COMPARATIVE CONSTRUCTION COST FOR

STEEL STRUCTURES AND

REINFORCED CONCRETE STRUCTURES
WITH
MOMENT-RESISTING FRAME (MRF)

A THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE INSTITUTE OF

GRADUATE STUDIES
OF
NEAR EAST UNIVERSITY

By
KHOSRO ZEHRO ZEHRO

In Partial Fulfilment of the Requirements for

the Degree of Master of Science
in
Civil Engineering

NICOSIA, 2021
ii
Khosro Zehro Zehro: COMPARATIVE CONSTRUCTION COST FOR STEEL
STRUCTURES AND REINFORCED CONCRETE STRUCTURES WITH MOMENT-
RESISTING FRAME (MRF)

Approval of Director of
Institute of Graduate Studies

Prof. Dr. K. Hüsnü Can Başer

We certify that this thesis is satisfactory for the award of the degree of Master of Science
in Civil Engineering

Examining Committee in Charge:

Assoc. Prof. Dr. Rifat Reşatoğlu Committee Chairman, Department

of Civil Engineering, NEU

Assist. Prof. Dr. Ayten Özsavaş Akçay Department of Architecture,

NEU

Assist. Prof. Dr. Fatemeh Nouban Supervisor, Department of Civil

Engineering, NEU
I hereby declare that all information in this document has been obtained and presented in
accordance with academic rules and ethical conduct. I also declare that, as required by these
rules and conduct, I have fully cited and referenced all material and results that are not original
to this work.

Name, Last name: Khosro Zehro Zehro

Signature:
Date: 17.03.2021
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Firstly, I have special thanks to my supervisor Assist. Prof. Dr. Fatemeh Nouban, for her great
importance about my master research and her tolerance, encouragement with enormous
information. I would also like to thank professor Kabir Sadeghi as the department head and the
guidance, with his efforts in sharing knowledge during my master's study. I appreciate all the
thesis committee members for their suggestions and comments.

I have particular thanks to my family for their help in all my works during the master's study
and proud to all my family members for their continued support and encouragement. I hope they
all be healthy and safe from this pandemic Covid-19 virus.

i
 ABSTRACT

The innovation in building construction technologies, structural systems, materials, and

analytical approaches facilitate the analysis and design of multi-story structures. The structural
designer has several options for selecting the structure's material and system; steel and
reinforced concrete (RC) frames with various structural systems can be used to construct multi-
story buildings. It is essential to consider that the chosen material must satisfy the design
requirements and the allowable construction cost. For clients, contractors, and estimators,
estimating cost is the major issue in multi-story construction. The activity and material prices
often change according to using different parameters that affect the total project cost. Therefore,
preparing comparative research on steel and RC framed structures is essential to specify better
materials regards to entire construction cost considering the performance and execution time.
This research is beneficial in selecting the right material and suitable design parameters for the
multi-story frame members. Various models are evaluated and designed in the study by utilizing
four different structural analysis parameters such as spans, stories’ number, story height, and
multiple materials. The total calculated amount of materials carried out the cost estimation of
the multi-story models in the ideCAD software from analyzed and designed structures and the
obtained prices in Erbil-Iraq's market. Finally, the resulting costs of entire construction models
were compared and found that the structures with steel were revealed to be significantly more
costly than the RC structures in all cases.

Keywords: Structural frame; cost; estimation; steel structure; construction material; MRF; RC

ii
 ÖZET

Bina inşaat teknolojileri, yapısal sistemler, malzemeler ve analitik yaklaşımlardaki yenilik, çok
katlı yapıların analizini ve tasarımını kolaylaştırır. Yapısal tasarımcı, yapının malzemesini ve
sistemini seçmeye karar vermek için çeşitli seçeneklere sahiptir; Çok katlı binaların yapımında
çeşitli taşıyıcı sistemlere sahip çelik ve betonarme çerçeveler kullanılabilir. Seçilen malzemenin
tasarım gereksinimlerini ve izin verilen inşaat maliyetini karşılaması gerektiğini dikkate almak
önemlidir. Müşteriler, yükleniciler ve tahminciler için maliyet tahmini, çok katlı inşaatta en
önemli sorundur çünkü faaliyet ve malzeme fiyatları, toplam proje maliyetini etkileyen farklı
parametrelerin kullanımına göre genellikle yukarı doğru değişmektedir. Bu nedenle, çelik ve
betonarme iskeletli yapılar üzerinde karşılaştırmalı araştırma hazırlamak, performans ve
uygulama süresi dikkate alınarak tüm inşaat maliyeti açısından daha iyi malzemeler belirlemek
için gereklidir. Bu araştırma, çok katlı çerçeve elemanları için doğru malzeme ve uygun tasarım
parametrelerinin seçilmesinde faydalıdır. Açıklıklar, kat sayısı, kat yüksekliği ve çoklu
malzemeler gibi dört farklı yapısal analiz parametresi kullanılarak çalışmada çeşitli modeller
değerlendirilir ve tasarlanır. Hesaplanan toplam malzeme miktarı, ideCAD yazılımındaki çok
katlı modellerin analiz ve tasarlanan yapılardan maliyet tahminini ve Erbil-Irak pazarında elde
edilen fiyatları gerçekleştirdi. Son olarak, tüm inşaat modellerinin ortaya çıkan maliyetleri
karşılaştırıldı ve çelikle yapılan yapıların her durumda betonarme yapılardan önemli ölçüde
daha maliyetli olduğu ortaya çıktı.

Anahtar Kelimeler: Yapısal çerçeve; maliyet; tahmin; Çelik yapı; inşaat malzemesi; ana
dirençli çerçeve (ADÇ); betonarme

iii
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .................................................................................................... i
ABSTRACT ........................................................................................................................... ii
ÖZET ..................................................................................................................................... iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS ...................................................................................................... iv
LIST OF TABLES ............................................................................................................... vii
LIST OF FIGURES ............................................................................................................... ix
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND SYMBOL ................................................................ xiii

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

1.1 Overview ............................................................................................................................ 1

1.2 Reinforced Concrete ........................................................................................................... 3
1.3 Steel .................................................................................................................................... 5
1.4 Structural Resisting Frame System..................................................................................... 7
1.5 Construction Cost Estimation ............................................................................................. 9
1.6 The studies’ Objectives and Aims .................................................................................... 12
1.7 Thesis Limitation .............................................................................................................. 13
1.8 Thesis Organization .......................................................................................................... 13

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 General.............................................................................................................................. 14
2.2 Literature Review on Structural Resisting System and Materials .................................... 14
2.2.1 Moment-resisting frame (MRF) or rigid frame structure ......................................... 17
2.2.2 Types of connections ............................................................................................... 19
2.2.3 Reinforced concrete (RC) structure ........................................................................... 21
2.2.4 Steel structure ............................................................................................................ 22
2.3 Literature Review on Quantities and Cost Estimation ..................................................... 26

iv
 2.3.1 Controlling Construction Cost .................................................................................. 29

CHAPTER 3: METHOD OF ANALYSIS

3.1 Research Strategy ............................................................................................................. 30

3.2 Used Parameters for Frame Analyzing and Design.......................................................... 30
3.3 Illustrating Structural Frame Models by Figures .............................................................. 30
3.4 Modeling and Analyzing Software ................................................................................... 32
3.5 Materials Properties .......................................................................................................... 33
3.5.1 Concrete ..................................................................................................................... 33
3.5.2 Steel ........................................................................................................................... 34
3.5.3 Concrete formwork .................................................................................................... 35
3.6 Consideration of Loads .................................................................................................... 36
3.6.1 Dead loads ................................................................................................................. 36
3.6.2 Live loads................................................................................................................... 37
3.6.3 Lateral loads .............................................................................................................. 37
3.6.4 Used loads in this study ............................................................................................. 37
3.6 Illustration of Models Through IdeCAD Software........................................................... 38

CHAPTER 4: RESULTS AND DISCUSIONS

4.1. Quantity of Materials Used in Framed Structures ........................................................... 41

4.1.1 Formwork quantity in RC structures ......................................................................... 42
4.1.2 Concrete quantity in RC structures ............................................................................ 49
4.1.3 Steel bar quantity in RC structures ............................................................................ 57
4.1.4 Steel quantity in steel structures ................................................................................ 64
4.2. Total Cost of Structural Construction.............................................................................. 72
4.2.1 Impacts of the increasing stories number on the total cost of RC and steel
structures ............................................................................................................................. 72
4.2.2 Effects of increasing span length on the total cost of RC and steel
structures ............................................................................................................................. 74
4.2.3 Impacts of rising story height on the total cost of RC and steel structures ............... 76
v
 4.2.4 Effect of using different materials (RC and steel) on the total structural
construction cost ................................................................................................................. 79

CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Conclusions ...................................................................................................................... 82

5.2 Recommendations ............................................................................................................ 88

REFERENCES ..................................................................................................................... 89

APPENDICES

Appendix 1: Materials Quantity in Structural Construction................................................... 99

Appendix 2: Total Cost of Structural Construction .............................................................. 123
Appendix 3: Plagiarism and Ethical Rules Contract Form …………………….…...……. 135
Appendix 4: Similarity Report ……………………… ……................................................ 136

vi
 LIST OF TABLES

Table 1.1: Main points affecting the selection of framed structures systems and
materials ................................................................................................................. 8

Table 2.1: Advantageous of RC and steel material in construction of multi-story

building structures ............................................................................................... 24
Table 2.2: Disadvantageous of RC and steel material in construction of multi-
story building structures ...................................................................................... 25

Table 3.1: Materials’ price in Erbil-Iraq ................................................................................ 32

Table 3.2: Material properties and loads on the structure ..................................................... 33
Table 3.3: Beams and columns dimensions (mm) for L= 6 m and H= 3.6 m ....................... 34
Table 3.4: Beams and columns dimensions (mm) for L= 6 m and H= 3.6 m ....................... 35

Table 4.1: Concrete formwork quantity (m2) of the entire structure and per square
meter of RCS ....................................................................................................... 42
Table 4.2: Percentage of formwork quantity increase per square meter by
increasing the number of stories in RCS ............................................................. 43
Table 4.3: Percentage of formwork quantity reduction by increasing span length
per square meter in the RCS ................................................................................ 45
Table 4.4: Percentage of formwork quantity increase (m2) by rising story height
per square meter in RCS ...................................................................................... 47
Table 4.5: Concrete quantity (m3) of entire structure and per square meter of RCS ............. 50
Table 4.6: Percentage of concrete quantity increase by increasing the number of
stories per square meter in RCS........................................................................... 51
Table 4.7: Percentage of change in concrete quantity by increasing span length per
square meter in the RCS ...................................................................................... 53
Table 4.8: Percentage of concrete quantity increase (m3) by rising story height per
square meter of RCS ............................................................................................ 55

vii
Table 4.9: Steel bar quantity of the whole structure and per square meter of RCS............... 57
Table 4.10: Effects of the increasing number of stories on the quantity of steel bar
per square meter of RCS ...................................................................................... 58
Table 4.11: Percentage of decreasing steel bar quantity per square meter by
increasing span length in the RCS ....................................................................... 60
Table 4.12: Percentage of steel bar increase by rising the story height per square
meter of RCS ....................................................................................................... 62
Table 4.13: Quantity of steel for the whole and per square meter of steel structure ............. 65
Table 4.14: Effects of the increasing number of stories on the quantity of steel per
square meter in the SS ......................................................................................... 66
Table 4.15: Percentage of increasing steel quantity by extending span length per
square meter of the SS ......................................................................................... 68
Table 4.16: Percentage of steel quantity increase by increasing story height per
square meter of SS ............................................................................................... 70
Table 4.17: Percentage of total cost increase by increasing the number of stories
per square meter of RCS and SS ......................................................................... 73
Table 4.18: Percentage of total cost change per square meter by increasing span
length in the RCS and SS .................................................................................... 75
Table 4.19: Amount of total cost increase per square meter by rising story height
in the RCS and SS ............................................................................................... 77
Table 4.20: Percentage of extra structural construction cost by steel related to RC
per square meter ................................................................................................... 80

viii
 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1.1: Analysis of RC construction activities.................................................................. 4

Figure 2.1: Effect of lateral loads on rigid framed structures ............................................... 18

Figure 2.2: Full restrained connections a) Double plate welded and bolted
connection. b) Diagonal stiffen welded and bolted connection. c)
Endplate with bolt connections. d) Beam stub welding to the column. .............. 20
Figure 2.3: The process of steel recycling and reusing in the construction sector ................ 23

Figure 3.1: Number of stories of the evaluated models......................................................... 31

Figure 3.2: Number of spans ................................................................................................. 31
Figure 3.3: Stories’ heights ................................................................................................... 31
Figure 3.4: Different span lengths ......................................................................................... 32
Figure 3.5: Low rise (3-Story) RC building model ............................................................... 38
Figure 3.6: Low rise (4-Story) RC building model ............................................................... 38
Figure 3.7: Med-rise (5-Story) RC building models ............................................................ 39
Figure 3.8: Low rise (3-Story) steel building models............................................................ 39
Figure 3.9: Low rise (4-Story) steel building models............................................................ 40
Figure 3.10: Med-rise (5-Story) steel building models ......................................................... 40

