NORTHERN TECHNICAL COLLEGE

AUTO/H.E.R. DEPARTMENT
TRADE THEORY - CRAFT

HEAVY DUTY ENGINES

ENGINE COMPONENTS

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INTRODUCTION
The engine housing encloses the internal engine components. The cylinder block
acts as the central frame of the engine. All the other engine components are in
some way attached to it including the remaining engine housing components. The
components examined in this chapter are as follows:
1. engine cylinder block and cylinder liners
2. engine powertrain
3. timing geartrain
4. cylinder head assemblies
5. intake and exhaust manifolds
6. oil pans

ENGINE CYLINDER BLOCK

The engine cylinder block is the frame of the engine around which all the other
components are assembled. The cylinder block houses the engine cylinders and the
engine crankcase, and can either be an inline cylinder or V-cylinder configuration.
Both inline and V-configured blocks are made as a single unit and uses one
crankshaft (Figure 1).

Figure 1: Mono-block construction.

Cylinder Block Functions

Although there are some differences between manufacturers, a diesel engine

cylinder block must perform some or all of the following:

 House the piston cylinder bores.

 Support the crankshaft in main bearing bores.
 Support a cylinder block–located camshaft(s).
 Incorporate coolant passages and a water jacket.

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  Incorporate lubricant passages/drillings.
 Incorporate mounting locations for other engine components.

Categories of Cylinder Block

Cylinder blocks used in commercial diesel engines can be categorized by type:

 Integral cylinder bore or parent bore.
 Wet sleeve/liner.
 Dry sleeve/liner.
 Separate crankcase (detachable crankcase).

Other factors such as two-stroke cycle and air-cooled are also reflected in the block
design.

Cylinder Block Design and Construction

Most diesel engines use cylinder liners or sleeves. These engines require
reconditioning and it is during this process that they are completely disassembled
and reassembled, replacing any worn or defective parts. Cylinder liners or sleeves
wear during engine operation and can be replaced when the engine is overhauled.

1. Integral Bore or Parent Bore.

Engines that do not use liners or sleeves have integral cylinder bores ie bores
directly machined into the cylinder block, known as parent bores. The life of
heavy-duty engine parent bore can be increased by hardening the surface of
the bore.

2. Wet Liner/Sleeve.
With wet liners or sleeves, the water jacket is in direct contact with the
outside of the liner in the block bore. Hence the liner must be tough enough
to withstand the high combustion pressures the engine produces. These
liners transfer heat to the coolant efficiently and are easily replaced during
overhaul. Their main disadvantage is any O-ring failure results in coolant
contaminating engine oil. Figure 2.

Figure 2: Wet liner

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 3. Dry Sleeves.
The dry sleeve uses a thinner-walled sleeve than the wet liner. The dry sleeve
is press-fitted into the block bore and is retained by the cylinder head. The
dry sleeve does not transfer heat as efficiently as the wet liner, but does not
present coolant sealing problems.

4. Combination Wet/Dry Sleeves.

The wet/dry sleeve is designed so that the hottest part of the liner (top) is in
direct contact with the coolant and the lower portion fits directly to the
cylinder block with a fractional loose fit. The upper part of the liner has
thicker walls to withstand the combustion pressures. Wet/dry liners also seal
the water jacket with O-ring seals. Figure 3.

Figure 3: Wet/Dry Sleeve

Crankcase.

In addition to supporting the cylinders, a cylinder block must also support the
crankshaft and
flywheel. The crankshaft is located in a lengthwise bore in the cylinder block and is
supported in a cradle of main bearings in the crankcase. The flywheel housing is
bolted to the rear of the cylinder block. The flywheel is bolted to the crankshaft and
rotates within the flywheel housing.

ENGINE POWERTRAIN

The burning of fuel in the cylinder produces gas pressure. This pressure has to be
converted into useful mechanical energy. The engine components responsible for
this are called the engine powertrain, and they include:
 pistons
 piston rings
 gudgeon/wrist pins
 connecting rods
 crankshafts
 friction bearings
 flywheels
 vibration dampers

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Function of the Powertrain
The powertrain is actuated by cylinder gas pressure, which acts on the piston
through its stroke. The vertical piston movement is converted into torque, by
connecting the piston assembly to an offset throw on the crankshaft. As the piston
travel up and down in the cylinder bore, the crankshaft rotates. Torque from the
crankshaft is transferred to a flywheel bolted to the crankshaft. The flywheel acts as
a coupling to transfer engine torque to the vehicle drivetrain.

