Chapter 3

PrinciplesofQuantumInformation& Quantum
Computing

IntroductiontoQuantumCom-
puting
Quantum Computing is the area of study focused on
developing computing methods based on the principle of
[Link]-
ciple of quantum [Link] Quantum computing,
the information is encoded in quantum system such as
atoms, ions or quantum [Link] quantum rule in par-
ticular creates an enormous incentives to apply quantum
mechanics to computing.

Thealgorithmsarealsowrittenbasedonquantumprin- themicroscalerealmcausingproblemsforcurrentmicro-
ciples in which, Shor’s algorithm for factorization and [Link]
Grover’s search algorithmare basic.(Grover isan Indian [Link]
bornPhysicistworkinginBellLabs). Theprocessofcom- option for the further generation.
putationisincrediblyfastbutithastobedonebythehelp
ofquantumcomputerswhichareyettoberealizedinprac- tice.
Itisexpectedthat140digitlognumbercouldbefac-
toredabillion10(9timesfasterthatispossiblewithclas-
) sical
[Link] is so powerful that a search engine can
search every part of internet in half an hour.

Moore’slaw&itsend
Intheyear1965,GordonMooreobservedincreasingper-
formance in the first few generations of the integrated-
circuit (IC) [Link] predicted that it would
continue to improve at an exponential rate with the per-
formanceperunitcostincreasingbyafactorortwoevery
18monthsareso. Thecomputerindustryhasfollowedthis
Differences Between Classical
prediction since [Link] actually the doubling was oc- and Quantum Computing
curringimevery24monthsor2years. Thefollowingplot
shows the 50 years of Moore’s law. ClassicalComputing
The question that arises is how long can Moore’s law
continues to hold and what are the ultimate limitations?. 1. Usedbylargescale,multipurposeanddevices.
According to the semiconductor size data the size has 2. Informationisstoredinbits.
reached5nanometerin2021. TheDemiseoftheTransis- tor
in the quantum scale could be expected as the dimen- 3. Thereisadiscretenumberofpossiblestates. Either0 or
[Link] 1.

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4. [Link] the Representation of Qubits by

same inputs results in the same output.
Bloch Sphere
5. Dataprocessingiscarriedoutbylogicandinsequen- tial
order. The pure state space qubits (Two Level Quantum Me-
chanical Systems) can be visualized using an imaginary
6. OperationsaregovernedbyBooleanAlgebra. sphere called Bloch Sphere. It has a unit radius.
7. CircuitbehaviorisdefinedbyClassicalPhysics.

QuantumComputing
1. Usedbyhighspeed,quantummechanics-basedcom-
puters.
2. InformationisbasedonQuantumBits.
3. Theisaninfinite,continuousnumberofpossible states.
They are the result of quantum superposition.
4. The calculations are probabilistic, meaning there are
multiple possible outputs to the same inputs.
5. Dataprocessingiscarriedoutbyquantumlogicat
parallel instances.
6. Operations aredefined by linearalgebra by Hilbert
Space.
The Arrow on the sphere represents the state of the
7. CircuitbehaviorisdefinedbyQuantumMechanics. [Link] north an south poles are used to represent the
|) |)
basis [Link] other locations
Concept of Qubit and its proper- ties |) |)
arethesuperpositionsof0and1statesandrepresented
|)+|) +
2 2
byα0β1withα β =1. ThusaQubitcanbeany point on the
Bloch Sphere.
Conceptof Qubit
Thecounterpartofaclassicalbitinquantumcomputingis
[Link]’sthebasicunitinwhichofinformationinaquan- TheBlochsphereallowsthestateofthequbittoberep-
[Link],Entanglement,andTunnel- [Link]- gle
ing are all special properties that define a qubit. θ and the azimuth angle ø.The block sphere is repre-
sented by the equation
θ θ
|k)=cos |0)+eiø sin |1) (4.1)
PropertiesofQubits 2 2
1. Aqubitcanbeinasuperposedstateofthetwostates 0 and here 0 ≤ θ ≤ uand 0 ≤ ø ≤ [Link] normalization
1. constraint is given by
2. Ifmeasurementsarecarriedoutwithaqubitinsuper-
posed state then the results that we get will be prob- θ2 θ2
2 +sin2
cos =1 (4.2)
abilisticunlikehowit’sdeterministicinaclassical
computer.
3. Owing to the quantum nature, the qubit changes its SingleandTwoqubitsandEx- tension
state at once when subjected to [Link]
means, one cannot copy information from qubits the to N qubits
waywedointhepresentcomputersandisknownas "no
cloning principle". Singlequbit
AQubitcanbephysicallyimplementedbythetwostates of ASingleQubithastwocomputationalbasisstates|0)and
an electron or horizontal and vertical polarizations of |1).the pictorial representation of the single qubit is as
photons as |↓) and |†) follows. α |0) + β |1)

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DepartmentofPhysics 32
DiracRepresentationandMatrixOperations