Figure 4.1: Influence of increasing number of stories on the formwork quantity

per square meter of RCS with H=3.3 m .............................................................. 44
Figure 4.2: Influence of increasing number of stories on the formwork quantity
per square meter of RCS with H=3.6 m .............................................................. 44
Figure 4.3: Influence of increasing span length on the formwork quantity per
square meter of RCS with H=3.3 m .................................................................... 46
Figure 4.4: Influence of increasing span length on the formwork quantity per
square meter of RCS with H= 3.6 m ................................................................... 46

ix
Figure 4.5: Effect of rising story height on the formwork quantity per square
meter of 3-story RCS ........................................................................................... 48
Figure 4.6: Effect of rising story height on the formwork quantity per square
meter of 4-story RCS ........................................................................................... 48
Figure 4.7: Effect of rising story height on the formwork quantity per square
meter of 5-story RCS ........................................................................................... 49
Figure 4.8: Influence of number of stories on the concrete quantity per square
meter of RCS with H=3.3 m ................................................................................ 51
Figure 4.9: Influence of number of stories on the concrete quantity per square
meter of RCS with H=3.6 m ................................................................................ 52
Figure 4.10: Influence of increasing span length on the concrete quantity per
square meter of RCS with H=3.3 m .................................................................... 53
Figure 4.11: Influence of increasing span length on the concrete quantity per
square meter of RCS with H=3.6 m .................................................................... 54
Figure 4.12: Influence of rising story height on the concrete quantity per square
meter of 3-story RCS ........................................................................................... 55
Figure 4.13: Influence of rising story height on the concrete quantity per square
meter of 4-story RCS ........................................................................................... 56
Figure 4.14: Influence of rising story height on the concrete quantity per square
meter of 5-story RCS ........................................................................................ 56
Figure 4.15: Influence of number of stories on the steel bars quantity per square
meter of RCS with H=3.3 m ................................................................................... 59
Figure 4.16: Influence of number of stories on the steel bars quantity per square
meter of RCS with H=3.6 m ................................................................................... 59
Figure 4.17: Influence of increasing span length on the steel bar quantity per
square meter of RCS with H=3.3 m .................................................................... 61
Figure 4.18: Influence of increasing span length on the steel bar quantity per
square meter of RCS with H=3.6 m .................................................................... 61

x
Figure 4.19: Influence of rising story height on the steel bars quantity per square
meter of 3-story RCS ........................................................................................... 63
Figure 4.20: Influence of rising story height on the steel bars quantity per square
meter of 4-story RCS ........................................................................................... 63
Figure 4.21: Influence of rising story height on the steel bars quantity per square
meter of 5-story RCS ........................................................................................... 64
Figure 4.22: Influence of number of stories on the steel quantity per square meter
of SS with H=3.3 m ............................................................................................. 66
Figure 4.23: Influence of number of stories on the steel quantity per square meter
of SS with H=3.6 m ............................................................................................. 67
Figure 4.24: Influence of increasing span length on the steel quantity per square
meter of SS with H=3.3 m .................................................................................... 68
Figure 4.25: Influence of increasing span length on the steel quantity per square
meter of SS with H=3.6 m ................................................................................... 69
Figure 4.26: Influence of rising story height on the steel quantity per square meter
of 3-story SS ........................................................................................................ 70
Figure 4.27: Influence of rising story height on the steel quantity per square meter
of 4-story SS ........................................................................................................ 71
Figure 4.28: Influence of rising story height on the steel quantity per square meter
of 5-story SS ........................................................................................................ 71
Figure 4.29: Influence of number of stories on the total cost of square meter of RC
and steel structures with H= 3.3 m ...................................................................... 73
Figure 4.30: Influence of number of stories on the total cost of square meter of RC
and steel structures with H= 3.6 m ...................................................................... 74
Figure 4.31: Influence of increasing span length on the total cost in square meter
of RC and steel structures with H=3.3 m ............................................................. 75
Figure 4. 32: Influence of increasing span length on the total cost in square meter
of RC and steel structures with H=3.6 m ............................................................. 76

xi
Figure 4.33: Influence of rising 30 cm story height on the total cost per square
meter of 3-story RCS and SS ............................................................................... 77
Figure 4.34: Influence of rising 30 cm story height on the total cost per square
meter of 4-story RC and SS ................................................................................. 78
Figure 4.35: Influence of rising 30 cm story height on the total cost per square
meter of 5-story RC and SS ................................................................................. 78
Figure 4.36: Percentage of extra construction cost of SS related to RCS with
H=3.3 m ............................................................................................................... 81
Figure 4.37: Percentage of extra construction cost of SS related to RCS with
H=3.6 m ............................................................................................................... 81

xii
 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND SYMBOL

ACI: American Concrete Institute

AISC: American Institute for Steel Construction
ASCE: American Society for Civil Engineering
MRF: Moment-resisting Frame
RC Reinforced Concrete
RCS Reinforced Concrete Structure
SS Steel Structure
S Number of stories
H Height of story
L Span length
N Number of spans

xiii
 CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION

1.1 Overview

In past years, the huge investment in the building industry has given the researchers a strong
incentive to find proper structural material and systems to save total construction costs. Previous
researchers have attempted to choose a suitable material and system of structures with the best
construction techniques and minimum cost (Soetanto, 2006).

Besides, it is necessary for all owners, consultants, contractors, and customers to strive to
develop all aspects of market safety, satisfy consumers, cost delivery, environmental impacts,
profitability, and help the employee. If the problems of increasing construction cost could be
determined before execution, it will be easier to schedule the solution and cheaply be worked
with. The selection of members' material and the choice of the procurement method have a major
impact on the outcome of framed structure projects (Goodier et al., 2006).

Significant growth as the demand for commercial and residential multi-story (tall) buildings can
be seen in the last century. In modern engineering construction, the design of tall buildings
structures has got a significant branch and can use different structural frame systems to design
buildings (Zalka, 2020).

Generally, design can be defined as "formulating an idea then converting it into a real model"
(Blockley, 2005). In the construction projects, the concept of design and process of design is
mostly identified in several aspects. The decision to select a structural building frame is among
the important items in the multi-story construction projects since the type of structure is
relatively optimized in responding to projects' and customers' expenses (Ballal and Sher, 2003).

In an attempt to improve construction cost and efficiency, innovative materials and techniques
are used, and the construction sector tries to achieve new approaches and developments. The
correct choice of materials dramatically impacts the quality and short- and long-term cost of the

1
constructed project. Within the short-term, the structure must satisfy its customer's
requirements, like; building finalizes with the reasonable cost, and building changes for the
future client’s needs is as the long-term effects (Sadat, 2014).

In the initial phases of the multi-story project design, the cost is the significant factor for
strategic decisions (Günaydın and Doğan, 2004). It should be considering the advantages of
multiple structural solutions such that the suitable option can be discovered and selected quickly
throughout a construction project. The precise cost estimation during the construction of
structures is from essential points in cost management. It is also a practical detail of cost
predicting in similar future projects, so the estimated cost's ultimate objective can be received
(Sarma and Adeli, 2002).

Researchers have found advanced techniques to make the building execution cheaper, faster
and much more specific. There will be an alternative option of materials for structural building
construction, i.e., steel, concrete, masonry, or timber. While there are several variables, but steel
and RC are used more than other options as they simplified the construction of structures
(Masterman, 2006).

When considering a specific type of building construction, the student might be faced with the
decision, "Should be using the steel or RC in the structure?". Here will be various thoughts, the
supporters of RC will be referred that steel materials will corrode, but those who prefer steel
structures refer to that the concrete material has a heavier weight and take more spaces in the
building plan (McCormac, and Brown, 2015).

In the structural construction design stage, determining the structural system and members
material is essential since every modification through the construction process will have
substantial consequences on the cost of construction and schedules. It can also affect the
configuration of other fundamental structural items like foundation works, cladding stage, and
other finishing activities. In a specific location, the building structure code will recommend a
material rather than the others. For example, many areas have fire risk places, so the desirable
condition for fireproof material is RC's selection (Barrett Byrd Associates, 2014). By increasing
2
the height of the multi-story buildings, the structural system becomes more critical for resisting
lateral loads than resisting gravity loads (Moon, 2005).

In structural frame buildings, designers and developers sometimes incorrectly predict the cost
of steel in frame construction compared to RC frames. Many designers believe that steel material
is more costly relative to RC and shows lower interest in using steel for structural frames
(Papavasileiou and Charmpis, 2016).

Some properties such as; considerable strength related to lightweight, easiness of installation,
site implementation, transportation cost, different levels of strength and a wide range of sections
are the fundamental factors that utilize steel in most multi-story buildings. Choosing a material
used in building structures may also be influenced by conditions of foundation soil. For instance,
the lighter weight material (e.g., steel) must be used in the structural frame if the soil condition
under the foundation is poor (Gunel and Ilgin, 2007).

The structural frame, combined with the foundation to construct the stiffen and strengthen the
structure, is an essential part of the load resisting approach. MRFs are based on preparing
horizontal load resistance beyond the frames' planes (Borse and Joshi, 2019).

1.2 Reinforced Concrete

In recent decades, the framed structure construction was dominated by the in-situ type of
concrete. Even since the 1990s, buildings with concrete have developed exponentially. With the
development of innovative technologies, especially the formwork, concrete, and reinforcing
advancements, concrete structural frames have altered considerably. For example, the Reading
University Production Engineering Group report clarified that the crucial drawback in the most
economical RC building construction is the formwork with its changeovers (Eustace, 2008).

The overall process for cost evaluation of RC construction is shown in Figure 1.1. Note that
perhaps the output data becomes a cost of the whole structure or only one cubic meter of
concrete. Combining the cost of man-hours, cost of material, and the repeating factors of

3
activities, the input data could be minimized to the concrete quantities, steel bar, and formwork
surface (Slobbe, 2015).

RC construction process

Formwork (m2) Steel bar (ton) Concrete (m3)

Transportation

Pouring and
Supply steel
Maintaining

Cutting and
Installation

Mixing in
Formwork
selection

bending

factory

curing
Fixing
bar

Figure 1.1: Analysis of RC construction activities

By cost-effective and providing safety of construction approaches, the RC structures have

provided an innovative change in the building construction sector. In recent times, concrete had
been used as a construction material; RC's practical use was found in 1867. The cause of using
RC by engineers and architects is for its features like high resistance to fire and moldability
properties that provide the structure and its parts in various decorative configurations (Azad et
al., 2019).

Currently, RC becomes a default choice when deciding on the material for multi-story frame
construction. The deciding on concrete is done by prevailing believes which the RC structure
would be cost-effective more than corresponding structural steel. Utmost economical condition
rests on such factors in the situation of RC structures. The cost depends mostly on the raw
material and workers needed for concrete, formwork, and reinforcing bar. Using RC, a
4
lightweight structure with a more reinforcing bar will be more costly than using a heavy one
and less reinforcing bar (and contrariwise). For such a purpose, optimizing RC is deemed more
complicated than steel (Del Pico, 2012).

There is no data available to determine RC or steel used in structural construction, but RC is

considered the favorite materials. As specified by Barrett Byrd Associates (2014), some other
properties do the RC more favor that includes:

a) Cheaper in construction: It is believed that RC structures become cheaper related to steel

structures. The cost difference perception is an essential factor that was typically given for
deciding on RC structures. Furthermore, experts are more familiar with the design of RC
and its execution. The RC structures details appear to be simpler relatively, and concrete
construction permits extra flexibility in the implementation process.

b) Durability: Concrete, by its origin, is quite a durable construction material. It can resist
explosion, vandalism, accidental failure, and needs a little maintaining. No extra coatings
are required to protecting constructed concrete from deterioration.

c) Resistance to fire: RC structure has intrinsic resistance to fire and therefore does not need
any extra protection against fire. It can reduce the expense of protective coating to fire,
which can usually account for approximately 10-15% of the frame's cost in steel structures.
It also decreases the necessity for extra on-site trading.

1.3 Steel

In the early of twenties century, the steel become popular in structural building construction and
concrete lost a considerable market contribution in the structural framed market for steel
structure. With constructing steel structures, the economic outcomes involve two variables, the
quantity of steel, which determines the cost of the material and the workload (bolting, welding,
etc.). Steel frames can be assessed in terms of mass reduction (which contributes to little
materials), connection quantity, or structural simplification (workload reduction and produced
mass, etc.) (Zaveri et al., 2016).

5
In worldwide, the industry of steel is developed rapidly. Steel frames are more favorable than
RC frames, which have a more significant earthquake response (Sangave et al., 2015). Mittal et
al. (2010) determined the main features of using steel in building structures are:

a) Implementation speed: Structural construction by steel allows utilizing prefabricated

elements that can be easily installed on-site, and it reduces substantial execution time
relative to many other construction materials. In analyzing the cost efficiency, the relation
of implementation time to cost mostly does not be considered. That including costs like the
initial stage to get profit; the cost decreases due to a quicker execution schedule and low
initial and overall costs.

b) Lightweight: Steel structures have lightweight, even if concrete floors or useful resources
have been used. In a steel structure, the overall construction weight is nearly thirty percent
lighter than the RC structure. The decrease in total structure weight results in reducing sizes
of foundations and their costs.

c) Integration services and longer spans: Long distances can be realized to utilize steel
members, and the distances between 12 - 18 m often are performed by using different steel
structure systems. A more extended span structure enables more flexibility in use due to
fewer columns and more free space. Also, utilities may be built more conveniently within
lesser beam depth, thus decreasing the story height by nearly 30 cm per story. The decrease
in story heights results in a considerable drop in cladding price, specifically in multi-story
high-rise buildings.

d) Safety and performance: Within controlled situations, steel members are designed and
produced off-site and result in higher quality assurance. Relative to RC building, in
construction processes, using pre-fabricated elements decrease activities in the worksite.
This activity reduction results in the need for much fewer on-site workers and leads to higher
safety in construction (Davison, 2012).

e) Recyclability: The only recycled and reused materials are steel. About 95 percent of steel
components might be recycled and will be reused. The construction speed and minimized

6
 site disturbance often are from environmental advantages (Davison, 2012; Mittal et al.,
2010).

1.4 Structural Resisting Frame System

The central portion of every building is its frame. Usually, a multi-story building frame and
members' material are identified as the load-bearing system that includes; columns, beams, and
other building elements fixed with the foundation. The selection of a structural resisting system
has a significant effect on the customer's value of the building. It presents both usability and
stability and governs the cost of construction to a considerable rate. As a frame could assist the
speed of project delivery, it would be a significant profit for the consumer by saving the
construction cost (Blockley, 2005).