1. Piston Assemblies
The role of the piston in the cylinder bore is to:

 Deliver force: when traveling upward on its compression stroke.

 Receive force: when combustion pressure acts on it during the power
stroke.

A piston assembly consists of the piston, piston rings, a gudgeon/wrist pin

and connecting rod. Piston rings seal the cylinder and lubricate the cylinder
walls. The gudgeon/wrist pin passes through a piston boss to connect the
piston to the connecting rod.

Piston Terminology
A diesel engine piston is shown in Figure 4 along with the terminology used to
describe it. The type of piston shown is a forged steel trunk piston used in many
current diesels. Following are the parts of a piston:

Figure 4: Piston Terminology

Piston Crown.
This is the upper face of the piston that is directly exposed to the effects of
combustion. Because of this, a piston should be capable of rapidly transferring the
combustion heat it is exposed to, especially when aluminum pistons are used.

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Aluminum has a much lower melting point than alloy steels, therefore, many pistons
have cooling jets that spray lubricating oil on the underside of the piston. This helps
remove heat and keep piston crown temperatures lower. The shape of the piston
crown is important. This shape determines how swirl and squish is generated in an
engine, which results for injected fuel to easily mix with the air. A large majority of
modern diesel engines use a Mexican hat piston crown design (Figure 4).
Two basic piston designs are used in current commercial and off-highway diesel
engines:

1. Trunk type pistons

2. Articulating pistons

Figure 5: Trunk and Articulated Pistons.

PISTON RINGS
The function of piston rings is to seal the piston in the cylinder bore. Rings have
three important functions:
a) Sealing: They are designed to seal compression and combustion gases
within the engine cylinder.
b) Lubrication: They are designed to apply and regulate a film of lubricant to
the cylinder walls.
c) Cooling: Rings provide a path for heat to be transferred from the piston
to the cylinder walls.

Piston rings are located in recesses in the piston known as ring grooves. Ring
grooves are located between lands. Figure 4.

Roles of Piston Rings

Piston rings may be broadly categorized as:
 Compression.
 Oil control rings.

Compression rings
These the seal the engine cylinder and help transfer piston heat to the cylinder
walls.

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Scraper ring
Describe the ring below the top compression ring, and helps to seal the cylinder and
manage the oil film on the cylinder wall. Oil control rings are responsible for
lubricating the cylinder walls and also provide a path for piston heat to the cylinder
walls.

Ring Materials
Piston rings are designed with a diameter larger than the cylinder bore, so that
when they are installed, radial pressure is applied to the cylinder wall. Most piston
rings have some flexibility and will not fracture easily. Most current diesels use
these much tougher and flexible rings that show little wear at engine overhaul. The
section of the piston in which rings are fitted is known as the ring belt.

Ring Action
The major sealing force of piston rings is high pressure gas. Piston rings have a
small side clearance. The result of this small side clearance is that when cylinder
pressure acts on the upper section of the ring, three things happen to make it seal:

a) Pressure forces the ring down into the land.

b) Forcing the ring into the land allows cylinder pressure to get behind the ring.
c) When cylinder pressure gets behind the ring between it and the groove wall,
it gets driven outward into the cylinder wall, creating the seal.

Figure 6 explains ring action in diagram form. This means cylinder sealing efficiency
increases with cylinder pressure. The higher the cylinder pressure, the more
effectively rings seal the cylinder.

Figure 6: Ring action during Compression and Power strokes

Number of Rings
The number of rings used is determined by the engine manufacturer and factors
considered are:

 Bore size.
 Engine speed.
 Engine configuration.

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The major factor considered in determining the number of compression rings is
time. The slower the maximum engine speed, the greater the number of rings,
because there is more time for gas blow-by.

Gas Blow-by.
The top compression ring gets the greatest sealing assist from cylinder pressures.
Gas blow-by from the top compression ring passes down to seal the second
compression ring, and so on. Gas that blows by all the rings enters the crankcase,
so high crankcase pressures are often an indication that an engine is wearing out.
Cylinder leakage past the ring belt is inevitable, but its limiting factor is time. If an
engine operates at 2,000 rpm, one piston stroke takes 15 milliseconds (0.015), so
there is insufficient time for cylinder leakage to take place.

Piston Ring Types

There are many different types of piston rings. We name them by function and
shape. Figure 7.

