OSI Layers and the TCP/IP Protocol Physical Layer

- It defines the electrical, mechanical,

OSI Model procedural, and functional specifications
- Open System Interconnection for activating, maintaining, and
- It provides a framework for creating and deactivating the physical link between
implementing networking standards and devices. This layer deals with the
devices and describes how network electromagnetic representation of bits of
applications on different computers can data and their transmission. Its
communicate through the network media specifications define physical data rates,
maximum transmission distances, physical
TCP/IP Protocol connectors and other attributes. This layer
- Transmission Control Protocol/Internet is the only layer implemented solely in
Protocol hardware.
- It is the protocol that specifies how data
is exchanged over the internet by Data Link Layer
providing an end-to-end communications - It defines how the data is formatted for
that identify how it should be broken into transmission and controlled access to
packets, addressed, transmitted, routed physical media. This layer typically
and received at the destination. includes error detection and correction to
help ensure reliable data delivery. The
data link layer uses a physical address,
also called as MAC address to identify the
OSI LAYERS TCP/IP
PROTOCOL hosts in local network.

Application Application Network Layer

- It provides connectivity and path
Presentation Application
selection beyond the local segment, all the
Session Application way from the source to the destination.
The network layer provides logical
Transport Transport addressing to manage connectivity and
identify the sender and recipient. Logical
Network Internet
addressing helps ensure that a host has a
Data Link Link unique address and can be uniquely
identified in terms of network
Physical Link communication.

Application​ data​ ​ Application Transport Layer

Presentation ​ data​ ​ Presentation - It defines the segmenting and
Session​ data​ ​ Session reassembling of data, the flow control and
Transport​ segments​ Transport the mechanisms for a reliable transport if
Network​ packets​ Network
required. The transport services can be
Data Link​ frame​ ​ Datalink
Physical​ bits​ ​ Physical reliable or unreliable which depends on
the application requirements. For instance
the file transfer may be reliable to
guarantee that the file arrives intact and
whole. On the other hand, a missing pixel
when watching a video might be
unnoticed.

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Session Layer Interconnections
- It establishes, manages and terminates - Allow the data to travel from one point to
sessions between two communicating another in the network. It includes the
hosts to allow them to exchange data over following components
a prolonged period of time. 1. Network Interface Cards (NICs)
- NICs translate the data that is produced
Presentation Layer by the device into a frame format that can
- It helps ensure that the data sent by the be transmitted over the LAN. NICs
application layer from source is readable connect a device to the LAN over the
by the application layer of the destination. Network Media.
This layer compress and decompress data 2. Network Media
to improve throughput and may encrypt - In traditional LANs, it was primarily
and decrypt data to improve security composed of copper and fiber cables.
Modern LANs generally include wireless
Application Layer LAN (WLAN)
- The OSI layer that is closest to the user.
It provides services to user applications Network devices
that want to use the network. An example - Are responsible for the data delivery
of a user application is a web browser. It between hosts.
does not reside at the application layer but
uses protocols that operate at the Here are some examples:
application layer. 1. Ethernet Switches.
- It operates at Layer 2 of the OSI model
Local Area Networks and provide intelligent distribution of
- A LAN is a network of endpoints and frames within the LAN.
other components that are located 2. Routers
relatively close together in a limited area - Sometimes called gateways, provides a
means to connect LAN segments and
provide connectivity to the internet.
Routers operate at layer 3 of the OSI
model.
3. APs
- It provides wireless connectivity to LAN
devices. APs operate at layer 2 of the OSI
model.

Protocols
Hosts - Are the rules that govern how the data
- Hosts include any device that can send are transmitted between the components
and receive data on the LAN and of a network. Here are some of the
sometimes called endpoints commonly used LAN protocols.
●​ IEEE 802.3
●​ IP
●​ TCP
●​ UDP
●​ ARP for IPv4 and NDP for IPv6
●​ DHCP

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Types of Ethernet Cables

Coaxial cable
- Has an inner conductor that runs down
the middle of the cable. The conductor is
surrounded by a layer of insulation which
is then surrounded by another conducting
shield, which makes this type of cabling
resistant to outside interference. This type
of cabling comes in two types – thinnet
and thicknet. Both types have maximum
transmission speed of 10 Mbps. Coaxial
cabling was previously used in computer
networks, but today are largely replaced
by twisted pair cabling