The primary requirement in efficient multi-story frame design is included according to clients'
demands, and buildings work that must have a proper response. The right design considers the;
enhanced strength to gravity and lateral loads, minimal cost, lighter weight, maximum
construction efficiency, or a pairing of all these features. Also, architectures' decision to get the
required performance of the structure is another condition that influences the structural system
selection (Rathod et al., 2016).

The entire project's primary point is the correct option of a relatively lateral load-bearing system
since the various systems of structures attempt to change the planned cost (Esmaili et al., 2008).
As a result of a survey conducted by the RIBA Work Plan (2007), ten main points for structural
frame system and materials selection were listed in Table 1.1 follows:

7
 Table 1.1: Main points affecting the selection of framed structures systems and materials

No. subject Description

1 Decision of Architecture Attractive points and outcomes.
2 Usability of building Resistance to fire, the span between columns, durability
and adaptable for future changes.
3 Implementation cost Cost of design and execution.
4 Priority Priority for some frame system and materials.
5 Schedule Construction duration time.
6 Execution risk Customer requirements, prices, cost and assurance in
project delivery.
7 Worksite Site availability, conditions of ground and restriction of
height.
8 Volume of building Story numbers.
9 The capability of the Services flexibility and simplicity in material supply.
supply chain
10 Multi-story performance Cost of the entire story life, effect of environments,
recyclability, and thermal conditions.

Constructing a multi-story building is a complex process with horizontal loads that play an
important role in structural design, which required a system that can resist the imposed lateral
load. Idrus and Newman (2002) argued that frame material's selection principles mainly focus
on implementation cost. Also, the survey performed by Soetanto et al. (2006) demonstrated
some advantages of frame system and materials in building structures as mentioned below:
• Has proper story height
• The whole building seems durable
• The construction process will be faster
• Enhancing the assurance of customers
• High efficiency of a multi-story structure
• The cumulative risks are considered to be minimum
• Will be adaptable for any future changes in the building
• The elements connections are buildable and designed well
• It designs for safely construction and maintenance
• The outcomes, architectural and structural resisting systems are entirely accommodated

8
 Figure 1.2: Connections of beam and columns used as
shear type of connections

1.5 Construction Cost Estimation

Dysert (2006) describes cost estimation as "the analytical process of measuring the cost or
pricing the resources needed by the range of investing options, activities or projects."
Furthermore, Dabhade et al. (2009) identified that estimating cost as "the approximating art of
predicted expenses value or cost of activities based on available information."

The cost evaluation of steel and RC frame structures is carried out by particular process and the
current price in the market for labors, material, and other relevant substances or the possible
difficulties of some companies producing steel structures. Therefore, the initial estimated cost
plays an important role in any building construction, allowing designers and owners to assess
project possibility and manage costs accurately (Feng and Li, 2013). Elhag et al. (2005) stated
that estimators develop cost estimation by concerning these phases:
• Specify quantitative information required in project details for measuring.
• Evaluate the collected information.
• Create schedules.

9
A building construction crosses through basically two stages; the skeleton stage and finishing
stage, each of them will have its significant factors that influence the overall construction
project’s expenses. The crucial parameters that significantly affect construction costs include
story height, type of soil under foundation, the distance between columns, slab type, and
situation of the construction project. Precise cost estimation will help cost saving in construction
activities more productive (Kim, et al., 2004).

Construction projects cost

Cost of Cost of
Cost of labor Overheads Markup
material equipment

Risk allowances
Indirect cost of
Direct cost of

Office work

(probability)
Site work
overhead

overhead

Benefit
labor
labor

Figure 1.3: Analysis of projects construction costs

Antohie (2009) specified that “the primary objective of costs estimation in the projects is to
determine the required finishing expense for the construction.” According to Ostwald (2001),
the projects’ construction costs can be divided to five groups, as shown in Figure 1.5, which
involves the overall project expense. Cost, duration, and performance identify the outcome of
any construction project. The primary estimated construction cost is considered according to the
labors and materials resource cost used in planning, installing, and implementing scheduled
activities (Alzebdeh et al., 2019).

10
By selecting the type of concrete, the RC cost can be estimated. To estimate the cost of the RC
constructions, firstly should have data on:
1. Steel price (per ton) and quantities of steel in the volume of concrete (per cubic meter)
2. Price of the ready concrete, pump and concrete transportation from the factory to the
construction field
3. Wooden formworks’ cost
4. Steel installation cost
5. Casting concrete and curing process cost

Objective

Cost Planning
Implementation Resource
Pursue s
Duration

Construction
End

Figure 1.4: Project construction aims and requirements

The description of building construction stages is represented in Figure 1.6. The first step in
executing structures is the objective’s identification of that project for the planning,
implementing, and pursuing. The three primary variables that affect the above-described process
include costs, duration, and resources (El-Reedy, 2010).

The cost estimation of steel construction structures differs significantly from the estimated
calculation cost for RC construction structures since particular designs are required. The
connections are among the most significant portions of the building design and execution of
steel frame structures. It is adapted that cost of connections nearly 50% of the overall cost of
11
steel structural frame. Figure 1.7 shows that the percentage of the total construction cost of a
steel frame structure can be determined; each part demonstrates the overall structural cost
(Dagostino and Peterson, 2011).

10%
Material
12%
38% Fabrication
Design
13%
Erection
Painting
27%

Figure 1.5: Percentage of resources and activities cost

in the construction of steel structures

The estimated cost will involve the running costs from the constructed buildings and the uses
and maintenance. The precise estimation of the cost in any building is measured with how the
expected expense is corresponding the actual costs in the finished project (Alzebdeh et al.,
2019). Construction economies should notice the extra costs of modification, stories number,
size of the building, grid position, and project design. The models have the potential to calculate
quantities and fees for these agents. Current prices must obtain the needed data at the market
rather than any incorrect data (Chandanie and Kandemulla, 2014).

1.6 The studies’ Objectives and Aims

This study considers the material and labor quantities’ difference required in constructing
various structural frame parameters such as different story heights, different span lengths,
stories’ number, and using other materials with their effect on total construction cost.

This study aims to provide recommendations or suggestions to determine an appropriate

material in the construction of the multi-story structural building. The significant factor impact
on choosing a system for framed structures is initial construction cost. Therefore, the proposed

12
systems are that with the lower construction cost. This study's significance is to present a clear
view about construction material and labor cost by using proper material (steel and RC) in a
multi-story structural frame, which will directly affect the owner or customer spending to
complete their building.

1.7 Thesis Limitation

The study is limited to the structural frame's construction cost (rigid structure; foundation,
columns, beams, and slabs) without walls and stairs construction. So, the cost of finishing
materials and labors in both RC and steel structures are the same or near each other in total cost.

1.8 Thesis Organization

The research includes five chapters as below:

Chapter 1: It presents an introduction about the study's background and clarifies the
study's objectives; also, it contains a summary of the structural frame materials
and their cost estimation.

Chapter 2: This chapter is derived from recent studies relevant to this thesis. Two sections
explain the related literature; the first section reviewed the evaluation and
compared the various framed structures. The second section discussed the
estimation of quantities and cost of materials and labors.

Chapter 3: In this chapter, the theories and formulations are illustrated, including the
details of used materials and the modeling procedure of structures, analysis
and design software, and market prices for materials.

Chapter 4: The consequences quantities of the model’s analysis and design are explained
and discussed to the amount and costs of the total material of multi-stories
buildings.

Chapter 5: The conclusions and recommendations obtained by this research are discussed
in chapter five.

13
 CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 General

The recent studies about the various materials and systems for constructing structural frames are
reviewed in chapter two. Moreover, previous research on the quantity and cost estimate of new
building construction materials is also developed in this chapter.

2.2 Literature Review on Structural Resisting System and Materials

The structural frames are composed of some nets which gathered elements. By filling the spaces
between the members of frames as necessary, the structure's construction will be complete.
Typically, this type of structure will be modified according to shape variations, layout
dissymmetry, and the rate of load they carry. Various materials such as steel, concrete, or wood
may be used in building construction in various sizes. The frame involves all kinds of connected
beams and columns that equally carry and resist horizontal and vertical forces. The framed
structure system is cost-effective and lightweight related to structures with masonry systems
(Ambrose and Tripeny, 2011).

Gunel and Ilgin (2007) illustrated that with evolution in technology for construction in all types
of multi-story structures (such as; RC structure, steel structure (SS), and composite structure),
various load resisting frame systems arrived as follow:
• Moment-resisting (rigid) frame
• Shear wall or braced
• Braced tube frame
• Outrigger frame
• Bundled tube frame
• Framed tube

14
Construction materials play a significant role throughout the construction sector. In addition to
cost, they have potent effects on attain sustainability objectives. In construction approaches,
accurate chooses material will decrease the environment's damage and increase beneficial
economic impact and public efficiency (Franzonia, 2011). There are wide alternatives of
materials that can be used in multi-story structural member construction. Because of steel and
concrete's natural construction features, they are extensively used by engineers and contractors
around the world (Ellobody and Young, 2011).

Al Shamrani and Schierle (2007) illustrated that deciding whether to use the steel or concrete
frame depends greatly on the type of construction, site conditions, project function, and many
projects in regards to team member's thoughts. In general, the frame materials' selection is made
by considering cost and less consideration to the performance and functionality features. In
deciding on the structural resisting system, each of the architectural and structural design
engineers must consider precisely all building requirements.

A structural design engineer is a member of a group working on designing a multi-story

structure. An architecture engineer typically provides the necessary configuration in the team,
and structural, electrical and mechanical engineers design specific systems for the building.
Wight (2009) identified four primary requirements that should be fulfilled by the structure:

1. Structural sufficiency: Structural sufficiency includes two crucial aspects.

a) A building structure should be strong enough which will support all expected loads.
b) The structure should not crack, deflect, vibrate, or tilt, affecting the building's
functionality.

2. Economy: A structure's total expenses must not exceed the budget of the client. Often, in
design, teamwork can contribute to economies as a whole.

3. Maintainability: A system must be designed in a form that needs minimum simple

maintenance methods.

15
 4. Appropriateness: Regulating the spans, spaces, access, story heights, and traffic flow
should supplement the desired usage. The building must suit its situation and also be
aesthetically appealing.

Naik (2008) presented a guideline for the multi-story structural materials’ sustainability; they
tried to figure out whether steel or concrete are more sustainable material in structural
constructions? They concluded a significant subject that had been questioned mostly by
architects, structural designers, and contractors. The construction professionals observe two
main issues in analyzing the construction materials’ sustainability: firstly, determine the best
outlines to the materials, and secondly, comparing the material with each other. Stark (2011)
reported that commonly "concrete" and "steel" organized two various worlds in multi-story
structural construction engineering.

In building construction, the economic point should be considered according to the required
maintaining and performance. Furthermore, by using a life-cycle expense investigation system,
this requirement could be evaluated. Sustainable construction materials can initially be more
costly but based on long term building cost, and the economic concepts will be more explicit
(Sarja, 2003).

Increasing the number of stories over ten floors will be mandatory for both economy and
functionality to decrease the structure's weight. For instance, reducing 5% of wall and story
weight could decrease the weight by 50 % on the ground floor. That implies that the lower
stories can minimize columns' sizes, resulting in more space available and can reduce the
dimensions of the foundation in the design (Jayachandran, 2009). Elhegazy et al. (2020) stated
that the selection of structural systems and materials is combined with optimizing the structures.
This selection process depends either on the construction sites’ ground soil or material
properties, and they suggested the guidelines and procedures for choosing appropriate structural
material and systems.

The frame of multi-stories comprises nearly 7% to 12% of total construction cost in a building
related to the constructed building's kind and situation. Moreover, efforts were increased to

16
decide at the design stages to reduce the cost, completion time, and the rate of defects in the
building construction projects (Kolltveit and Grønhaug, 2004).

Commonly, when examining various materials for an equivalent objective, the cost is the
primary concern. Designers should assess multiple variables toward successful results and
optimal decisions when choosing materials. Impact of environmental efficiency, cost, execution
time, safety, physical and mechanical characteristics are included within the processing. For
the optimal design of framed structures, the multi-story buildings' total cost will drop
significantly (Florez et al., 2013).

2.2.1 Moment-resisting frame (MRF) or rigid frame structure

MRF structures are composed of beams and columns interlocked by connections with high
resistance to moments. MRFs' horizontal stability is proportioned to the deformation resistance
of beams, columns, and their designed connections. Due to the intrinsic strength of RC
junctions, the rigid frame is considered efficient for RC structures. Also, the form of rigid-frame
will be performed for steel structures by enhancing the adequate connection rigidity. Still,
moment-resisting connections in steel structures are often revealed to be expensive. The MRF
reaction often resists gravity load. The negative moment in the beams near columns converts to
the positive moments at mid-span that is considerably less than in simply supported spans
(Smith and Coull, 1991).

In a rigid structural frame, the stiffness and strength are equivalent to the columns and beam
dimensions and have an inverse proportion with the columns' distance. Special consideration
must be prepared by design and drawing connections, mainly for structures built in earthquake
regions. Rigid building frames are mostly ductile but less resistant to severe shaking relative to
the shear wall and braced steel structures. In high rise multi-stories, the drift of frame members
can be assessed by rigidity more than its strength (Azad and Chowdhury, 2019).

MRF is designed for regions with traditionally low earthquake ground motion. The lateral
resistance to bending in rigid frame members is proportioned to the bending rigidity of the

17
beams, columns, and connections in the bending layer and should have adequate rigidity to
maintain the unchanged initial angles intersected members (Varghese and Borkar, 2013).