Figure 7: Different types of compression ring designs

Compression Rings
Compression rings seal cylinder compression and combustion pressures. They also
control the amount oil film applied to the cylinder wall. Most diesel engine piston
rings can be deformed without fracturing and compression rings are coated by
tinning, plasma, and chrome cladding to reduce friction. Some ring coatings are
temporary and wear off and end up in the oil, a fact that has to be taken into
account when oil sampling.

Combination Compression and Scraper Rings

Combination compression and scraper rings assist in sealing combustion gases and
controlling the oil film on the cylinder wall. This term refers to a ring or rings located
in the middle of the ring belt, between the top compression ring and oil control
ring(s).

Oil Control Rings

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Oil control rings are designed to control the oil film on the cylinder wall. Too much
oil on the cylinder wall will end up in the combustion chamber. Too little oil will
result in scoring and scuffing of the cylinder wall. Applying (upward piston
movement) and wiping (downward movement) of oil from the cylinder wall helps
remove heat from the cylinder by transferring it to the engine oil.

Ring Joint Geometry

Piston rings are designed such that when heated to operating temperatures, the
ring does not expand so that the joint edges come into contact. If this were to
happen, the ring would buckle. A ring must also be capable of sealing with some
efficiency when cold and cylinder pressures are low. Figure 7 shows the three types
of ring joints:

1. Straight: The split edges of the ring abut. This design is more likely to leak blow-
by gas, especially during cold engine operation. It is, however, the
most commonly used.
2. Stepped: This design uses an L-shaped step at the joint. It is least likely to leak
blow-by gas at the ring joint.
3. Angled: The ring is faced with complementary angles at the joint. It seals fairly
efficiently.

Installing Piston Rings

Rings should be installed to the piston using the correct installation tool. Stretching
rings over the piston by hand can crack the plating and cladding materials. Avoid
using multipurpose ring expanders.

Wrist/Gudgeon Pins
The function of wrist or gudgeon pins is to connect the piston with the connecting
rod eye or small end. In the two-piece, articulating piston assembly, they also link
the crown with the skirt allowing both the crown and skirt to pivot independently.
The wrist pin is designed to be as light as possible while handling the forces to
which it is subjected to. The bearing surfaces of wrist pins are lubricated by engine
oil in two ways:

1. Directed upward through a drilling in the connecting rod, this method used in
most engines.
2. Sprayed upward by a piston cooling jet targeted at the piston undercrown,
the method used on some forged steel trunk pistons.

Full-floating piston pins are fitted to both the rod eye and the piston boss with
minimal clearance. Some newer piston bosses have no bushes.

CONNECTING RODS
Connecting rods are also known as conrods. They connect the piston with the
crankshaft. (See Figure 8)

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 Figure 8: Connecting Rod

The end of the conrod that links to the piston wrist pin is known as the rod eye or
the small end and the other end as the big end. Both the rod eye and big end have
bearing. In this way, the linear force that acts on the piston (cylinder pressure) is
converted to torque by the crank throw.

Connecting Rod Construction

Most rods use an I-beam section design but a round section has been used in larger-
bore diesels. Most conrods are drilled, from big to small ends, to carry engine oil
from the big end to the wrist pin for lubrication purposes. This oil is used for
lubrication and cooling.

CRANKSHAFTS AND BEARINGS

A crankshaft is a shaft with offset throws or journals to which piston assemblies are
connected by means of connecting rods. Figure 9 shows some crank throw
configurations. When a crankshaft is rotated, the offset crank throws convert the
linear, up-and-down movement of the pistons, into rotary motion. This works in the
same way as the pedals on a bicycle. Crankshafts are supported by bearings at
main journals. The main bearings require pressurized oil when the engine is running
because crankshafts rely on hydrodynamic suspension.

Figure 9: Crank throw Configuration

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Figure 10: 6 Cylinder Crankshaft Design

Hydrodynamic Suspension
This a method of supporting of a rotating crankshaft on a fluid wedge of pressurized
engine oil and the crankshaft main journal-to-bearing contact is avoided. When the
engine is stationary, an oil film coats and protects the bearing shell. This also
prevent metal-to-metal contact when the engine is cold cranked. When the
crankshaft begins to turn, oil is pumped into the bearing main journals of the
crankshaft.

Dynamic Balance
Crankshafts are designed with counterweights that oppose the unbalance forces
created by the pistons. The unbalance forces reduce as the number of cylinders are
increases (for example, in a 6-cylinder inline engine, 1 and 6, 5 and 2, 3 and 4) have
a counterbalancing effect. Crankshafts are subjected to two types of force: bending
and torsional forces.