LinearAlgebra 5.2.2 PauliMatrices

LinearAlgebraisthestudyofvectorspacesandoperations PauliMatricesandTheiroperationon0and1 |) |)
[Link]- States
tationforaquantumstatekinavectorspaceis|k).The TherearefourextreamlyusefulmatricescalledPauliMa-
notation|)indicatesthattheobjectisavectorrandiscalled trices. The Pauli matrices of the following form
[Link]|k),|ø)and
|u)etc. 10
σ=I=
0
01 (5.3)

Thisisanidentitymatrix.
Matrix Representation of 0 and 1
States 01
σ1= σx=X= 10 (5.4)
Thewavefunctioncouldbeexpressedinketnotationas
α1
|)k(ketVector),kis [Link]= |) α2 σ2=σy=Y= 0–i (5.5)
i 0
1
Thematrixforofthestates|0)and|1).|0)= and 0 1 0
σ3=σz=Z= 0–1 (5.6)
|1)= 0
1
PauliMatricesoperatingon|0)and|1)States
IdentityOperator 1. 0 101 1
σ0|) = 01= =0.0 |)
10 0
TheoperatoroftypeI= iscalledidentityoper-
01 σ0|1)= 100 = 0
[Link] an identity operator acts on a state vector its 01 1 1 =|1).
[Link]-
torasanidentitymatrix. 011 0
2.σ|0)=
x = 10
=|1) 0 1
010 1
|0) σ|1) = = =|0).
Let us consider the operation of Identity operator on x
10 1 0
and|1) [Link] |0) =
|0) and I |1) = |1)
0–i 1 = 0 =i|1)
3.σy|0) = i 0 0 i
10 1 1
I|0)=
01 = (5.1) 0–i0 –i
y| ) –|i0. )
0 0 σ1= = =
i 0 1 0

100 0
I |1) = 01= 1 1 (5.2) 4.σz =1 01 1
. = =0 | )
0–1 0 0
1 00 0
σz = . = = –|1).
Thustheoperationofidentitymatrix(operator)on|0)and
0–1 1 1
|1)leavesthestatesunchanged.

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ConjugateofaMatrix
3 3+i
A= (5.13)
Conjugate of a Matrix It is possible to find the conjugate 3–i 2
foragivenmatrixbyreplacingeachelementofthematrix TheconjugateofUisgivenby
[Link] A as
3 3–i
given below. A∗= (5.14)
i 1 3+i 2
A= (5.7)
02–3i ThetransposeofU∗isgivenby
3 3+i
TheconjugateofthematrixAisgiven by A†= (5.15)
–i 1 3–i 2
A∗ = (5.8)
0 2+3i HenceA†=A
ThusA∗istheconjugateofA
UnitaryMatrix
TransposeofaMatrix A matrix is said to be Unitary if the conditionU†U= I is
The transpose of a matrix is found by interchanging its [Link]
rows into columns or columns into [Link] Transpose itsmatrixrepresentations [Link] operator
ofamatrixAisdenotedbyusingthesuperscriptasAT. inmatrixformU.
√ √
ConsideramatrixAasgivenbelow. 1 1
(2) (2)
U= √ (5.16)
√–i
i
i 1 (2)
A= (5.9) (2)
02–3i
Then 1 i
TheTransposeofthematrixAisgiven by
√ –
√
(2)
U †= √1 (2)
(5.17)
∗ i 0 (5.10) (2) √i
(2)
A =
12–3i

√1 √√
ThusA TistheTransposeofA –i 1
√1
U U= 1(2)
† (2) (2) (2) (5.18)
√ √ i √ i √ –i
(2) (2) (2) (2)
TheConjugateTransposeofa Thus
Matrix 10
U†U= =I
01 (5.19)
Thecomplexconjugatetransposeofamatrixinterchanges
therowandcolumnindexforeachelement,reflectingthe HenceUisunitary.
[Link]
[Link] is
denoted by a †symbol as a super script.
ColumnandRowMatrices
i 1 TheColumnVectorsarecalledketVectorsdenotedbyk |)
A = 02–3i (5.11) [Link]-
(| are rep-
tors are called Bra Vectorsdenoted byøand
TheTransposeofthematrixAisgiven by resented by [Link] consider aket vector
A†= ∗T –i 0 (5.12) representedintheformofacolumnmatrix.
=
(A)
1 2+3i α1
|k) = (5.20)
β1
ThusA†istheConjugate-TransposeofA.
TheRowMatrixisrepresentedas
. .
Hermitian (k|= α1∗ β1∗ (5.21)
Thematrixthatisequaltoitsconjugate-transposeis Here †
[Link]†=AthenitiscalledHer- α1 . ∗ .
=α β∗1 (5.22)
mitianorSelf-Adjointmatrix. β1 1

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ThustheBraisthecomplexconjugateofketandvice- versa. Usingequation5.31theinnerproduct(k|k)isgivenby,

For example
. .α
1
†
. . (k|k)= α∗ β ∗+ββ∗
β∗ =αα (5.35)
= 1–i (5.23)
i
Thus
2 2
Flippingbetweenketsandbrasiscalled"Takingthe αα∗ +ββ∗ =|α| +|β| (5.36)
Dual". Thiscouldalsobewrittenas

Thusfor|0)statethecorresponding(0|isgivenby |k|2=kk∗ (5.37)

Thus the above equation represents Probability Density.