From the perspective of the multi-story structural frame engineers, a suitable structural frame
system and materials for high-rise buildings beside construction cost should consider two other
essential aspects: stiffness and strength. The performance of lateral rigidity depends on the
distance between columns, the number of frames, the number of spans in the structure, and the
gross internal story height. When the MRF is exposed to an external horizontal load, the
deformation of beams and columns initially resists the structure's horizontal shears. The
deformations induce a shear mode to modify the frame mechanism. The rigidity of individual
frame members regulates the functionality of the frame (see Figure 1.2). The deep members
have more resistance to improve the deformation rigidity (Rashid et al., 2016).

Horizontal load Side sway of MRF

Figure 2.1: Effect of lateral loads on rigid framed structures

The rigid frames achieve their lateral stiffness, specifically member's bending that interlocked
with fixed connections. The design of connections must be in a manner that joints have sufficient

18
rigidity, strength, and minimum deformation. The members bending should be less useful for
distributing moments and internal forces in the building structure or through the entire frame
bending. The unbraced rigid frame must resist horizontal loading without leaning on stability
with a different system for bracing. The frame members should resist the whole designed forces,
which includes gravity loads plus lateral loads. Additionally, when the frame is exposed to
seismic and wind loads, its lateral stiffness must have enough resistance to side-swayed (Badami
and Suresh, 2014).

2.2.2 Types of connections

The structure connections form significant for rigidity of structure, load resisting, the structure's
strength, and the load-bearing mechanisms. By considering the form of restriction, the
connections can be simple, semi-rigid, or rigid. The type of connections and their properties for
RC and steel frame are explained as follow:

1) Steel members connection

The moment resistance connection and shear resistance connections are the most often used
connections (Sadat, 2014).
a) Moment-resisting connections: The moment-resisting connections convey the moment
through the connections. Two common forms of moment-resisting connections used in
steel frames are described below:

❖ A moment resistance connection with full-restrained

Transmit moment among the connected frame members by minimum rotation (see
Figure 1.3). The relation can be presumed in the design of the structural frame that not
permits any relevant rotation. Full restrained connections must have adequate rigidity and
strength to sustain interlocked linked members (AISC Specification, 2005).

❖ A moment-resisting connection with partially (semi-rigid)-restrained

Transmit moment, but rotating of connected steel members cannot be neglected. The
design of the frame structures must involve the deformation reaction properties of the
connection. Connections with partial-rigid moment resistance are those with the

19
 medium rate of rotation between full-restrained connections and hinge (simple)
connections. Semi-rigid connections are those when the restrained rotation is nearly
20% to 90% of the required resistance to the angle changing (Salmon et al., 2008; AISC
Specification, 2005). That implies that the moment transferred through the connection
may be zero (or in minimum amount) even in simple structures in the case of partially
restrained systems.

Figure 2.2: Full restrained connections a) Double plate welded and bolted
connection. b) Diagonal stiffen welded and bolted connection. c)
Endplate with bolt connections. d) Beam stub welding to the column.

b) Simple (hinge) connections: A hinge connection conveys a minimal moment through the
connections. A simple connection can be expected in the frame structure design that
permits unrestrained rotation among the connected members of the frame. The simple
connections must have adequate rotation ability to handle the necessary rotation, as
specified by the structure analysis (Salmon et al., 2008). Figure 1.4 identifies the
common connections that will be implemented for the simple type of connections.

20
2) RC members connections (joints)

The connection of RC frame joints is generally a rigid (full restrained) connection. Typically,
all connections in the column and beam member, girder and beams member, slab and beams
member, etc., are poured with concrete in the monolithic form.

2.2.3 Reinforced concrete (RC) structure

The RC has always been utilized for structural members in multi-story buildings. Concrete is
perhaps the common multi-story construction material in many countries, a default choice for
such structures when choosing a members’ material. Multi-story structures that use steel in
structural members are few and encountered rarely. There is no traceable data able to show the
market dominance of concrete and steel frame systems in constructing multi-story buildings.
Currently, concrete is believed to be the prevailing option. Compared to steel, concrete materials
prove to be the optimal construction material to decrease lateral sway, labor, and materials costs
(Rochmanto, 2017).

Both RC and steel materials have many important properties and can be used effectively for
many structural elements. With excellent results, they are mostly utilized together through the
same frame member. The construction material's choice to be utilized for a specific building
depends on the structure's height, column to column span, the structural system used, conditions
of the soil under foundation, architectural requirements, and relevant building construction
codes. Steel, RC, and wall-bearing material are efficient for building construction structures
equal to or less than 4-stories. Steel and RC materials are cost-effective with high stability that
utilized in multi-stories from 4 to around 20-stories. However, over 20-stories, RC becomes
much competitive, and currently, many high-rise RC structures are constructed globally. The
tallest multi-story building with RC is the 74-story, 261.8 m in the Chicago with the name
"Water Tower Place," and the CN tower with 446.5 m in Toronto is the world's tallest tower
structure built with RC (McCormac and Russell, 2015).

The construction of RC frames takes more time since they need to utilize formworks and 28
days to gain their required strength. Besides, the processing can be tedious to stepping buildings

21
construction. Even so, steel is considered lightweight, flexible, and easier in construction and
demolishing. With steel as material, construction delays become lesser and unpredicted costs
often have eliminated or reduced in conventional buildings. It is revealed that labor costs
associated with materials are profitable features with steel building construction over in-situ RC
building construction (Mehta et al., 2008).

2.2.4 Steel structure

With ascending the height of multi-story structures, using new materials in building construction
becomes necessary. The low production rate, high primary construction cost, and insufficient
steel professionals in building and designing are the primary factors for deciding on RC to
construct structures. The low construction execution time, limited activity types, and the feature
of recyclability are characteristics that enhanced the probability of using steel instead of RC in
framed structures. The fast implementation of construction means rapid development in the
economy (Celikag and Naimi, 2011).

The design process must be assessed the lower construction cost by utilizing different materials
for the multi-story structure. Not long ago, many high-rise buildings structures, like the Chicago
Sears Tower, which is the higher United States tower, were constructed with steel material. Steel
multi-story frames have rarely been built in non-developing countries and are often determined
by the client’s requirements if constructed.

By implementing tall building structures, the construction of the steel frame has taken a higher
rate of total building’s cost compared to other types of materials. Usually, RC frame
implementation requires more extensive activities and more execution time but needs lesser cost
than a steel frame. The most crucial steel structure’s characteristics are that the total life-cycle
cost is low, shorter construction execution time, durability, higher structural strength, flexibility
in design, and recyclability features (Barrett, 2000).

By assessing the sustainability for every alternate design, construction materials often play a
significant role. Poured concrete and steel both have particular features that can contribute to
accomplishing a project’s sustainability. Proper implementation of the applications in the steel

22
construction sector is an important consideration. The construction of steel structures is
perceived to become a cost-saving solution in multi-story structures. Also, structural steel's
sustainability feature correlates with shorter execution time, higher strength, higher durability,
and recyclability (Limbare and Dode, 2018).

Generally speaking, the most recyclable type of material in the construction industry is steel.
Without reducing its original characteristics assets, protecting inherent resources, and minimize
construction waste in worksite landfills, it will be recycled, again and again, consequently
decreasing two significant problems facing the construction industry (figure 2.1). And even steel
structure construction is categorized as the dry construction method; thus, the construction
process's pollution will be reduced or eliminated (Simões et al., 2012).

Raw
material

Used steel profiles Recycling Recycled material Recreated profiles

Figure 2.3: The process of steel recycling and reusing in the construction sector

The price of constructing columns with steel is considerably more costly relative to all other
construction forms. In such situations, columns by steel are about twice the expense of columns
by RC (Hasançebi, 2017). The findings revealed that bolts' connections are more favored in steel
frames, and the welding system should be prohibited as possible. Besides the steel structure’s
expensive construction cost compared to the construction with RC, it has a benefit for the
lightness of buildings. It could be more beneficial in low-rise building structures, such as low-
rise parking areas and even structures that haven’t fire hazards (Mills, 2010).

The structural steel lightness design feature leads for more favor of this material, especially for
the regions with poor subgrade soil. The reaction of supports in RC frame structures will be
23% more related to steel frame structures by less in weight. The structure weights are positively

23
correlated to the total system's performance for resisting vertical and horizontal loads (Sangave
et al., 2015).

There are two critical harmful properties of using steel in constructing structures: the first is the
corrosion feature by some solutions or wetted condition. The second is the quick gaining of heat
that impacts strength reduction by the fire attack. But different techniques are used to restrict
these problems, and both characteristics are usually must coatings to protect steel as utilizing
structural constructions (Teja and Chamberlin, 2020).

Compared to steel material, the immense concrete usage in structural construction, particularly
in developed countries, is mostly related to its low primary construction cost. The construction
cost changes due to the regions and relies mainly on local experiences. (Mohammed, 2012).
There are some advantageous and disadvantageous of RC and steel materials in construction of
multi-story structures as explained in Table 2.1 and 2.2.

Table 2.1: Advantageous of RC and steel material in construction of multi-story building

structures

Reinforced Concrete Steel

• RC structure is cost-effective more than its • By using prefabricated steel members, the
corresponding steel structure. structural construction can be easily installed
in site.
• Concrete is a durable construction • Using pre-fabricated steel elements reduce
material, and can resist explosion, vandalism the activities in the projects field therefore,
and accidental failure. need for fewer site workers and also higher
construction safety
• It has a moldability properties that provide • The depth of steel beams is lesser than RC
the structure and its members in various beams, so the height of each story will
decorative configurations decrease, and this results in a considerable
cost saving of cladding and walls covering,
specifically in tall buildings
• High resistance to fire and water • Transportation expense was low
• Concrete has a longer serviceability life in • Steel has a high strength/weight ratio and
comparison to other building materials. can be used in areas where the sub-grade
conditions under the foundation is poor. By
minimizing the weight of structure, the sizes

24
 of foundations and their costs will be
decrease.
• RC compared to other building materials • Good fatigue strength in steel structures.
has a high compressive strength.
• By moldability feature of RC to any • In the steel structures the column sections
required shape, its used in precast structural are smaller and takes less areas in the
members. It yields rigid members with less building plan, and also can widening the span
apparent deflection length for any length that require in the plan.
• The RC buildings are more durable than • Steel is the only recycled and reused
any other building materials. material. About 95 percent of steel
components might be recycled and will be
reused.
• The cost of maintenance in RC is very low. • Prefabricated steel sections allow time
saving and increases the efficiency of the
entire construction process.
• Compared to steel structure, RC requires • Structural steel construction is classified as
less skilled labor for the execution of the dry construction method; since the
structure. environment’s pollution will be reduced or
eliminated.
• With using reinforcement, RC can resist a • Steel is a material with flexible and strong
good amount of tensile stress. features, and because of its ductility feature
and by considerable force it can be bent
slowly.

Table 2.2: Disadvantageous of RC and steel material in construction of multi-story building

structures

Reinforced Concrete Steel

• The RC structure has a heavier weight • The initial construction cost of steel
due to its larger sections. structures is high.
• The RC column section is greater in size • The steel has corrosion feature as
and take more areas in the building plan. contact with some solutions or in wetted
condition.
• The formworks’ cost is relatively high. • The strength of steel will reduce
substantially when imposed to fire.

25
 • The tensile strength of RC is about one- • Steel structure construction requires
tenth of its compressive strength. skilled labor for the installation of the
structure.
• The compressive strength of concrete • Due to high strength/weight ratio, steel
will decrease in the case of shrinkage that members are in general slender and more
cause development in cracks and loss of vulnerable to buckling in compression
strength. members.
• The RC structural construction need to
more execution time.

2.3 Literature Review on Quantities and Cost Estimation

Cost in construction management is one of the three critical issues in which the project is
assessed as successful if it is finished with the determined cost, scheduled time, and required
quality. Whereby, the weak strategy or inaccurate prediction of the budget could instantly
transform an anticipated benefit towards loss (Cheng et al., 2010).

Unlike all other factors, cost demonstrates the structural system's choice and has a prominent
role in deciding on this issue. The use or function of buildings is the primary purpose of selecting
a proper type of structural material to accommodate a given behavior (Haroglu et al., 2009). The
optimizing of cost decreases the total cost and provides exhaustive information about the
structure for most related materials and other construction costs. All required manufacturing and
installation activities are included in the expense function and represent the cost of construction
and the cost of material (Pavlovčič et al., 2004).

The project becomes a series of complex, unique, and tied activities that aim and should be
executed by the specified cost and requirements. Every project is going through the total life-
cycle from initiation to finalization, including specifying the project's aims, scheduling the
activities, executing the works, managing progress, and completing the construction project.
The different project participants' requirements must be identified and adequately considered in
the design process and ensuring reasonable decisions, i.e., the choice of material in frame
structures (Wysocki, 2007).

26
The majority of recent studies have researched laborers' productivity since it is predicted that
laborers' cost in the construction sector is around 33% to 50% of the entire constructed structures
cost. The labor cost is unpredictable and variable, unlike other components of project cost,
therefore the impact of various variables on the productivity of labors would have to be
considered. The labor cost can be decreased at a proportional rate by rising productivity (Hanna,
2005).

The effects of some variables on predicting the cost could tend the estimators to achieve accurate
models of cost estimation and construct better construction structures. Expense parameters have
been extensively investigated, but various viewpoints and opinions are formed (Elhag and
Boussabaine, 1999).

Costs are a significant issue in the comparison between RC and steel structures. Since in
construction, expensive structures were typically ignored if a cheaper alternative is available for
the same purpose. It's quite helpful to specify the weight of the material used in building
structures, as it will influence foundation costs or the soil improvement cost (Patil and Kewate,
2015).

In every construction project, the project estimator that expect the construction quantities and
determine its exact cost must be professional and has many previous experiences on project
estimation. Estimation in the project includes the calculation of possible costs of construction
within that project. Since the estimates are provided before the actual construction stage, it is
essential to prepare detailed research and consideration include the construction implementation
documents (Dagostino and Peterson, 2011).