Bending Forces.
Bending stress occurs between the main journals during the power strokes.
Crankshafts
are designed to withstand these bending forces that result from compression and
combustion pressures. This bending stress takes place any time the crank throw is
loaded by cylinder pressure and are at their maximum when cylinder pressures are
at their maximum.

FRICTION BEARINGS
These are designed to have embedability. The outer bearing face is made soft
enough to allow small abrasive material to penetrate the outer shell (overlay) to a
depth that would cause a minimum amount of scoring to the crankshaft journals.

Bearing Retention
Bearings are retained by crush. The outside diameter of bearing shells slightly
exceed the bore diameter into which they fit (Figure 11(a)). This creates radial
pressure, when fitted, that acts against the bearing halves and provide good heat

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transfer. The bearing halves are also elliptical, which helps the bearing to be held in
place during installation to provide bearing spread [Figure 11(a)]. Tangs in bearings
[Figure 11(b)] are inserted into notches in the bearing bore. The tangs:
 Reduce bearing movement,
 Prevent bearing rotation, and
 Align oil holes.

Figure 11(a): Bearing retention.

Figure 11(b): Bearing Tangs.

FLYWHEELS
The flywheel in a commercial diesel engine is mounted at the rear of the engine. It
serves three functions:

1. To store kinetic energy (the energy of motion) in the form of inertia. This
helps smoothen the power pulses that occur as each cylinder fires and
produce an even crankshaft rotational speed.
2. To provide a mounting for engine output: it is the power take-off device to
which a clutch or torque converter is bolted.
3. To provide a means of rotating the engine by starter motor.

In addition, a flywheel may be marked with an index for timing purposes and
increasingly, it may be used as an ECM input to signal engine speed and position.

Inertia
The inertia of a flywheel is its ability to store energy. As an energy storage device,
the flywheel smoothens the twisting vibrations that act on the crankshaft rear end
during engine operation. The weight of the flywheel helps rotate the engine

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between firing pulses. The actual weight of a flywheel depends on a number of
factors:

 Two- or four-stroke cycle engine.

 Number of engine cylinders.
 Engine operating speed range.

A two-stroke cycle engine requires a lighter flywheel than an equivalent four-stroke

cycle engine, because the number of power strokes is twice that of a four-stroke
cycle engine. Engines designed to be run at high speeds also require lighter
flywheels, as a heavy flywheel will slow it down during sudden acceleration.
Four-stroke cycle, single-cylinder diesel engines use a pair of flywheels whose
combined weight exceeds that of the engine.

VIBRATION DAMPERS
A vibration damper or harmonic balancer is mounted on the free end of the
crankshaft, usually at the front of the engine. Its function is to reduce crankshaft
twisting/torsional vibrations as well as add to flywheel inertia.

Vibration Damper Construction

A typical vibration damper consists of a damper drive or housing and inertia ring
(see Figure 11 and Figure 12). The housing is coupled to the crankshaft and drives
the inertia ring using springs, rubber, or viscous medium. The inertia ring is driven
at crankshaft average speed. Vibration dampers therefore have three main
components:

1. Drive member: bolted to crankshaft.

2. Drive medium: either a fluid (silicone gel) or solid rubber.
3. Driven member: an inertia ring Bearing.

Two types are used in current diesel engines:

1. Viscous drive type.
2. Solid rubber drive type.

Viscous Drive Operating Principle.

These vibration dampers are common in trucks and buses. The drive member is
bolted to the crankshaft and consists of a ring-shaped, hollow housing. Inside the
hollow housing is a solid-steel inertia ring, which is suspended in and driven by a
silicone gel, when cold.

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 Figure 12: Viscous vibration damper.

As the operating temperature rises, the silicone becomes more fluid. Since the drive
member is bolted to the front of the crankshaft, it moves whenever torsional
vibrations are produced. When the drive member rotates, it drives silicone gel and
inertia ring inside of it.
Since the inertia ring is the heaviest member of the vibration damper, it rotates at
crankshaft average speed, and it will be subjected to the twisting effects of the
crankshaft at front end. The speeds of the drive member and inertia ring will be
different, therefore, shear action takes place in the silicone gel. This smoothens the
twisting forces taking place at the crankshaft front end.

TIMING GEARTRAINS

Timing geartrains, camshafts, tappets, rockers, and cylinder valves together form
what is known as the engine timing train. It is the engine’s mechanical management
train. It includes:

 timing and accessory drive gearing

 the camshaft
 tappets
 valves

Its components are driven by, and timed to, the engine crankshaft. The timing train
for commercial diesel engine are always a gear set. In lighter engines, pulleys and
belts, chains and sprockets may be used as drives. A typical timing gear set is
shown in Figure 13.

