Manufacturing Process
PRODUCTION VS MANUFACTURING
Production vs
Manufacturing
• Manufacturing is the process of converting
inputs like raw materials, components, or
parts into a tangible product
• Production is a broader term that includes
manufacturing but also encompasses other
steps in the process of getting a product ready
for market.
• When we talk about production, we’re talking
about extracting or growing raw materials on
a large scale so that they can be used in
manufacturing.
First step..
•Module I
Engineering Materials:- Classification , Properties -
mechanical, thermal, chemical and technological.
Iron and Steel-Processes and Classifications. Non-
ferrous metals, processes, properties and use. Heat
treatment of steels- purposes and methods.
Processes-annealing, normalizing, hardening,
tempering.
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Manufacturing: what’s it?
• Transforming of a given material into a
product of different forms and sizes with or
without changing the physical and mechanical
properties of the product material.
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CLASSIFICATION - materials
•Metals
•Ceramics
•polymers
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Metals:
•high thermal and electrical conductivity;
• strong yet deformable under applied
mechanical loads;
•opaque to light (shiny if polished)
• valence electrons that are detached from
atoms, and spread in an electron sea that
glues the ions together.
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Metals- classification
•Ferrous metals : ferrous metals contain iron as
its chief constituent.
Eg. Cast iron
•Non ferrous metals: do not contain iron
Eg. Aluminium
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alloy
•There are limitations in using metal in its pure
form
• The main component is known as base
metal/parent metal/main metal.
•Substitution alloys (eg. Brass) and Interstitial
alloys ([Link])
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ceramics
•inorganic compounds
•usually made either of oxides, carbides,
nitrides, or silicates of metals.
• Ceramics are typically partly crystalline and
partly amorphous.
• very high strength under compression, low
ductility,usually insulators to heat and
electricity.
•Eg. glass, porcelain.
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polymers
•Organic substance and derivatives of hydrogen
and carbon
•Also called plastics
•High corrosion resistance, easy to mould
•Polyethylene, nylon
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Other materials
• Composites: combination of two or more
materials.
•New materials: Nano materials, smart
materials..
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Property of material
Properties of materials
Mechanical properties:
• Strength, ductility, toughness,hardness,
elasticity, fatigue and creep
Physical properties :
• Density, specific heat, thermal expansion,
melting point, thermal coductivity, electrical
and mechanical properties.
Properties of materialscontd.
Chemical properties
•Oxidation, corrosion, toxicity etc.
Manufacturing properties (fabrication properties):
•Machinability, weldability etc.
Why material properties important in
manufacturing?
•What can be made with it?
•Which manufacturing/ production technique
is to be used?
• How a production technique changes material
behaviours?
Physical properties
• Properties which remain unchanged when
metals are heated, electric current is passed,
melted or magnetized.
Thermal, electric & magnetic property, fusibility,
refractoriness etc.
Chemical properties
• How material react when they come in
contact with different environment like air,
water, gases, fumes and various other
substances.
•Corrosion resistance.
Mechanical properties
1. Strength: resistance offered by the material
against the deformation, caused in it by the
external force is–strength of the material.
- ability to withstand external forces.
- more the strength , higher the capacity to
withstand load without deformation.
Mechanical properties
2. Elasticity: ability to recover its original form
after the removal of external forces.
‘property of a material by virtue of which it
returns back to its original shape and size , after
the removal of external forces on the body is
known as elasticity’
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Mechanical properties
3. Plasticity : due to which a metal can undergo
permanent deformation without rupture or
failure
Needed for forging, stamping image on coins,
ornamental works.
Mechanical properties
4. Ductility : ability to withstand plastic
deformation without rupture. Tensile property
of metal which allows metal to drawn into
smaller sections like a wire.
Mechanical properties
5. Malleability: compressive characteristic of a
metal that allows rolled or hammered into
plates or thin sheets
Mechanical properties
6 . Brittleness : lack of ductility; property of the
metal to fracture without noticeable plastic
deformation.
Mechanical properties
7. Hardness : ability to abrade or indent another
material.
- Wear resistance
- Cutting softer material
- Abrasion resistance is another property
Mechanical properties
8. Toughness : ability to absorb considerable
amount of energy before fracture.
- toughness needs -> strength + ductility
-how much plastic and elastic deformations a
material can take
- indication of resistance to shock loading.
Mechanical properties
9 . Impact strength: capability to stand against
shock , impact loading and vibrations.
Considers both strength & toughness.
10. Stiffness : ability to resist deflection/ elastic
deformation under applied load.
