs? When was it edited?

Critical Introduction to Job

Title

The book of Job takes its title from the principal character of the book, a wealthy and righteous
sheikh of the people of the East (1:1-3). The book is a great and dramatic work. It is also unique in
form and theme though it is a wisdom material.

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Author/Date

The author/editor of the Book of Job is not known. However, he was most likely an Israelite since,
very frequently, he used Yahweh (the covenant name of God, rendered as “the LORD” in NIV). The
date of the book is also not known. Questions that relate to the dating of the book are: When did Job
live? When did the events recorded happen? When was the book composed? Scholars think that Job
lived in the days of the patriarchs like Abraham. The book was probably written during the reign of
Solomon and it is close in outlook to the book of Proverbs.

An alternative view is that it was written during or after the exile, based on the style, advanced
theology of Satan and late canonization.

Theme

The Book of Job deals with the subject of human suffering, technically called theodicy in theology
and philosophy. How do we explain the greatness, goodness and justice of God in the light of the
human experience of evil, suffering and pain? Why do the righteous suffer? This has been one great
enigma of the human mind. Unfortunately, I cannot lead you in a further study of this subject because
of lack of space. I advise you to read it in The NIV Study Bible (1995, 722-724).

What has compounded the problem of theodicy is the role of evil, the devil or Satan in human
suffering. Both Job and his three friends were ignorant of the involvement of Satan in his calamity.
Do we know better today? The three comforters of Job suggested a simple solution to the difficult
problem: God prospers people for good living. The job was suffering because of wickedness or sins
committed. They were guilty of the fallacy of overgeneralization. The traditional theology is narrow,
inadequate and faulty because it was misapplied.

Teaching

The Book of Job teaches us some hard-abiding lessons about life:

(1) Reality of suffering, pain, and troubles in human life experience.

(2) Not all suffering is due to sin. The righteous can experience calamity for reasons not known.

(3) God will reward the righteous. The godly will be victorious over pain.

(4) God will do and give justice in his own time and in his way.

Outline

The book of Job can be arranged as follows:

(1) The prologue: Affliction of Job by Satan (1-2)

(2) Three Cycles of Speeches: Dialogue and Dispute between Job and Eliphat, Bildad, Zophar (3
27).
(3) Interlude on wisdom (28)
(4) Monologues: Job, Elihu and divine discourses (29-42:6)
(5) Epilogue (42:7-17)
Introduction to Ecclesiastes
Title
In Hebrew the title of this book is “Koheleth” or “qoheleth” and it is taken from the opening
sentence (1:1). This is the title of the anonymous writer and it could mean “Teacher”, “Speaker”
or “Philosopher”. However, from the Hebrew root it means “to call” or “to assemble”, especially

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for religious purposes. The Greek and Latin versions of the book are called “Ecclesiastes.”
Apparently, a person who gathers the congregation also can be called “The Preacher.”
Author/Date
The author is not known but it is traditionally attributed to King Solomon as suggested by several
Bible passages (1:1, 12, 16; 2:4-9; I Kings 2:9; 3:12). Another author most probably wrote it
because he wrote as a subject and teacher and not as a King. The opinion of most scholars today
is that the Teacher used Solomon as a model of life that he used for evaluation. No period is
mentioned in the book. If Solomon is the author then it was written during his reign in the 10th
century B.C. The book was canonized reluctantly and it was not fully accepted till about AD 400.
Purpose/Theme
The book of Ecclesiastes is strange to the modern person but it is said to be “a popular form of
writing in Near Eastern countries in Old Testament times.” This is also one of the reasons why we
find it difficult to interpret the book. The literary device is not familiar; it looks disjointed with
thoughts, observations, and sayings that lack connections and coherence. The author carefully
and deeply studied human life, aspirations and preoccupations and he has drawn some logical
conclusions. His main conviction as stated by The Lion Handbook to the Bible (1983, 362) is that
“Life as man lives it, without God, is futile, meaningless, purposeless, empty. It is a bleak
future.” It is wrong for us to look at Ecclesiastes as a secular existential philosophy of cynicism
and despair. The book is God-ward, profoundly spiritual and ultimately optimistic. It concludes
that when God is not left out of the picture of life a person will enjoy his food, work and marriage
(2:24-26; 3:10-15; 5:18-20; 9:7-10).
The theme of Ecclesiastes is relevant to the yearnings of modern life as seen in many novels and
plays. He argued that the highest good in life (summum bonum) cannot be found in pleasure,
wisdom and wealth. To him, the meaning of life is to moderately enjoy the gifts of God (James
1:17). Life is meaningful and purposeful when it is centred on God. The wisdom of life is the fear
and obedience of God (Ecc.12:9-14).
Outline
(1) Prologue (1:1-11)
(2) The vanity of wisdom, pleasure, toil, wealth, achievement (1:12-6:16)
(3) Various practical observations (7:1-11:8)
(4) Advice to young people (11:8-12:8)
(5) Conclusion (12:9-14).
Self-Assessment Exercise: Is the view of life expressed in Ecclesiastes realistic or pessimistic?
Explain.

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