In verification of recent research, Ujene and Idoro (2015) reported that construction costs
comprise materials, labor, machinery, equipment, and overhead expenses. All the costs are
grouped into two types; direct and indirect construction expenses to simplifying estimations.
The direct construction costs are detectable to an operation or activity item range by
approximately 65 % to 93 % of the project's overall cost. In contrast, the indirect construction
costs represent a lesser rate of the entire construction costs. The direct construction costs formed

27
a significant amount of the project's overall cost. Such costs are being budgeted, controlled, and
monitored much more efficiently than the indirect construction costs.

Cost is the primary determinant in delivering projects and is perceived as the most critical
project performance parameters. Researchers have been continuously searching for alternate
procurement systems, construction methods, cost predictions, and monitoring methods due to
the high construction costs, persistent cost failure, and some other project quality factors
(Memon et al., 2010).

Morrison (2006) asserts that cost estimation is the foremost step in the cost scheduling process,
selected material, and construction activities. They also argue that by effective cost estimation,
the construction objectives can be achieved with cost scheduling. The first step of the evaluation
is to identify the variables that contribute to achieving the estimated quality obtained in practice
by surveying real quantities and evaluating all these variables' impact. The three objectives of
planning for cost include:
1. Provide a better value of money for building’s customer.
2. Achieving a reasonable and balanced distribution between the different sections of the
construction activities with the available budget.
3. To maintain the overall spending on construction by the amount of funds that the client
previously agreed to pay.

Costs of construction are often subject to variations that lead to ascending in the long period,
making the pricing task more difficult. Material prices, resources of human and other expenses
are continually fluctuating. The economic instability will significantly affect the firms,
particularly on long-term construction projects and mega construction projects. Special
considerations are needed to minimize possible financial risks (Elfahham, 2019).

Furthermore, precise scheduling and planning are significant steps to ensure that building
construction can be completed with its determined budgets. Cost estimation is an attribute that
will helps managers and supervisors to identify potential risks and provide an effective solution.
Several research types have been conducted to provide an accurate cost prediction model and

28
technique that can complement conventional cost estimation approaches (Vahdani, 2016). The
ultimate decision is of particular significance since the frame of structure interacts with some
other building components that could be influencing their standard and feasibility (Soetanto et
al., 2007).

The construction of projects goes per two main stages: the skeleton frame and the finishing
stage, each of which impacts the overall cost of the project. There are several variables for
choosing the skeleton, where all of the stakeholders perceive that stories number and the average
area of floors will be the most effective construction cost variables. They think that the project's
cost is less affected by the span length, the column numbers, room number, and the project's
place (Kestner et al., 2010). A successful constructed project shall not satisfy just the
performance requirements but even should consider expense objectives. Westhuizen and
Fitzgerald (2005) reported that “proper cost," "proper execution time," and "proper
performance" are the crucial targets to complete a construction project successfully.

2.3.1 Controlling construction cost

In the construction outcome, appropriate controlling of cost is a crucial aspect. The primary
stage in cost management is to define the variables that influence project construction costs. It
can classify current factors into two main groups: quantitative and qualitative factors. The
industry investigators have made several attempts to extend methods that only quantitative
agents can consider (Elchaig et al., 2005). According to a wide range of variables that have to
be assessed, the accurate cost of constructed projects is hard to predict. Usually, the real finished
cost of the completed structure is greater than the costs that are budgeted. Gould (2005)
illustrated that the initial construction stage's imprecise estimation is the most significant source
of extra costs.

The estimation is the broad calculation of the future cost within the construction project, and
also budget indicates the rate of stakeholders expending money. The most precise estimated cost
is that which can be administered the real cost with the determined budget and ensured to the
contractors for their specified profit.

29
 CHAPTER 3
METHOD OF ANALYSIS

3.1 Research Strategy

In this chapter, a quantitative approach is chosen to determine the quantities and prices for
different materials of steel and RC building structures. To fulfill the study's objective, various
models have been designed, analyzed according to different parameters including story heights,
span lengths, number of stories, and usage of the steel and RC materials. Afterward, the
quantities and costs of building structures were estimated and compared based on the different
structural frame materials.

3.2 Used Parameters for Frame Analyzing and Design

Distinctive kinds of 3D steel and RC frames are thought about and exposed to the analysis and
designing. For the resistance system of horizontal loads, only MRF is considered. Other
parameters have been changed for the structural systems that include; the span length (L) of 4,
5, 5.5, 6 and 7 m, the number of stories (S) of 3- and 4-story for (Low-rise), 5-story for (Med-
rise) have been considered, the number of spans (N) of 3 spans and the height of stories (H) of
3.3 and 3.6 meters are applied. As a result, this research database contains 60 models of
buildings for two different materials (steel and RC) that are analyzed and designed.

3.3 Illustrating Structural Frame Models by Figures

• The number of stories (S): Low-rise (3-story) and (4-story), med-rise (5-story) RC and
steel structures with MRF are investigated and modeled in ideCAD software (Figure 3.1
illustrated the number of stories of the evaluated models).

30
 3-Story (Low-rise) 4-story (Low-rise) 5-story (Med-rise)

Figure 3.1: Number of stories of the evaluated models

• Number of spans(N): 3-span

Figure 3.2: Number of spans

• Height of stories (H): 3.3 m and 3.6 m

Figure 3.3: Stories’ heights

31
 • Span length(L): 4 m, 5 m, 5.5 m, 6 m and 7 m

Figure 3.4: Different span lengths

• Number of analyzed and designed models: 3(S) ×5 (L) ×2 (H) ×2 (material types) = 60
models
• Location: Erbil, Kurdistan Region, Iraq
• Materials prices: All materials prices are in USD ($) according to Gulan construction
company (10/8/2020). The wage for installing steel bars (steel fixers) is 100 $ per ton, and
installation of steel sections (welding and bolting) in steel structures is 80 $ per ton.

Table 3.1: Materials’ price in Erbil-Iraq

No. Materials Unit Amount Price ($)

1 Formwork m2 1 8
2 Reinforcement bar ton 1 570
3 Concrete m3 1 42
4 Steel sections ton 1 640

• Used materials: Steel and RC material were used. Designing models with different
materials is the most crucial parameter in this comparative study.

3.4 Modeling and Analyzing Software

The ideCAD structural computer software program was used to model, analyze, and design
building structures. It was developed by ideYAPI Inc., and contains useful features to analyze
and design models for both steel and RC frames and give the precise amount of all member's
material quantities (concrete, formwork, steel bar, steel sections). The specific version of the
software is ideCAD structural 10.

32
3.5 Materials Properties

Concrete and steel are two materials that were used in this study. Table 3.2 represents the
properties of the materials and applied gravity loads on the framed structures.

Table 3.2: Material properties and loads on the structure

Parameter Value
Fy of steel sections 420 N/mm2
Fu of steel sections 448 N/mm2
Fˈc for concrete 30 N/mm2
Elastic modulus of steel 200,000 N/mm2
Fy in reinforcement bar 420 N/mm2
Concrete unit weight 24 kN/m3
Elastic modulus of concrete 25,743 N/mm2
Live load 2.5 kN/m2
Super dead load 2 kN/m2
Soil bearing capacity 15 t/m3
Soil unit weight 2.1 t/m3

3.5.1 Concrete

Concrete probably is a construction material, having an essential role through all engineering
structures. The most significant characteristics of concrete are its compression strength and low
construction cost. Typically, the amount of concrete strength is determined by testing cube
specimens' strength in the 28 days. Formability is from the significance of concrete, i.e., can
molding the required shapes in different structural types.

Concrete has a longer serviceability life in comparison to other building materials. Concrete
structures could be utilized indefinitely by reasonable conditions without decreasing their ability
to carrying loads. It can be related to that, due to the lengthy stage of cement mix solidification,
the concrete strength will not reduce over time, and it rises over a longer time, determined by
years.

When standards and execution are in the correct processes, concrete is extremely durable, water
and fire-resistant. Actually, for regions with water damage, it will be the best available materials

33
for building structures. In average fire intensity, it will damage the concrete surface without
failure of members, in case of adequate concrete cover to protect steel bars.

For this research, the grade of 30 Mpa in 28 days compression strength RC is used. All variables
used in the ideCAD software for the structural model design are illustrated in Table 3.2. The
columns' section dimensions have been altered in various stories, as the vertical forces are less
in the upper stories of tall buildings. In the higher stories, loads will decrease on columns. So,
the sizes of columns and beams depend on the stories’ numbers and the span length. Some
examples of RC columns and beam sizes for standard low- and med-rise structures for L= 6 m
and H= 3.6 m are shown in Table 3.3.

Table 3.3: Beams and columns dimensions (mm) for L= 6 m and H= 3.6 m

3-Story 4-Story 5-Story

Floor

Column Beam Column Beam Column Beam

0 400x400 300x400 500x500 300x400 600x600 300x400
1 400x400 300x400 400x400 300x400 500x500 300x400
2 400x400 300x400 400x400 300x400 500x500 300x400
3 --------- --------- 400x400 300x400 400x400 300x400
4 --------- --------- --------- --------- 400x400 300x400

3.5.2 Steel

In structural constructions, steel is a lightweight material and provides a high strength ratio
related to its weight. The advantages of steel structures are lighter in building weight, wider
spans, and less column space than the other traditional building materials, without a decline in
performance and engineering requirements. It is also the preferred material for wide span
industrial projects, in which framed structures may be applied.

In steel constructions, the essential elements of steel include plates and standard profiles and
can make numerous sections and compound forms by these crucial elements. It has been widely

34
thought that steel is a type of innovative material with features to provide various needs.
Regarding high efficiency, consideration will be given to load-related properties (toughness,
ductility, and strength), environmental condition, execution time, fabrications (drawing and
welding), etc., to maintain the efficiency and safety of steel components.

Steel is a material with strong and flexible features, and it can be bent slowly by considerable
force because of its ductility attribute. The use of steel bars in the RC members resulting in an
effective behavior of structures by properly strengthening members in tension zones, which
compression force resisted by concrete itself. It also can be used to offer cost-effective
construction that combines concrete. Some examples of columns and beam sizes for standard
low- and med-rise structures with L= 6 m and H= 3.6 m are shown in Table 3.4.

Table 3.4: Beams and columns dimensions (mm) for L= 6 m and H= 3.6 m

3-Story 4-Story 4-Story

Floor

Column Beam Column Beam Column Beam

0 W360×410×216 W250×250×167 W360×410×216 W250×250×167 W360×410×287 W250×250×167

1 W360×370×179 W250×250×131 W360×410×216 W250×250×167 W360×410×216 W250×250×167

2 W360×370×179 W250×250×131 W360×370×179 W250×250×131 W360×410×216 W250×250×167

3 --------- --------- W360×370×179 W250×250×131 W360×370×179 W250×250×131

4 --------- --------- --------- --------- W360×370×179 W250×250×131

3.5.3 Concrete formwork

Formworks become temporal structures used to carrying concrete mixture till it will maintain
itself and hardens. Formworks must be a structure designed because many loads like concrete
mixture, equipment, building materials, and workers will be moving.

Moreover, the formworks should have a desired surface, shape, and dimension to mold the
required concrete. In construction, the formwork components and supports are produced from
different materials like plywood, steel, plastic, timber, and aluminum. The formwork cost is
effective since it typically takes 40 % to 60 % of an RC's cost. The economy in the formwork

35
design partly depends on the experience and ingenuity of the formwork designer, either an
engineer or a contractor. Deciding on the correct selection of a formwork system can always
expedite the construction and minimize its costs. Steel forms have altered wooden forms to the
extent of numerous reuse cases. However, using wood seems to be significant due to its
accessibility and easy installation. For the economy purpose by formworks, it is needed:

1. Simple: It should be configured for simple installation and removing and usable for
common dimensions.

2. Standardized: The ability to quickly assemble and reuse can minimize formwork cost
by standardized the sizes.

3. Easy handling: The formworks unit and panels' dimension must be in a form that not
heavy for use.

4. Re-usable: Formworks that are aiming for multiple re-uses must be organized with simple
removal.

3.6 Consideration of Loads

Wight and MacGregor (2009) revealed that loads of gravity include live and dead loads acting
vertically and lateral loads (wind and earthquake loads) acting horizontally. For building
structure design, these fundamental loads must be taken into consideration.

3.6.1 Dead loads

Dead loads are vertically acted loads according to the permanent weight of building components
such as beams, columns, floors, walls, ceilings, fixed equipment, partitions, etc. The structural
elements loads are determined in term of the weights of:
• Members weight,
• The construction material’s weight that constitutes the permanently supported members,
• All wall partition’s weight,
• The weight of all installed servicing tools,
• Net pre-stressing effects.

36
3.6.2 Live loads

These load types are the imposed loads with the building's usage and occupation, not
environmental impacts like seismic, rain, or wind loads. These loads used in designing
supporting elements and floors must be the maximum loads applied resulting from the intending
of building's usage or occupation or by the materials storing and tools within construction, which
should equal or greater than the lowest design loads specified within specific standard codes.
The live load reduction upon the main structural element is obtained from multiplying the
equivalent live loads distributed uniformly with an adequate reduction factor of that load
(Bungale, 2016).

3.6.3 Lateral loads

The wind and earthquake loads are specified in terms of lateral loads (or horizontal loads). And
the optimum designed wind loads on structures and elements shall be defined in terms of the
wind speed, the form, and height of the structures or the state of the project's surface exposure.

Furthermore, the lateral loads are generally resisted only by the outer frames, but the outer
frames and the inner frames together resist gravity loads. Through the outcomes, it could be
noted that the internal frames resist gravity loads commonly (Gupta, 2014).

3.6.4 Used loads in this study

In all models, loads of gravity like; dead loads (weight of frames members), live loads, and
super dead loads are fixed and considered the same for all models. The self-weight was
automatically calculated by ideCAD software, but super dead load and live load are defined and
allocated to the ideCAD software. But live load and super dead load are defined and assigned
to the program as follows.