Stiffness refers to the ability of a material to
resist deformation under stress
Mechanical properties
11. Strain energy /Resilience
-The strain energy is defined as the energy stored in any
object which is loaded within its elastic limits. In other
words, the strain energy is the energy stored in anybody due
to its deformation. The strain energy is also known as
Resilience
12. Fatigue strength : stress at which material fails
due to fatigue.
- Fatigue :Fatigue can be explained as the weakening of a
material due to the application of fluctuating loads that
result in damage to the material’s structure and eventual
failure
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Mechanical properties
13. Creep
When material subjected to constant stress at
high temperature for a long period of time, it
will undergo a slow and permanent
deformation called creep.
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Fabricating properties
• Machinability : ease with which the metal may
be sheared in operations such as turning,
drilling, reaming, sawing , threading, facing
etc.
Good machinability implies;
•Force acting against cutting tool will be low
•Chips broken easily
•Good surface finish
•Better tool life
Fabricating properties
•Formability: ease with which a metal could be
formed or wire drawn or bent.
•Suitability for plastic deformation processes
•Temperature, ductility
Fabricating properties
• Weldability: ease with which metals can be
welded and weld quality
Factors considered:
•Heat in welding
•Oxidation consideration
• Cooling rate of weldment (entrapped residual
stresses)
•Entrapment of gases
• Other considerations (pre heating, post heating
etc.)
Fabricating properties
• Castability: ease with which metals can be cast giving
sound and defect free castings.
Factors:
•Solidification rate(fluidity, cooling rate)
•Shrinkage(reduction in volume during phase change)
• Segregation: during solidification, tiny crystals
resembling pine trees forms at mold edges and tend to
exclude alloying elements present in the in the molten
metal. subsequent crystals formed will be rich in
alloying elements as the metal solidifies.
Castability:
•Gas porosity( gases trapped inside and oxides,
nitrides formation)
• hot strength(strength immediately after
solidification)
Ferrous metals and alloys
•Latin word of iron is ferrum. Metals
contain iron is called ferrous metals.
i. Pig iron
ii. Cast iron
iii. Wrought iron
iv. Carbon steel
v. Alloy steel
Pig iron
•All iron products are derived originally from
pig iron
• This is the raw material obtained from
chemical reductionof iron ore in the blast
furnace. This process is known asSmelting.
•Raw materials are :iron ore, coke, flux
Smelting in blast furnace
• Iron ores ( magnetite, red hematite etc.)
generally carbonates, hydrates and oxides of
metal.
•Good quality coke coal
• Flux is mineral substance charged into blast
furnace to lower the melting point of ore and
to promote the removal of ash, sulphur and
residues of burnt fuel.
•Furnace temperature 1000-1700o C, which
melts all substances inside the furnace
•Lime stone (flux) combines with ore to form a
molten slag which floats on top of molten iron
• Slag is tapped off from the furnace through
slag hole
•Molten iron collected from slag hole
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Cast iron
• Pig iron remelted and thereby refined
together with definite amounts of lime stone,
steel scrap and spoiled castings in a furnace
called CUPOLA
• Contains 2-4% carbon , small amounts of Si, S,
Phosphurus, Mn along with alloying elements
like Ni, Cr etc.
•Compound cementite and free carbon
Cast iron
•Grey cast iron
•White cast iron
•Malleable cast iron
•Nodular cast iron
•Chilled cast iron
•Alloy cast iron
•Meehanite cast iron.
Grey cast iron
•Produced by allowing molten metal to cool
and solidify slowly
• Large amount of carbon and small quantities
of other elements like Si, Phosphorous, S and
Mn
•Strong light give glistering effect due tofree
graphite flakes- also seen during machining
•Compressive strength more than tensile
White cast iron
•Carbon in cementite form
•Obtained in the presence of large quantity of
Mn, and small quantity Si by rapid cooling
•Mn favours the producing carbide
•Very hard (400-600 Bhn) & brittle
•Low rust formation .
Malleable cast iron
•Made from White cast iron
•White heart and black heart–two methods to
make- from white cast iron
White heart process
•WI packed in iron boxes with a mix of
hematite ore.
•Box heated to 900–1000o C–5 days
• Part of the carbon oxidized, and reminder
dispersed finely divided forms throughout the
structure ; this is malleabilizing
•Cooling–some more days
Black heart process
•WI heated to 1000 oC for 2-3 days in neutral
atmosphere.
• Whole iron carbide in white cast decomposed
to carbon
• Maximum thickness of castings suitable for
this process is about 20-25-35 mm
• So employed mainly for thin walled and small
workpiece
• Hinges,door keys,
spanners,cranks,levers,sewing machine thin
walled parts
•ALLOY CAST IRON : alloying elements added,
Ni, Cr etc.