Twisted-pair Copper
- Has four pair of wires. These wires are
twisted around each other to reduce
crosstalk and outside interference. This
type of cabling is common in current LANs
- Can be used for telephone and network
cabling. It comes in two versions, UTP
(Unshielded Twisted-Pair) and STP
(Shielded Twisted-Pair). The difference
between these two is that an STP cable
has an additional layer of insulation that
protects data from outside interferences

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The names of the standards specify the Ethernet Ports
transmission speed, the type of signaling, 1. Serial Interface
and the type of cabling. As an example, - Used for data transfer at the rate of 2
the standard name 1000BASE-T denotes Mbps.
the following: 2. FastEthernet (FE)
1. 1000 - Specifies the transmission speed - This enables data transfer at the rate of
of 1000 Megabits per second (Mbps) 100 Mbps. It comes with a FOC or
2. BASE - Refers to baseband signaling twisted-pair cable
(which means only Ethernet signals are 3. GigabitEthernet (GE)
carried on the medium) - This is the latest port that transfers data
3. T - Represents twisted pair cabling at a speed of 1000 Mbps using either
twisted-pair cable or FOC.
IEEE 802.3 Ethernet Standards 4. XGigabitEthernet or 10GbE
- Same with GE ports but with a data
transfer rate of 10 Gbps

Fiber Optic Cables

1. Single Mode Fiber (SMF)
- Uses only a single ray of light to carry the
data and is used in larger distances of
transmission.
IEEE 802.3 Ethernet Standards 2. Multi-Mode Fiber (MMF)
1. 10Base-T - Uses multiple rays of light to carry the
- Up to 10 Mbps with Cat3 UTP wiring data and is used in shorter distances of
2. 100Base-TX transmission. It is also less expensive than
- Commonly known as FastEthernet. Uses single-mode fibers.
Cat5 UTP wiring
3. 100Base-FX
- A version of FastEthernet that uses MMF
and up to 400m long
4. 1000Base-T
- Known as GigabitEthernet. Uses Cat5
and Cat5e UTP wiring.
5. 1000Base-SX
- GigabitEthernet running over a
multi-mode fiber optic cable
6. 1000Base-LX RIR - Regional Internet Registry
- GigabitEthernet running over a - African Network Information Center
single-mode fiber optic cable (AFRINIC)
- Asia Pacific Network Information Center
(APNIC)
- American Registry for Internet Numbers
(ARIN)
- Latin American and Caribbean Network
Information Center (LACNIC)
- Réseaux IP Européens Network
Coordination Centre (RIPE NCC)

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5
 Operations of IP Networks Firewalls
- A device that forwards the packets
Network between the less secure and the more
- Is a set of devices, software, and cables secured parts of the network. It applies
that enables the exchange of information rules to determine which packets are
between them. allowed to pass and which are not.
- Host devices such as computers, servers
or laptops is anything a person uses to
access the network.
- Network devices are hubs, repeaters,
bridges, switches, routers, firewalls, etc

Servers
- A physical or virtual machine that
provides data or services to the computers
connected to the network.

Network Devices
1.​ Routers
2.​ Switches (Layer 2 and Layer 3)
3.​ Firewalls
4.​ Servers Access Points
5.​ Access Points - A network hardware device that allows
wireless devices to connect to a wired
Routers network
- Collectively provide the main feature of
the network layer - the capability to
forward packets end to end through a
network
- Use the Layer 3 routing logic to choose
where to forward each packet.

Switches
- The role of a LAN switch is to forward
Ethernet frames to the correct destination
MAC address.

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Network Topology and Architecture Ring Topology
- Connects network devices to each other
Topology in a line that turns into a closed loop. This
- Describes the layout of a network. topology can either be unidirectional
bidirectional.

Network Topologies
1.​ Star Mesh Topology
2.​ Bus - Setup where the network devices make
3.​ Ring multiple connects to other nodes in the
4.​ Mesh network.

Star Topology
- Features a central hub or switch that all
the network elements and devices are
connected.

Bus Topology
- Connects every device on the network to
a single cable that runs along the entire
infrastructure.

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Types of Networks Wide Area Networks
1.​ Local Area Network - It is a geographically distributed private
2.​ Wide Area Network telecommunications network that
interconnects multiple local area networks.
Types of Local Area Networks

Wired Local Area Network

Wireless Local Area Network

Network Architecture