The loading parameters were as follows:

a) Live load (LL)= 2.5 kN/m2
b) Dead load (DL)= Frame members’ weight
c) Super dead loads (SDL)= 2 kN/m2

37
 d) Earthquake load (SL): I (Importance factor) = 1, Zone = 3, Z=0.36
e) Wind load (WL): Category= C, Vb = 38 m/sec

3.6 Illustration of Models Through IdeCAD Software

In this section, the RC and steel models analyzed and designed by the ideCAD software for the
three different story heights (3-story, 4-story, and 5-story) are shown with 3D and 2D for further
illustration.

Figure 3.5: Low rise (3-Story) RC building model

Figure 3.6: Low rise (4-Story) RC building model

38
Figure 3.7: Med-rise (5-Story) RC building models

Figure 3.8: Low rise (3-Story) steel building models

39
 Figure 3.9: Low rise (4-Story) steel building models

Figure 3.10: Med-rise (5-Story) steel building models

40
 CHAPTER 4
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Chapter four contains the comparisons and explaining the discussion on the resulting quantities
and cost of steel and RC framed structures by different parameters such as various lengths of
spans, story height, number of stories, and different materials. Also, presenting table and charts
demonstrate the effect of the parameters on the quantities and cost of structures. This evaluation
and comparisons of the framed structures rely on the materials and labors needed for
construction projects. The chapter is distributed into two sections. Section one illustrates the
consequences of the parameter's effect on the rate of used materials quantities. Section two
demonstrates the impact of various parameters on the total cost of constructed structures.

To simplified the tables and figures, some symbols and abbreviation are used as follow:
L: The length of the span
H: Story height of the structure
RCS: Reinforced concrete structure
SS: Steel structure

4.1. Quantity of Materials Used in Framed Structures

This part includes the amount of the primary materials (formwork, concrete, steel) were
calculated for all structural models. The calculation of quantities achieved by using the ideCAD
computer software and prepared as a detailed report. These quantity estimations can give
reliable data to schedule future projects managing and deciding on resources. By utilizing the
analysis and design computer software, the calculation and prediction of material quantities will
be more precise and reduce errors.

In this section, the comparison is done between each RC and steel structure materials separately
by the effects of different parameters. In the RC structures, columns, beams, and thicker slabs
were built using formwork, concrete, and steel bar; therefore, the quantities of these materials
are more than in steel structures. And reversely, in steel structures, the columns and beams are

41
built by steel sections, so it is needed to the high rate of steel quantities, while in RC structures,
there is no need for steel sections.

4.1.1 Formwork quantity in RC structures

The quantity of formwork has effective impact on the RC structures' total cost since it typically
constitutes 40 % to 60 % of the RC's construction cost. The economy in the design of formwork
partly depends on the experience and type of formwork designer. Deciding on the correct
selection of a formwork system can always expedite the construction and minimize its costs.
Table 4.1 presents the quantity of concrete formwork for the whole framed building and per
square meter of the constructed structure.

Table 4.1: Concrete formwork quantity (m2) of the entire structure and per square meter of
RCS

3-story 4-story 5-story

L H Total RCS Total RCS Total RCS
(m) (m) Formwork Formwork 2 Formwork
Formwork
2 Formwork
Formwork
per m per m per m2
(m2) (m2) (m2)
4 3.3 853.07 1.85 1159.55 1.89 1486.22 1.93
5 3.3 1251.80 1.76 1692.91 1.78 2150.42 1.81
5.5 3.3 1430.47 1.67 1928.05 1.69 2433.43 1.70
6 3.3 1633.95 1.59 2203.45 1.61 2784.70 1.63
7 3.3 2137.61 1.54 2887.67 1.56 3633.00 1.57
4 3.6 896.68 1.94 1207.21 1.96 1536.06 2.00
5 3.6 1279.84 1.80 1735.87 1.83 2207.30 1.86
5.5 3.6 1453.51 1.70 1968.57 1.72 2481.20 1.74
6 3.6 1659.39 1.62 2242.17 1.64 2827.90 1.65
7 3.6 2183.05 1.57 2928.47 1.58 3690.15 1.60

1) Effects of the increasing number of stories on the quantity of formwork in RC structures

By observing figures 4.1 and 4.2, it is clear that the graph lines direction is towards up by
increasing the number of stories. This quantity incrementation in the higher story-rises’ building

42
is due to their needs for a wider and thicker foundation and greater columns section in the lower
stories.

The data in Table 4.2 demonstrate the quantity of concrete formwork per square meter of RCS
and the percentage of their increase by rising the model’s height. The maximum percentage of
quantity increase in 3- to 4-story is 1.95% for H= 3.3 m and 1.72% for H= 3.6 m. While these
rates are higher in 4- to 5-story that include: 2.54% and 1.79% for H= 3.3 m and 3.6 m
respectively.

Table 4.2: Percentage of formwork quantity increase per square meter by increasing the
number of stories in RCS

Quantity of concrete
% Formwork % Formwork
L H formwork per m2
increase from increase from
(m) (m)
3-story 4-story 5-story 3- to 4-story 4- to 5-story

4 3.3 1.85 1.89 1.93 1.95 2.54

5 3.3 1.76 1.78 1.81 1.43 1.62
5.5 3.3 1.67 1.69 1.70 1.09 0.97
6 3.3 1.59 1.61 1.63 1.14 1.10
7 3.3 1.54 1.56 1.57 1.32 0.65
4 3.6 1.94 1.96 2.00 0.97 1.79
5 3.6 1.80 1.83 1.86 1.72 1.73
5.5 3.6 1.70 1.72 1.74 1.58 0.83
6 3.6 1.62 1.64 1.65 1.34 0.90
7 3.6 1.57 1.58 1.60 0.61 0.81

43
 2.00

Formwork per square meter (m2)

4
5
1.90 5.5
6
7
1.80

1.70

1.60

1.50
3 4 5

Number of story

Figure 4.1: Influence of increasing number of stories on the formwork

quantity per square meter of RCS with H=3.3 m

2.00
Formwork per square meter (m2)

4
5
1.90 5.5
6
7
1.80

1.70

1.60

1.50
3 4 5

Number of story

Figure 4.2: Influence of increasing number of stories on the formwork

quantity per square meter of RCS with H=3.6 m

44
2) Effects of increasing span length on the quantity of formwork in RC structures

Increasing span length directly affects reducing formwork quantity, and these changes are
clearly shown in figures 4.3 and 4.4. The percentage of formwork reduction by extending
distances between columns in structural construction was listed in Table 4.3 (the negative signs
mean reduction in quantities).

The quantity of formwork per square meter of structure with L= 4 m is higher than the structure
with L= 5 m or 5.5 m or 6 m or 7 m. For example, in 4-story with H= 3.3 m by increasing 3 m
length (from 4 m to 7 m), the formwork quantity decreases by 17.16% (from 1.89 m2 in 4 m to
1.56 m2 in 7 m per 1 m2 of RCS; Table 4.1). This reduction in quantity is related to the lesser
number of columns in the lengthy span building structures. The maximum decrease rate in
formwork quantities is 20.09% in the 5-story with H= 3.6 m between 4 m and 7 m span length.

Table 4.3: Percentage of formwork quantity reduction by increasing span length per square
meter in the RCS

H %Decrease in formwork quantity

Increasing span length (m)
(m)
3-story 4-story 5-story
1m (From 4 m to 5 m) 3.3 -4.86 -5.34 -6.19
1.5m (From 4 m to 5.5 m) 3.3 -9.73 -10.48 -11.85
2m (From 4 m to 6 m) 3.3 -13.95 -14.63 -15.82
3m (From 4m to 7 m) 3.3 -16.65 -17.16 -18.69
1m (From 4 m to 5 m) 3.6 -7.46 -6.77 -6.83
1.5m (From 4 m to 5.5 m) 3.6 -12.73 -12.21 -13.04
2m (From 4 m to 6 m) 3.6 -16.86 -16.56 -17.29
3m (From 4 m to 7 m) 3.6 -19.02 -19.31 -20.09

45
 2.1
Formwork per square meter (m2)
3-story

2.0 4-story
5-story
1.9

1.8

1.7

1.6

1.5
4 5 5.5 6 7
Span length (m)

Figure 4.3: Influence of increasing span length on the formwork

quantity per square meter of RCS with H=3.3 m

2.1
Formwork per square meter (m2)

3-story
4-story
2.0
5-story
1.9

1.8

1.7

1.6

1.5
4 5 5.5 6 7
Span length (m)

Figure 4.4: Influence of increasing span length on the formwork

quantity per square meter of RCS with H= 3.6 m

46
3) Effects of rising story height on the quantity of formwork in RC structures

Rising the story height by the amount of 30 cm (from 3.3 m to 3.6 m) will increase the quantity
of formwork per square meter of RCS at various rates, as illustrated in figures 4.5, 4.6, and 4.7.

And Table 4.4 shows the amount of increasing quantity by percentage. The table shows that in
3-story buildings, this increasing rate is between 1.56% to 5.11% and for 4-story structures is
1.41% to 4.89%, while these values in 5-story buildings reduce to 1.53% to 3.35%. The
increasing amount is proportional to the number, height, and dimension of columns in all stories.
As the height of columns and partition walls increase, the structural and covering materials also
increase. Hence, it needs stronger and wider structural members to support these extra gravity
loads.

Table 4.4: Percentage of formwork quantity increase (m2) by rising story height per square
meter in RCS

3-story 4-story 5-story

L H
% % %
(m) (m) Formwork Formwork Formwork
Formwork Formwork Formwork
per m2 per m2 per m2
increase increase increase
3.3 1.85 1.92 1.93
4 5.11 4.89 3.35
3.6 1.94 2.01 2.00
3.3 1.76 1.76 1.78
5 2.24 2.57 2.70
3.6 1.80 1.81 1.83
3.3 1.67 1.67 1.68
5.5 1.61 3.17 2.00
3.6 1.70 1.72 1.71
3.3 1.59 1.60 1.65
6 1.56 1.77 1.53
3.6 1.62 1.63 1.68
3.3 1.54 1.56 1.57
7 2.13 1.41 1.57
3.6 1.57 1.58 1.60

47
 Formwork per square meter (m2) 2.0 4
5
1.9 5.5
6
7
1.8

1.7

1.6

1.5
3.3 3.6

Story height (m)

Figure 4.5: Effect of rising story height on the formwork

quantity per square meter of 3-story RCS

2.0
Formwork per square meter (m2)

4
5
1.9 5.5
6
1.8 7

1.7

1.6

1.5
3.3 3.6

Story height (m)

Figure 4.6: Effect of rising story height on the formwork

quantity per square meter of 4-story RCS

48
 Formwork per square meter (m2) 2.0

1.9 4
5
1.8 5.5
6
1.7 7

1.6

1.5
3.3 3.6

Story height (m)

Figure 4.7: Effect of rising story height on the formwork

quantity per square meter of 5-story RCS

4.1.2 Concrete quantity in RC structures

Concrete is the primary material in the construction of the RC framed structures. All building
members consist of a higher amount of concrete in comparison to other structural materials. The
amount of concrete need for a member depends on the imposed loads that the member should
support them. The columns and beams will alter in various stories; for instance, loads will
decrease in columns and need to smaller sections in the higher stories. Therefore, columns and
beams' sizes depend on the stories’ numbers, the length of the spans, and story height. Table 4.5
shows the quantity of concrete for the whole framed and per square meter of RC structures.

49
 Table 4.5: Concrete quantity (m3) of entire structure and per square meter of RCS

3-story 4-story 5-story

L H
(m) (m) Total Total Total
Concrete Concrete Concrete
concrete concrete concrete
per m2 per m2 per m2
(m3) (m3) (m3)
4 3.3 135.7 0.294 227.3 0.370 297.1 0.386
5 3.3 205.6 0.289 336.0 0.354 437.0 0.369
5.5 3.3 238.8 0.279 395.5 0.346 506.0 0.354
6 3.3 319.9 0.312 533.9 0.390 689.3 0.403
7 3.3 468.8 0.338 821.5 0.444 1069.6 0.463
4 3.6 141.3 0.306 235.8 0.383 304.5 0.396
5 3.6 210.6 0.296 343.3 0.362 445.2 0.375
5.5 3.6 243.1 0.284 402.4 0.352 513.6 0.360
6 3.6 324.0 0.316 539.6 0.394 695.7 0.407
7 3.6 472.3 0.341 826.6 0.447 1075.5 0.465

1) Effects of the increasing number of stories on the quantity of concrete in RC structures

Table 4.6 the quantity of concrete per square meter of RC structures and the percentage of their
increase by increasing the number of stories illustrated. The percentage of increased quantities
by rising the structure from 3- to 4-story is in the range of 22.54% to 31.44% for H= 3.3 m and
22.28% to 31.27% for H= 3.6 m. While this percentage is lesser for 4- to 5-story which include:
2.36% to 4.56% for H= 3.3 m and 2.11% to 4.09% for H= 3.6 m.

The higher percentage of the concrete difference between 3- and 4-story is due to the difference
in their foundation type. In 3-story, the single footing has been used with less amount of
concrete, but in 4- and 5-story, the raft foundation has used that need more concrete amount.
These ascending of concrete quantity by increasing the number of stories are shown clearer in
Figure 4.8 and 4.9 lines.