1
|0)= 0 (5.24) As per the principle of Normalization
2 2
. . |k|2=kk∗=(k|k)=1=|α|+|β| (5.38)
(0|= 10 (5.25)
andsimilarlyforand|1)stateswehave(1|asfollows. Thus it implies|k)is normalized.

0
|1)= 1 (5.26) Orthogonality
. . |) |)
Twostateskandøaresaidtobeorthogonaliftheir
(1|= 01 (5.27)
innerproductisZero. Mathematically

InnerProduct-Multiplicationof Row (ø|k)=0 (5.39)

and Column Matrices Thetwostatesareorthogonalmeanstheyaremutuallyex-

clusive. Like Spin Up and Spin Down of an electron.
Letusconsidertwostates|k)and|ø)asfollows Consider(0|1)
α
1
|k)=β (5.28)
. . 0
(0|1)= 10
1
1 =(0+0)=(0) (5.40)
α2
|ø) = (5.29)
β2
here
Orthonormality
. .
(k|= α1∗ β1∗ (5.30)
Thestates|k)and|ø)aresaidtobeorthonormalif
The multiplication of the |k) and |ø) is possible only by
1. |k)and|ø)are normalized.
taking the inner product and is given by (k|ø)
. ∗ .α2 2. |k)and|ø)areorthogonaltoeachother.
(k|ø)= α1 β1∗ β2 (5.31)

(k|ø) = α1∗α2+ β1∗β2 (5.32)

The inner product always results in a scalar product.

Probability
LetusconsideraQuantumState

|k)=α|0)+β|1) (5.33)

TheaboveequationrepresentstheQuantumSuperposition of
states |0) and |1).

1 0 α
|k)=α +β0 = 1 β (5.34)

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QuestionBankandNumerical 8. Distinguish between single qubit and multiple qubit

gates.
Problems
9. DescribeQuantumGateswiththreeexamples.
PrinciplesofQuantumInformation and
Quantum Computing 10. Discuss the functioning of Hadamard gate with ma-
trix representation and truth table.
1. DescribebrieflytheQuantumComputinganditsim-
portance. 11. ExplaintheworkingofTgatewithitsmatrixand truth
table.
2. Elucidatethedifferencesbetweenclassicalandquan-
tum computing.
NumericalProblems
3. Defineabitandqubitandexplainthedifferencesbe-
tween them. Mention the properties of Qubit. Dirac Representation and Matrix Op-
4. DiscusstherepresentationofqubitbyBlochSphere. erations
5. Explainsingle,twoqubitsandextensiontoNqubits. 1. A Linear Operator ’X’ operates such that X0=1|) |)
|) |)
andX1=[Link] ’X’.

Dirac Representation and Matrix Op- 0–i †

2. GivenA= i 0 thatA =A.
,Prove
erations
1. Mentionthematrixrepresentationof|0)and|1)states
, 1 , 1
andapplytheIdentityoperatortoshowthereisno (2) (2)
3. ShowthattheMatrixU=
changeinstates. i
,–i isUnitary.
, (2)
2. StatethePaulimatricesandapplyPaulimatriceson (2)

thestates|0)and|1).
|) |)
4. Find the inner product of states1and0and draw
3. ExplainconjugateandTransposeofamatrix. conclusions on the result.
α β1
4. Describeunitarymatrixandalongwithanexample. 5. Given|k)= 1and|ø)=
α2 Provethat β2
5. Describerowandcolumnmatricesandtheinner product. (k|ø)=(ø|k)∗
6. Discussprobabilityandquantumsuperposition.
7. Explaintheconditionsfororthogonalityandor- QuantumGates
thonormality.
1. Using Matrix multiplication show that on applying
|)
Hadamard gate twice to a0results in its original state.
QuantumGates
1. Illustrate the principle and working of Quantum Not 2. Using two X-gates in series show that two not gates
Gate. in series are equivalent to a quantum wire.
2. Discuss the Pauli X,Y and Z gates and their opera-
tions on quantum states. 3. ShowtheHadamardGateisUnitary.
3. Describe the Phase gate along with matrix represen- 4. [Link]
tation and truth table. qubit is the control qubit then what is the output for
4. DiscusstheCNOTgateanditsoperationonfourdif- thefollowinginitialstates1.|00),2.|01),and3.|11).
ferent input states.
5. ShowthatSgatecanbeformedbyconnectingtwoT gates
5. explainthematrixformandoperationofToffoligate.
in Series.
6. Describe the Swap gate with the matrix and truth ta-
ble.
7. Elucidate the working of controlled-Z gate mention-
ing its matrix representation and truth table.

DepartmentofPhysics 41 ATMECollegeofEngineering,Mysuru