• MEEHANITE CAST IRON: Metal treated
withcalcium silicide- produces fine graphite
structure.
• DUTILE CAST IRON/SPHEROIDAL GRAPHITE
CAST IRON: Higher grade cast iron,High
fluidity,strength and ductility
Wrought iron
•Highly refined ion small amount of slag fibres
•99 % iron
•Blacksmithing
•Non corrosive
•Tough, malleable and ductile
•Bolt,nut,chain,crain hook,railway couplings
•Puddling process and Aston/Byres process
steels
• Alloy of iron and carbon, carbon varying upto
2 %.
• C is distributed throughout as compound
(chemical combination); other material are S,
Si, Ph, Mn etc.
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MEDIUM CARBON STEEL
ALLOY STEELS
Non ferrous metals
Mainly used because of :
•Corrosion resistance
•Special electric & magnetic property
•Softness & facility of cold working
•Fusibility & castability
•Formability
•Low density
•Attractive appearnce / colour
Cu alloys
•Cu-Al alloy (aluminium bronze)
•Cu- Tin- Antimony (babbitt metal)
•Cu-Tin (Tin bronze or bronze) : 5-20% tin, 75-95% Cu
•Cu-Tin–Phosphorous (Phosphur bronze)
•Cu-Zn (brass): upto 50% Zn.
•Cu- Ni (Cupro Nickels)
Copper and copper alloys
Properties of copper
1)it has good ductility and malleability.
2) It has high electrical and thermal conductivity.
3) It is non magnetic and has pleasing reddish color.
4)It has an ability of getting alloyed with many other
metals which helps in improving its properties.
5)It has fairly good corrosion resistance to general
atmospheric conditions.
Application of Copper
1) It is widely used for electrical conductors, bus bars,
automobile radiators, roofing, pressure vessels, kettles,
utensils, coins and other application.
2) Copper containing about 0.3% arsenic is called arsenical
copper and used for condenser, heat exchanger and
similar application because of its improved corrosion
resistance.
3) Copper containing about 0.6% tellurium is called free
cutting copper because of its excellent machinability
and it is used for bolts, studs, welding tips and electrical
parts such as contact pins, switch gear, relay etc.
Copper alloys
Brasses
Brasses are the alloys of copper and zinc.
Brasses are classified as follows
1)α –brasses
2)α-β brasses
3)Red brasses and yellow brasses.
Application:
Cold rolling
Wire drawing
Press work.
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Copper alloys
Cartridge brass:
Composition: about 30% zinc.
Properties: maximum ductility and malleability amongst all the
brasses.
Application: for forming by deep drawing, stretching, trimming,
spinning and press work operations.
It is also used for cartridge cases, radiator fins, lamp fixture,
rivets and springs.
Copper alloys
Admiralty brass:
Composition: about 1% tin is added to cartridge brass to
improve the corrosion resistance and such a brass is
called as admiralty brass.
22% Zn, 2% Al and about 0.04% As.
Application: condenser tubes and heat exchanger in
steam power plant.
Marine application.
Copper alloys
.
A) Muntz metal
Composition: 40% zinc with balance copper.
Properties: It can be readily hot worked , extruded or
rolled in temp. range of 600 to 800c.
Application: utensils, shaft, nuts and bolts, pump parts,
condenser tubes .
Bronze
Bronze are the alloys of copper containing elements
other than zinc.
In these alloys , zinc may be present in small amount.
Originally the name bronze was used to denote copper-
tin alloys.
Commercially important bronzes are aluminum bronzes,
tin bronzes, beryllium bronzes and silicon bronzes.
Copper nickel alloys
Properties:
Ductile, malleable and can be worked both in cold and hot
conditions.
The corrosion resistance increases with increase in nickel.
Tensile strength, fatigue strength increases with nickel.
Application : It is used as resistor .
Used for thermocouple wires, locomotive fire boxes as stay rods,
Marine condensers, turbine blades, bullet envelopes and coins,
resistance wire, valve parts, pump rod liners, impellers and part in
chemical industry, rivets, screws, table flatware, costume jewelry,
name plates, radio dials, camera and optical parts.
Aluminium and aluminium alloys
Properties:
It is ductile and malleable
It is light in weight.
Good thermal and electrical conductivity,
It has excellent corrosion and oxidation resistance.
Corrosion product of aluminium is non toxic .
Non magnetic, non sparking in character.
It has excellent ability of getting alloyed with other elements.
