Chapter 2: Methods of Enquiry in Psychology
Introduction and Goals of Psychological Enquiry
Psychological inquiry aims to understand human behaviour, mental
processes, and experiences through systematic, empirical research.
Its main goals are description, prediction, explanation, control,
and application.
Description involves recording observable behaviours, like
students' study habits.
Prediction uses relevant variables to forecast outcomes, such as
exam success based on study time.
Explanation identifies causal factors, like reasons for differences in
children's attention.
Control seeks to influence behaviour by changing environmental
factors, such as adjusting study schedules to boost performance.
Application applies research to improve well-being, for example,
using yoga or meditation to reduce stress.
Steps in Conducting Scientific Research
Scientific research in psychology follows a systematic process:
1. Conceptualising a Problem:
Selecting a research topic based on literature review,
observations, or personal experiences.
Developing specific research questions and
hypotheses, e.g., "Does viewing violence increase
aggression?"
2. Collecting Data:
Designing the study by choosing participants, methods, tools,
and procedures.
Deciding on sample groups like children, teachers, or patients,
and selecting methods such as observation, experiments, or
surveys.
3. Drawing Conclusions: Analyzing data using statistical techniques
to verify hypotheses. Data may be represented graphically or
numerically to interpret relationships.
4. Revising Conclusions: Based on analysis, hypotheses are
accepted, revised, or rejected. The process is iterative, with ongoing
refinement and future research.
Nature of Psychological Data
What is Psychological Data?
It is information about how people think, feel, and behave—both
what we can see and what is hidden inside. It includes:
o Observable behaviour (things people do)
o Hidden behaviour (thoughts, emotions, mental processes)
o Personal experiences
o Mental functions (like memory, attention)
Sources of Psychological Data:
Source Examples
Demographic
Age, gender, occupation
Information
Physical Circumstances Living conditions, environment
Heart rate, EEG (brain activity)
Physiological Indicators
readings
Psychological Intelligence, personality traits,
Characteristics emotional states
Types of Data:
1. Qualitative Data
Descriptive information
Stories, case studies, content analysis
2. Quantitative Data
Numerical scores
Ratings, scales, rankings
Important to Remember:
o Psychological data is affected by social situations,
environment, and time.
o So, interpretation should be careful to make sure the results
are correct and meaningful.
Alternative Paradigms of Research
Two main paradigms guide psychological research:
Positivist Approach: Treats human behaviour as predictable,
caused by internal/external forces, and measurable. Focuses on
observable, overt behaviour, often using experimental methods.
Interpretive Approach: Emphasizes understanding subjective
meanings, interpretations, and experiences. Recognizes the
complexity and variability of human behaviour, advocating methods
like case studies and qualitative analysis to explore personal
perspectives and contextual factors.
Both paradigms are complementary, with the former emphasizing
objectivity and measurement, and the latter focusing on meaning and
context.
Methods of Enquiry in Psychology
Observation Method
Observation involves systematically watching and recording behaviour. It
can be naturalistic (in real-life settings) or controlled (in laboratories).
Observers select specific behaviours, record them via notes, videos, or
photographs, and analyze the data. Types include:
Naturalistic Observation: Conducted in real environments like
schools or homes without interference.
Controlled Laboratory Observation: Conducted in labs with
controlled conditions, e.g., introducing smoke in a room to study
reactions.
Non-Participant Observation: Observer remains detached,
recording behaviour without involvement.
Participant Observation: Observer becomes part of the group,
establishing rapport to gain deeper insights.
Advantages include studying behaviour in natural settings; limitations
involve observer bias, time consumption, and potential influence on
behaviour.
Experimental Method
Experiments establish cause-effect relationships by manipulating an
independent variable and observing its effect on a dependent variable.
Key concepts include:
Variables: An independent variable is manipulated (e.g., presence
of others), while the dependent variable is the outcome measured
(e.g., reporting smoke).
Groups: Experimental groups experience the manipulation; control
groups do not, serving as comparison benchmarks.
Control Techniques: Random assignment, matching,
counterbalancing, and controlling extraneous variables ensure
validity.
Strengths include establishing causality; limitations involve low external
validity and ethical constraints in real-world scenarios.
Field and Quasi-Experiments
Field Experiments
Done in real-life settings (not in a lab)
Results apply better to real situations (high generalizability)
Less control over other factors (variables)
Quasi-Experiments
Use groups that already exist naturally (not made by the researcher)
Example: Studying children after an earthquake
Variables cannot be changed for ethical or practical reasons
Correlational Research
This method examines relationships between two variables without
manipulation, useful for prediction. The strength and direction are
indicated by the correlation coefficient (+1.0 to -1.0). For example,
studying the relationship between study time and achievement.
Correlations can be positive, negative, or zero, indicating no relationship.
Survey Research
Surveys gather data on opinions, attitudes, and social facts through
questionnaires, interviews, or telephone calls. They are quick and cost-
effective but may suffer from response biases or inaccuracies. Examples
include opinion polls or attitude assessments.
Psychological Testing
Standardized instruments assess individual differences in intelligence,
personality, or aptitudes. Tests can be verbal, non-verbal, or performance-
based, administered individually or in groups. Reliability (consistency over
time) and validity (measuring what it claims) are crucial for effective tests.
Tests are normed based on large samples for comparison.
Case Study
In-depth analysis of a single individual, group, or event provides rich
qualitative data. Used extensively in clinical psychology, case studies
employ multiple methods like interviews, observations, and tests. They
are valuable for understanding complex phenomena but limited in
generalizability.
Analysis of Data
Data analysis involves quantitative methods (statistical tests, correlations,
averages) and qualitative methods (content analysis, narrative analysis).
Combining both approaches offers a comprehensive understanding of
phenomena.
Limitations of Psychological Enquiry
Lack of True Zero Point: Psychological measures are relative;
scores are not absolute, e.g., intelligence scores are based on
arbitrary zero points.
Relative Nature of Tools: Tests may be culturally or context-
specific, requiring adaptation for different populations.
Subjectivity in Qualitative Data: Interpretation can vary among
researchers; involving multiple investigators enhances reliability.
Ethical Considerations
Voluntary Participation: Participants must choose freely without
coercion.
Informed Consent: Participants should understand the nature of
the study beforehand.
Debriefing: Explaining the study afterward, especially if deception
was used, to ensure well-being.
Confidentiality: Safeguarding participants' identities and data,
using codes if necessary, and destroying data after research
completion.
Adhering to ethical principles ensures respect, beneficence, and justice in
psychological research.