50
Table 4.6: Percentage of concrete quantity increase by increasing the number of stories per
square meter in RCS

Concrete (m3) square meter of

% Concrete % Concrete
L H RCS
increase from increase from
(m) (m)
3-Story 4-Story 5-Story 3- to 4-story 4- to 5-story

4 3.3 0.29 0.37 0.39 25.64 4.56

5 3.3 0.29 0.35 0.37 22.54 4.05
5.5 3.3 0.28 0.35 0.35 24.22 2.36
6 3.3 0.31 0.39 0.40 25.15 3.29
7 3.3 0.34 0.44 0.46 31.44 4.16
4 3.6 0.31 0.38 0.40 25.20 3.31
5 3.6 0.30 0.36 0.38 22.28 3.75
5.5 3.6 0.28 0.35 0.36 24.15 2.11
6 3.6 0.32 0.39 0.41 24.93 3.14
7 3.6 0.34 0.45 0.47 31.27 4.09

0.50
Concrete per square meter (m3)

4
5
0.45 5.5
6
7
0.40

0.35

0.30

0.25
3 4 5
Number of story

Figure 4.8: Influence of number of stories on the concrete quantity

per square meter of RCS with H=3.3 m

51
 Concrete per square meter (m3) 0.50
4
5
0.45 5.5
6
0.40 7

0.35

0.30

0.25
3 4 5
Number of story

Figure 4.9: Influence of number of stories on the concrete quantity

per square meter of RCS with H=3.6 m

2) Effects of increasing span length on the quantity of concrete in RC structures

The rate of concrete quantities required for structural construction, as shown in Table 4.7, is
decreased gradually by extending the length of spans from 4 m till 5.5 m compared to the same
multi-story and story height, but in 6 m and 7 m, it will increase again. The amount of concrete
needed in constructing a structure with L= 4 m is higher than the same structure with L= 5 m or
5.5 m and less than in 6 m and 7 m. For example, in 5-story with H= 3.3 m, increasing 1.5 m
span length (from 4 m to 5.5 m) will decrease the rate of concrete quantity by 8.3% (from 0.39
m3 in 4m to 0.35 m3 in 5.5 m per square meter of RCS; Table 4.6).

The maximum percentage of decrease in concrete quantities is 9.2% in the 5-story by increasing
1.5 m span length with H= 3.6 m, and the top rate of the concrete quantity increase is 20.2% in
the 4-story by increasing the 3 m span length (from 4 m to 7 m) with H= 3.3 m. This change in
the amount of concrete is illustrated by graph lines in Figure 4.10 and Figure 4.11.

52
Table 4.7: Percentage of change in concrete quantity by increasing span length per square
meter in the RCS

H % Change in concrete quantity

Increasing span length (m)
(m) 3-story 4-story 5-story
1 m (From 4 m to 5 m) 3.3 -1.7 -4.2 -4.6
1.5 m (From 4 m to 5.5 m) 3.3 -5.3 -6.3 -8.3
2 m (From 4 m to 6 m) 3.3 5.9 5.5 4.2
3 m (From 4 m to 7 m) 3.3 14.9 20.2 19.8
1 m (From 4 m to 5 m) 3.6 -3.3 -5.6 -5.2
1.5 m (From 4 m to 5.5 m) 3.6 -7.4 -8.1 -9.2
2 m (From 4 m to 6 m) 3.6 3.0 2.8 2.6
3 m (From 4 m to 7m) 3.6 11.2 16.6 17.5

0.50
Concrete per square meter (m3)

3-story

0.45 4-story
5-story
0.40

0.35

0.30

0.25
4 5 5.5 6 7
Span length (m)

Figure 4.10: Influence of increasing span length on the concrete

quantity per square meter of RCS with H=3.3 m

53
 Concrete per square meter (m3) 0.50
3-story

0.45 4-story
5-story
0.40

0.35

0.30

0.25
4 5 5.5 6 7
Span length (m)

Figure 4.11: Influence of increasing span length on the concrete

quantity per square meter of RCS with H=3.6 m

3) Effects of rising story height on the quantity of concrete in RC structures

Rising the height of the story will increase the quantity of concrete per square meter of RCS at
various rates, as demonstrated in Table 4.8 below. The maximum increase rate in 3-story is
4.10%, but these rates in 4-story structures receive 3.70%, and in 5-story it will be decreased to
2.50%.

These incrementations of quantities are more observed in figures 4.12, 4.13, and 4.14. This
change has a relation to the dimension and heights of columns in all stories. By rising the height
of columns and partition walls, the amount of structural and covering materials should increase,
which needs to the bigger dimensions of all structural members for carrying these imposed
loads.

54
Table 4.8: Percentage of concrete quantity increase (m3) by rising story height per square
meter of RCS

3-story 4-story 5-story

L H % %
(m) (m) Concrete Concrete %Concrete Concrete
Concrete Concrete
per m2 per m2 increase per m2
increase increase
3.3 0.294 0.370 0.386
4 4.1 3.7 2.5
3.6 0.306 0.383 0.396
3.3 0.289 0.354 0.369
5 2.4 2.2 1.9
3.6 0.296 0.362 0.375
3.3 0.279 0.346 0.354
5.5 1.8 1.7 1.5
3.6 0.284 0.352 0.360
3.3 0.312 0.390 0.403
6 1.3 1.1 0.9
3.6 0.316 0.394 0.407
3.3 0.338 0.444 0.463
7 0.8 0.6 0.6
3.6 0.341 0.447 0.465

0.36
Concrete per square meter (m3)

4
5
0.34 5.5
6
7
0.32

0.30

0.28

0.26
3.3 3.6
Story height (m)

Figure 4.12: Influence of rising story height on the concrete

quantity per square meter of 3-story RCS

55
 0.46
Concrete per square meter (m3)
4
5
0.44 5.5
6
0.42 7

0.40

0.38

0.36

0.34
3.3 3.6

Story height (m)

Figure 4.13: Influence of rising story height on the concrete

quantity per square meter of 4-story RCS

0.46
Concrete per square meter (m3)

4
0.44 5
5.5
0.42 6
7
0.40

0.38

0.36

0.34
3.3 3.6
Story height (m)

Figure 4.14: Influence of rising story height on the concrete

quantity per square meter of 5-story RCS

56
4.1.3 Steel bar quantity in RC structures

Steel bar is an essential material in RC structure that equivalent to concrete resist the imposed
vertical and horizontal loads and protect structures from failure in the members' tension zones.
According to the position and rate of loads acted on the member, its quantity must be in the
standard range, which should not be too more (over reinforced) or too less (under reinforced)
than the required quantities in the design. Table 4.9 illustrates the steel bar quantity in the whole
RC structures and per square meter of models, obtained as a detailed report from the analyzed
and designed models by the ideCAD software.

Table 4.9: Steel bar quantity of the whole structure and per square meter of RCS

3-story 4-story 5-story

L H
Total Total Total
(m) (m) Steel bar Steel bar Steel bar
steel bar steel bar steel bar
(kg) per m2 (kg) per m2 (kg) per m2
(kg) (kg) (kg)
4 3.3 16,027 34.74 25,276 41.10 33,085 43.03
5 3.3 22,348 31.41 34,758 36.64 44,749 37.74
5.5 3.3 26,546 30.98 39,931 34.95 51,773 36.25
6 3.3 32,113 31.28 48,185 35.20 63,793 37.28
7 3.3 46,579 33.59 70,794 38.29 92,222 39.90
4 3.6 16,745 36.30 27,410 44.57 36,415 47.37
5 3.6 24,142 33.93 37,827 39.87 50,246 42.37
5.5 3.6 27,461 32.05 41,088 35.97 56,145 39.32
6 3.6 33,743 32.86 50,969 37.23 69,096 40.38
7 3.6 48,952 35.30 74,933 40.53 99,836 43.20

1) Effects of the increasing number of stories on the quantity of steel bars in RC structures

The quantity of steel bar per square meter of RC structures and the percentage of their increase
by rising the number of stories is illustrated in Table 4.10 below. The rate of quantity increases

57
by rising the structure from 3- to 4-story is in the limit of 12.54% to 18.28% for H= 3.3 m and
12.22% to 22.77% for H= 3.6 m. While this percentage has a lesser rate between 4- and 5-story,
including 3.00% to 5.91% for H= 3.3 m and 6.27% to 9.32% for H= 3.6 m.

The higher rate of difference in 3- and 4-story is due to their foundation form difference. In 3-
story, the single footing was used, which needs less quantity of steel bar in compare to the 4-
and 5-story with the raft foundation and higher amount of steel bars. These ascending steel bar
quantity in different multi-story types are seen better with the graph lines in figures 4.15 and
4.16.

Table 4.10: Effects of the increasing number of stories on the quantity of steel bar per square
meter of RCS

Steel bar (kg) per square meter of

L H % Steel bar % Steel bar
RCS
increase from increase from
(m) (m) 3-story 4-story 5-story 3- to 4-story 4- to 5-story

4 3.3 34.74 41.10 43.03 18.28 4.72

5 3.3 31.41 36.64 37.74 16.65 3.00
5.5 3.3 30.98 34.95 36.25 12.82 3.72
6 3.3 31.28 35.20 37.28 12.54 5.91
7 3.3 33.59 38.29 39.90 13.99 4.21
4 3.6 36.30 44.57 47.37 22.77 6.28
5 3.6 33.93 39.87 42.37 17.51 6.27
5.5 3.6 32.05 35.97 39.32 12.22 9.32
6 3.6 32.86 37.23 40.38 13.29 8.45
7 3.6 35.30 40.53 43.20 14.81 6.59

58
 48 4
Steel bar per square meter (kg)
5
45 5.5
6
42 7

39

36

33

30
3 4 5
Number of story

Figure 4.15: Influence of number of stories on the steel bars quantity

per square meter of RCS with H=3.3 m

48 4
Steel bar per square meter (kg)

5
45
5.5
42 6
7
39

36

33

30
3 4 5

Number of story

Figure 4.16: Influence of number of stories on the steel bars quantity

per square meter of RCS with H=3.6 m

59
2) Effects of increasing span length on the quantity of steel bar in RC structures

The descending of graph lines in figures 4.17 and 4.18 explain the influence of extending span
lengths on the quantity of steel bars in RC structures for three types of stories.

Also, Table 4.11 shows that the rate of steel bar quantities decreases gradually by increasing
the length of the spans from 4 m till 5.5 m compared to the same multi-story and story height
but in 6 m and 7 m increasing again. The minimum percentage of decrease in steel bar
quantities is 2.76% in the 3-story with H= 3.6 m and by increasing 3 m span length, and the
maximum rate of the reinforcement quantity decrease is 19.3% in the 4-story by increasing the
1.5 m span length (from 4 m to 5.5 m) with H= 3.6 m.

Table 4.11: Percentage of decreasing steel bar quantity per square meter by increasing span
length in the RCS

H % Decrease in steel bar

Increasing span length (m)
(m) 3-story 4-story 5-story
1 m (From 4 m to 5 m) 3.3 -9.60 -10.84 -12.31
1.5 m (From 4 m to 5.5 m) 3.3 -10.83 -14.95 -15.76
2 m (From 4 m to 6 m) 3.3 -9.98 -14.35 -13.38
3 m (From 4 m to 7 m) 3.3 -3.33 -6.83 -7.28
1 m (From 4 m to 5 m) 3.6 -6.53 -10.53 -10.54
1.5 m (From 4 m to 5.5 m) 3.6 -11.71 -19.30 -17.00
2 m (From 4 m to 6 m) 3.6 -9.47 -16.46 -14.75
3 m (From 4 m to 7 m) 3.6 -2.76 -9.07 -8.80

60
 48
Steel bar per square meter (kg)
3-story
45 4-story
5-story
42

39

36

33

30
4 5 5.5 6 7
Span length (m)

Figure 4.17: Influence of increasing span length on the steel bar

quantity per square meter of RCS with H=3.3 m

48
Steel bar per square meter (kg)

3-story
45 4-story
5-story
42

39

36

33

30
4 5 5.5 6 7

Span length (m)

Figure 4.18: Influence of increasing span length on the steel bar

quantity per square meter of RCS with H=3.6 m

61
3) Effects of rising story height on the quantity of steel bar in RC structures

Rising the height of the building story by the amount of 30 cm (from 3.3 m to 3.6 m) will
increase the quantity of steel bar per square meter of RCS at a different rate, as demonstrated
in Table 4.12. The higher rate of increase in 3-story structures is 8.03% and in 4-story models
is 8.83%, while this rate will be more in 5-story, which is 12.28%.

The figures 4.19, 4.20, and 4.21 shown better these changes in quantities by the effect of rising
story height. As the columns and walls are raised more, the amount of materials for structural
and finishing will increase; consequently, the greater section of columns, beams, and
foundation must be built to carry these extra gravity loads.

Table 4.12: Percentage of steel bar increase by rising the story height per square meter of
RCS

3-story 4-story 5-story

L H % Steel % Steel % Steel
(m) (m) Steel bar Steel bar Steel bar
bar bar bar
(kg) per m2 (kg) per m2 (kg) per m2
increase increase increase
3.3 34.74 41.10 43.03
4 4.48 8.44 10.06
3.6 36.30 44.57 47.37
3.3 31.41 36.64 37.74
5 8.03 8.83 12.28
3.6 33.93 39.87 42.37
3.3 30.98 34.95 36.25
5.5 3.45 2.90 8.44
3.6 32.05 35.97 39.32
3.3 31.28 35.20 37.28
6 5.08 5.78 8.31
3.6 32.86 37.23 40.38
3.3 33.59 38.29 39.90
7 5.09 5.85 8.26
3.6 35.30 40.53 43.20

62
 37 4
Steel bar per square meter (kg)
5
36 5.5
6
35 7
34

33

32

31

30
3.3 3.6
Story height (m)

Figure 4.19: Influence of rising story height on the steel bars

quantity per square meter of 3-story RCS

48 4
Steel bar per square meter (kg)

5
46 5.5
6
44 7
42

40

38

36

34
3.3 3.6
Story height (m)

Figure 4.20: Influence of rising story height on the steel bars

quantity per square meter of 4-story RCS

63
 48
Steel bar per square meter (kg)
4
5
46 5.5
6
44 7

42

40

38

36

34
3.3 3.6
Story height (m)

Figure 4.21: Influence of rising story height on the steel bars

quantity per square meter of 5-story RCS

4.1.4 Steel quantity in steel structures

A considerable alternative material in the construction of multi-story buildings is steel. Besides

using as reinforcing material in RC structures, it is utilized individually in many high-rise
framed structures with many simplifications and advantageous in execution and functionality.
The quantity of required steel, like all other alternatives, depends on the span length, number of
stories, and story height. The whole steel sections and steel bars quantity used in columns,
beams, foundations, and slabs of the structural steel models in this research under all the
mentioned parameters are revealed in Table 4.13.