Application :
Cooking utensils, combs, collar buttons, toasters, mixers, electrical
conductors, food containers, paint, name plates, ash trays, flower
pots, coins , bicycles, motorcycles, trucks, and buses, aero planes,
and marine vessels.
Aluminium and aluminium alloys
Aluminium
•Silvery white in colour
•Light , non toxic, non corrosive
•High electrical conductivity
•High reflectivity
•Melting point 680 o C
Y-alloys
Composition:
This is high strength aluminium alloy and contains about 4%
copper, 2% nickel and 1.5% magnesium.
Properties:
It has excellent ability to retain the strength at elevated temp.
with fairly good corrosion resistance.
It can be easily cast and rolled, but it is chiefly used in the cast
form.
Application:
It is mainly used for pistons and cylinders heads of diesel and high
duty petrol engines.
Hiduminium (RR 350)
Composition:
5% Cu and 1.5 % Ni with small amount of Mn, Ti, Sb, Co and Zr.
Property: creep resistance
Application: aero engine.
Duralumin:
4.5% Cu+ magnesium(0.5%) +manganese (about 0.5%) .
Good strength
Shock resistance
Corrosion resistance
Application : air craft castings.
Lead & its alloys
•Heavy, malleable,ductile and can be rolled
easily
• Corrosive resistance & inert with most of the
acids
•Used in water pipe, chemical plant,roof
covering, sheathing of electric cables.
•Melting point at 327 o C
Copper & alloys
Copper (Cu)
•Red in colour
•Pyrites; copper ore.
• Relatively soft, malleable, ductile and flexible,
tough and strong
•Good electric conductor , second only to silver
•Relatively less corrosive
•1083 o C melting point
Heat Treatment
Heat Treatment
•Heating or cooling of a metal or alloy in solid
state to get desired properties
•Microstructural change
purposes
•Machinability
•Relieve internal stress
•Mechanical properties improvement
•Change in Grain size
•Corrosion resistance
•Electric–magnetic property
•Chemical properties
•Remove gases
Iron Carbon Equilibrium Diagram
Solubility of carbon in iron- fn (temperature, structure)
BCC
FCC
[Link]: Praveen Vijayan 54
Iron carbon phase diagram
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SUMMARY OF MICROSTRUCTURE
Ferrite: It is the crystal of solid solution of carbon in
alpha iron.
It is relatively soft, ductile and strongly magnetic.
Cementite : It is a compound of 93.33 percent Iron and
6.67 percent carbon. It is hard and brittle and has no
ductility.
Pearlite : Its structure is thin alternate plates of 13
percentage cementite in a matrix of 87 percent ferrite. It
is strong.
• Ledeburite:it is eutectic mixture of austenite and
cementite. It contains 4.3wt% C and is formed at
1146°C. this is very fine mixture.
Austenite : It is a solid solution of carbon in
gamma iron. It is generally soft and ductile
than ferrite, but denser than ferrite and non
magnetic.
Martensite : It is obtained by decomposition of
austenite when it is very rapidly cooled. It is
composed of needle like crystals. It is very
hard, brittle and magnetic.
DIFFERENT REACTIONS IN HEAT TREATMENT
Eutectic: A liquid with a fixed composition turns into two solids at a
constant temperature. Common examples include the lead-tin solder.
Peritectic: A liquid and a solid react to form a new solid with a different
structure. The peritectic reaction occurs when a liquid phase and one solid
phase transform into a second solid phase upon cooling.
Eutectoid: Two different solids turn into a third solid at a constant
temperature. A eutectoid is similar to a eutectic but refers to a solid-state
transformation. At a specific composition, a single solid phase transforms
into two new solid phases upon cooling.
Transformation of heating on steel
• Steels having less than 0.80% carbon is called Hypo
eutectoid steel consist of ferrite and pearlite
• Eutectoid steel contains 0.80% carbon consist of
pearlite
• Hyper eutectoid steel contains more than 0.8%
carbon consists of pearlite and cementite
Heat treatment process variables
•Rate of heating / cooling
•Time
•Temperature
• Properties, chemical composition etc. of the
work
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Annealing
Purposes-
•Soften steel
•Improve machinability
•Increase / restore ductility & toughness
•Relieve thermal stresses
•Reduce or eliminate structural inhomogenity
•Refine grain size
annealing
•Full annealing
•Process annealing
•Isothermal annealing
•Spherodising
Full annealing
Consists of:
i. Heating the steel slightly above the critical
point
ii. Holding at this temperature for a
considerable period
iii. Slowly cooling
Full annealingcontd.