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 Figure 13: Timing gear set.

TIMING GEARS
Diesel engine timing gears are located at the front of the engine. These gears are
responsible for turning the camshaft and engine accessories. Some larger engines
may have the timing geartrain at the rear end of the engine or both at the front and
rear.

Timing Gear Construction

Diesel engine gears are cast or forged alloys that are heat tempered and then
surface hardened. The gear teeth then either cut to a spur or helical design, and
both designs may be used in engine geartrains, but the helical gears to be preferred
because they are quieter.

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Helical gears
These provide an increased tooth contact area, which lowers contact forces. The
disadvantage of helical gears is that they have high thrust loads, which have to be
contained by thrust plates and bearings.

Spur gear
This design offers much lower thrust loads but are noisier and fast wearing. The
gears may be press fitted or locked by key and keyways to the shafts.

Timing the Engine Geartrain.

The timing procedure is simple but must be performed accurately. When timing the
engine geartrain, you are timing the camshaft to the crankshaft. In other words, the
engine powertrain is being synchronized with its valve train. In most cases, it is
necessary to locate and align the marks, stamped on gear teeth that intermesh. It is
essential that reference to service manual is made whenever timing engine
geartrain is carried out.

CAMSHAFTS

The camshaft in commercial diesel engines is driven by the crankshaft through one
revolution per complete cycle of the engine. In a four-stroke cycle engine, to
complete a full cycle the engine must be turned through two revolutions or 720
degrees, while camshaft turns one revolution. Camshaft speed is therefore one-half
engine speed.

Cam Profile, Rotary and Linear Motion

Camshafts rotate, so does the cams machined on the camshaft and cam followers
are positioned to ride the cam profiles. As a camshaft rotates, the followers move
linearly, that is, in a straight line, thus converting rotary motion into linear motion.
With a cylinder block-mounted camshaft, the followers actuated by cam profile
move up and down. Push rods fitted to the followers and rockers also move linearly.
Rockers pivot on a shaft to open the valves.

CYLINDER HEADS

Cylinder heads seal the engine cylinders. They also contain the cylinder valves
that are responsible for engine breathing. Most diesel engines use cast iron cylinder
heads. The cylinder head is machined with inlet and outlet ports, cooling and
lubrication passages and injector bores. They may also support rocker assemblies
and camshafts when overhead camshaft design is used. Several configurations are
available:

1. Multi-cylinder, single-slab casting (most common today).

2. Multi-cylinder, multiple-cast units (a 6-cylinder engine may have two or three
cylinder heads)
3. Single cylinder (a 6-cylinder engine would require six cylinder heads)

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Cylinder heads usually contain the valve assemblies, breathing ports, injector bores,
and coolant and lubricant passages. A detailed view of a cylinder head is shown in
Figure 14.

Figure 14: Cylinder head assembly.

INTAKE AND EXHAUST MANIFOLDS

Intake manifold
This deliver both fresh air and recirculated exhaust gas (EGR) to the engine
cylinders. It is bolted to the cylinder head(s) enclosing the intake passages to the
valve ports. Because most diesel engines are turbocharged, the runners that extend
from the intake can be unequal lengths without reducing engine volumetric
efficiency. Intake manifolds can either be wet (coolant ports) or dry. However,
modern diesel engines use dry intake manifolds made from aluminum alloy or cast

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iron. Fiber-based gaskets are used between manifold and cylinder head because
fiber can accommodate small amount of component creep.

Exhaust Manifold
This collects exhaust gases and deliver them to the turbocharger. In the case of a
naturally aspirated engine, the exhaust manifold directs cylinder exhaust gases
straight to the exhaust piping. They are usually manufactured as a single or multi-
sectional units of cast iron. The exhaust manifold assembly is bolted to the cylinder
head.

OIL PANS OR SUMPS

The sump is a reservoir usually located at the crankcase flange below the engine
cylinder block. It encloses the crankcase. Oil pans are manufactured from:

 Cast aluminum.
 Stamped mild steels.
 Laminated steels.
 Plastics.
 Mineral and synthetic fibers.

The oil pan is a reservoir. It collects engine lubricating oil that drains down into it by
gravity. The oil pump pickup is located in the lowest point of the sump. This allows
the oil pump to pick up and pump oil through the lubrication circuit. An oil pan is
shown in Figure 15.

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