•Annealing temperature is
30 o C–50 o C above upper
critical temperature (A3)
for hypo eutectoid steels
• Hyper eutectoid steels are
subjected to a
temperature
30 o C–50 o C above
lower critical temperature
(A1)
Full annealingcontd.
• The second step is holding the steel
component at this temperature for a definite
holding (soaking) period
•at least 20 minutes per cm of the thick
section to assure equalization of temperature
throughout the component
Full annealingcontd.
• Final step is to cool the hot steel component
to room temperature slowly in the furnace,
which is also called asfurnace cooling.
•Slow cooling
Thefull annealing is used to
• relieve the internal stresses induced due to
cold working, welding, etc.
•to reduce hardness and increase ductility
•to refine the grain structure
•to make the material homogenous in respect
of chemical composition
•to increase uniformity of phase distribution,
and to increase machinability.
ii. Isothermal annealing
Steps-
I. heating the steel components similar as in the
case of full annealing
II. slightly fast cooling from the usual temperature
to a constant temperature just below A1.
III. hold at this reduced temperature for sufficient
soaking period for the completion of
transformation.
IV. cooling the steel component to room
temperature in air
• Advantages (over full annealing):
Reduced annealing time, More
homogeneity, Improved machinability
and surface finish is obtained after
machining.
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iii. Spheroidise annealing
• Annealing process that produces typical
microstructure consisting of the globules
(spheroid) of cementite or carbides in the
matrix of ferrite.
Spherodise annealing contd.
•Holding at just below A 1
- Holding the steel component at just below
the lower critical temperature (A1)
>But this process is very slow and requires
more time for obtaining spheroidised
structure.
Spherodise annealing contd.
During heating above A 1, cementite or
carbides try to dissolve and during cooling
they try to re-form. This repeated action
spheroidises the carbide particles
iv,Process (recrystallization) annealing
• consists of heating a steel component below
A1 temperature ‘ and holding at this
temperature and subsequent cooling.
• relieves the internal stresses in the cold
worked steels and weldments, and improves
the ductility and softness of the steel.
Normalizing
three steps:
• Heating the steel component to temperature 40-
50 degree Celsius higher than its UCT.
• The second step involves holding the steel
component at this temperature (for
homogeneous austenization. )
• The final step involves cooling the hot steel
component to room temperature in still air.
Normalizing
• Product has homogeneous structure
consisting of ferrite &pearlite for
hypoeutectoid steel and
• pearlite and cementite for hyper eutectoid
steel.
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Hardening
Steps:
•Heating steel above critical temperature
•Holding at this temperature for sufficient time
• Quenching (rapid cooling) in water, oil or
molten salt bath
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Hardening
Purpose:
•Develop high hardness, enable it to cut other
metals
• Improve strength, elasticity, ductility &
toughness
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Tempering
•To stabilise the structure of metal
•To reduce internal stresses produced during
previous heating
• To reduce some of hardness produced during
hardening and to increase ductility of metal
•Right structural condition, shock resistance
and toughness
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Tempering contd.
•Reheating steel after hardening to
temperatures below Ac1.
•Holding at that temperature
•Slow cooling
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• Martempering : This process follows
interrupted quenching operation.
•Steel is heated to the hardening temperature
• Quenched in a medium usually in salt bath
having temperature just above that
martensite starts to form.
•Cooled to room temperature
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•Austempering (isothermal quenching):
• Steel heated to hardening temperature
quenched in a higher temperature medium
than in Martempering
•Steel is more ductile, tough than quenched /
temepered steels.
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Case hardening (carburising)
• Outer cover of low carbon steel (0.15%
Carbon) is converted to high carbon steel
(0.9- 1.2 % Carbon)
• Heating steel to red hot, keep contact of
carbonaceous materials such as wood, bone
etc. with compounds like carbonates of Ba, Ca
or sodium
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• Carbon enters metal to form solid solution
and converts outer surface into high carbon
steel
• After carburising , it is heated to different
temperatures based on the results desired
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Cyaniding
• Producing hard surface on low or medium
carbon steels by immersing the steel in molten
salt bath containing cyanide maintained at 800-
900 o C
• A bath of 1/3 each sodium chloride, sodium
carbonate, sodium cyanide is used
•After that quenching in water/ oil
•Bright finish, distortion is avoided, gradual
hardness change from case to core
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Nitriding
•Producing hard surface layer on alloy steels
• Consists of heating steel in ammonia
atmosphere at 500 o C -650 o C without
further heat treatment
•Ammonia dissociates and nascent nitrogen
combines with steels to form nitrides
•Nitrides provide extreme hardness to surface
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