64
 Table 4.13: Quantity of steel for the whole and per square meter of steel structure

3-story 4-story 5-story

L H
(m) (m) Total steel Steel (kg) Total steel Steel (kg) Total steel Steel (kg)
(kg) per m2 (kg) per m2 (kg) per m2

4 3.3 43,071 93.37 58,369 94.90 77,807 101.21

5 3.3 67,070 94.27 90,757 95.67 123,025 103.75
5.5 3.3 82,843 96.69 113,706 99.53 153,078 107.19
6 3.3 105,620 102.87 143,688 104.96 193,540 113.10
7 3.3 157,714 113.73 213,096 115.25 279,750 121.04
4 3.6 43,794 94.94 60,094 97.71 80,738 105.02
5 3.6 69,104 97.13 95,371 100.53 126,974 107.08
5.5 3.6 86,056 100.44 118,314 103.56 157,612 110.37
6 3.6 111,141 108.25 153,006 111.76 198,432 115.96
7 3.6 164,454 118.59 222,084 120.11 283,409 122.62

1) Effects of the increasing number of stories on the quantity of steel in steel structures

The increasing number of stories directly influences the increasing steel quantity in steel
structures; as seen in figures 4.22 and 4.23, the direction of quantity graph lines is continually
increasing by rising multi-stories from 3- to 4- and 5-story.

Table 4.14 listed the quantity of steel per square meter of structure and the difference in
quantities between various stories. The quantity of steel per square meter in 5-story structures
is more than in low-rise buildings. An increase in the number of stories needs to more steel per
square meter; for example, in a structure with L= 5 m and H=3.6 m, the required construction
steel is 97.13 kg, 100.53 kg and 107.08 kg for 3-, 4- and 5-story respectively. The higher
percentage of steel difference between 3- and 4-story is 3.51% in L=5 m and H=3.6 m, while
the higher percentage in between 4-and 5-story was 8.44% for L=5 m and H=3.3 m. This

65
increase in steel quantity for riser framed buildings is due to the higher rate of loads in the lower
stories, which need the wider dimension of columns and foundation.

Table 4.14: Effects of the increasing number of stories on the quantity of steel per square
meter in the SS

Steel (kg) per square meter of SS % Steel % Steel

L H increase increase
(m) (m) from from
3-story 4-story 5-story
3- to 4-story 4- to 5-story
4 3.3 93.37 94.90 101.21 1.64 6.64
5 3.3 94.27 95.67 103.75 1.49 8.44
5.5 3.3 96.69 99.53 107.19 2.94 7.70
6 3.3 102.87 104.96 113.10 2.03 7.76
7 3.3 113.73 115.25 121.04 1.34 5.02
4 3.6 94.94 97.71 105.02 2.91 7.48
5 3.6 97.13 100.53 107.08 3.51 6.51
5.5 3.6 100.44 103.56 110.37 3.11 6.57
6 3.6 108.25 111.76 115.96 3.25 3.75
7 3.6 118.59 120.11 122.62 1.28 2.09

125
Steel per square meter (kg)

4
120 5
5.5
115 6
7
110

105

100

95

90
3 4 5
Number of story

Figure 4.22: Influence of number of stories on the steel quantity

per square meter of SS with H=3.3 m

66
 125

Steel per square meter (kg)

4
120 5
5.5
115 6
7
110

105

100

95

90
3 4 5

Number of story

Figure 4.23: Influence of number of stories on the steel quantity

per square meter of SS with H=3.6 m

2) Effects of increasing span length on the quantity of steel in steel structures

Increasing span length is the second parameter for increment the quantity of steel per square
meter of steel structures in all multi-story types. The increased percentage of steel quantities by
stretch out the spans from 4 m is shown in Table 4.15 below. For instance, in a 3-story structure
with H=3.6 m, the percentage increasing length with 1 m, 1.5 m, 2 m, and 3 m is 2.3%, 5.79%,
14.01%, and 24.91%, respectively. That means a greater amount of steel quantity (kg) per square
meter of the constructed structure is with the longer span used in this study, 7 m.

The quantity of steel in kg for 4 m and 7 m with constant H=3.6 m is 94.94 kg - 118.59 kg in 3-
story, 97.71 kg – 120.11 kg in 4-story, and 105.02 kg – 122.62 kg in 5-story (Table 4.14). This
increase in the amount of steel in longer spans is due to a greater section of steel beams used
with the higher weight that require a wider section of steel columns and foundation
reinforcement to support the extra dead loads. The incrementation of steel quantities in three
types of multi-stories and all used spans and story heights is more obvious in figures 4.24 and
4.25, which continually graph lines ascend toward the upper level by lengthening the spans.

67
Table 4.15: Percentage of increasing steel quantity by extending span length per square meter
of the SS

H % Increase in steel quantity

Increasing span length (m)
(m) 3-story 4-story 5-story
1 m (From 4 m to 5 m) 3.3 0.96 0.81 2.51
1.5 m (From 4 m to 5.5 m) 3.3 3.55 4.87 5.92
2 m (From 4 m to 6 m) 3.3 10.17 10.60 11.75
3 m (From 4 m to 7m) 3.3 21.80 21.44 19.60
1 m (From 4 m to 5 m) 3.6 2.30 2.89 1.96
1.5 m (From 4 m to 5.5 m) 3.6 5.79 5.99 5.09
2 m (From 4 m to 6 m) 3.6 14.01 14.39 10.42
3 m (From 4 m to 7 m) 3.6 24.91 22.93 16.76

125
Steel per square meter (kg)

3-story
120 4-story
5-story
115

110

105

100

95

90
4 5 5.5 6 7
Span length (m)

Figure 4.24: Influence of increasing span length on the steel

quantity per square meter of SS with H=3.3 m

68
 Steel per square meter (kg) 125 3-story
120 4-story
5-story
115
110
105
100
95
90
4 5 5.5 6 7

Span length (m)

Figure 4.25: Influence of increasing span length on the steel quantity

per square meter of SS with H=3.6 m

3) Effects of rising story height on the quantity of steel in steel structures

Rising the height of stories in framed construction affects the increasing steel quantities of
structures because, in the same building area, all stories must use more steel quantities. Rising
story height means increasing the building's weight totally, that transport heavy loads to the
lower stories and foundation.

The difference in steel quantities per square meter of the building by percentage is explained in
Table 4.16. The percentage of increase in 3-story is between 1.68% to 5.23%, in 4-story
structures is between 2.96% to 6.48%, but this value is lesser in 5-story that is 1.31% to 3.77%.
The effect of rising story height on the steel quantity is presented by the figures 4.26 for 3-story,
4.27 for 4-story, and 4.28 for 5-story structures.

69
Table 4.16: Percentage of steel quantity increase by increasing story height per square meter
of SS

3-story 4-story 5-story

L H
(m) (m) Steel (kg) % Steel Steel (kg) % Steel Steel (kg) % Steel
per m2 increase per m2 increase per m2 increase

3.3 93.37 94.90 101.21

4 1.68 2.96 3.77
3.6 94.94 97.71 105.02
3.3 94.27 95.67 103.75
5 3.03 5.08 3.21
3.6 97.13 100.53 107.08
3.3 96.69 99.53 107.19
5.5 3.88 4.05 2.96
3.6 100.44 103.56 110.37
3.3 102.87 104.96 113.10
6 5.23 6.48 2.53
3.6 108.25 111.76 115.96
3.3 113.73 115.25 121.04
7 4.27 4.22 1.31
3.6 118.59 120.11 122.62

125 4
Steel per square meter (kg)

5
120
5.5
115 6
7
110

105

100

95

90
3.3 3.6
Story height (m)

Figure 4.26: Influence of rising story height on the steel

quantity per square meter of 3-story SS

70
 125

Steel per square meter (kg)

4
120 5
5.5
115 6
7
110

105

100

95

90
3.3 3.6
Story height (m)

Figure 4.27: Influence of rising story height on the steel

quantity per square meter of 4-story SS

125 4
Steel per square meter (kg)

5
120 5.5
6
115 7

110

105

100

95

90
3.3 3.6
Story height (m)

Figure 4.28: Influence of rising story height on the steel

quantity per square meter of 5-story SS

71
4.2. Total Cost of Structural Construction

The main objective of materials quantity prediction is to estimate the project's total construction
cost and provide the determined budget to start project implementation. This section will
demonstrate the cost of structural construction by considering the quantities listed and explained
in the previous section of this chapter. That will be a process of converting the materials quantity
measurement (units) to the currency measurement rate (like US dollar), which will present the
structural construction budget and the detail of each material and activities cost to the owners,
contractors, and non-engineers.

4.2.1 Impacts of the increasing stories number on the total cost of RC and steel
structures

Rising story height has a different effect on RC and steel structures construction costs. Figures
4.29, 4.30 illustrate the costs per square meter of structures by the impact of rising stories from
3- to 4- and 5-story. As seen in the figures, adding one story to structure from 3- to 4-story in
RC structures greatly increases the structural cost by comparing to the steel structure in the same
span lengths and story heights. And these changes are inversely between 4- to 5-story; the steel
structures have a higher cost increase in this stage relative to RC structures. That is because in
3- to 4-story, the foundation type is changed (single footing to raft foundation), and since the
weight of RC is heavier than steel structure, by increasing one story, it needs to the thicker and
wider foundation and columns sections. The type of 4- to 5-stories foundation is the same, but
increasing steel column sections need more expenses than RC columns, and the cost of steel
columns is near twice the cost of RC columns in some cases.

The percentage of cost increase due to adding stories is explained by numbers in Table 4.17, for
example, the rate of cost increase in 3- to 4-story for L=5 m and H=3.3 m is 13.6% in RC and
2.1% in steel structures, but with the same parameters in the 4- to 5-story this rate is reversed to
3.0% for RC and 6.9% for steel structures.

72
Table 4.17: Percentage of total cost increase by increasing the number of stories per square
meter of RCS and SS

Cost of RCS ($) %Cost %Cost Cost of SS ($) %Cost %Cost

L H per m2 increase increase per m2 increase increase
from from from from
(m) (m)
3- 4- 5- 3- to 4- 4- to 5- 3- 4- 5- 3- to 4- 4- to 5-
story story story story story story story story story story

4 3.3 50.4 58.1 60.5 15.2 4.1 81.1 82.9 87.1 2.2 5.1
5 3.3 47.3 53.7 55.3 13.6 3.0 82.0 83.7 89.5 2.1 6.9
5.5 3.3 45.8 51.5 52.8 12.4 2.5 83.6 86.9 91.9 3.9 5.8
6 3.3 46.8 52.8 54.9 12.9 4.0 87.9 91.6 96.8 4.2 5.7
7 3.3 49.0 56.8 58.7 15.8 3.3 96.6 99.3 104.2 2.8 4.9
4 3.6 52.7 61.7 64.4 17.0 4.4 82.3 85.4 89.8 3.8 5.2
5 3.6 49.6 56.6 58.4 14.2 3.2 84.1 87.2 91.9 3.7 5.4
5.5 3.6 47.0 52.7 55.3 12.2 4.9 86.3 89.8 94.6 4.1 5.3
6 3.6 48.2 54.6 57.3 13.3 4.9 91.8 96.5 98.9 5.1 2.4
7 3.6 50.5 58.6 61.3 15.9 4.6 100.1 102.8 105.7 2.7 2.8

105 4m RCS
Cost per square meter ($)

5m RCS
5.5m RCS
93 6m RCS
7m RCS
4m SS
81 5m SS
5.5m SS
6m SS
69 7m SS

57

45
3 4 5
Number of story

Figure 4.29: Influence of number of stories on the total cost of square

meter of RC and steel structures with H= 3.3 m

73
 105 4m RCS
5m RCS
Cost per square meter ($)

5.5m RCS
93 6m RCS
7m RCS
81 4m SS
5m SS
5.5m SS
69 6m SS
7m SS
57

45
3 4 5
Number of story

Figure 4.30: Influence of number of stories on the total cost of square

meter of RC and steel structures with H= 3.6 m

4.2.2 Effects of increasing span length on the total cost of RC and steel structures

The span length is multiple parameters in structural building construction since this parameter
must hold the balance between architectural plan, construction expense, and structural stability
and safety.

Figures 4.31 and 4.32 shows a clear influence of increasing span length on the structural RC
and steel construction cost. These figures showed that by extending span lengths in each RC
and steel structure, the graph lines take a different direction (steel goes upward and RC goes
downward). The cost of RC structures will gradually decrease by extending the span, while steel
structures' cost continually increases in the same conditions. For example, by increasing 2 m of
span length from (4 m to 6 m) with H=3.3 m, the cost of RC structures is decreased by the rate
7.2%, 9.1%, and 9.3% for 3-, 4- and 5-story respectively, but inversely the qualities of steel
structures cost are increased by 8.4%, 10.5% and 11.1% for 3-, 4- and 5-story structures
respectively (Table 4.18). These numbers specify that extending span length by any rate directly

74
increases the construction cost of steel structures and oppositely decreases the cost of RC
structures in all types of multi-stories and story heights in this study.

Table 4.18: Percentage of total cost change per square meter by increasing span length in the
RCS and SS

Increasing span length H %RCS cost decrease %SS cost increase

(m) (m) 3-story 4-story 5-story 3-story 4-story 5-story
1 m (From 4 m to 5 m) 3.3 -6.3 -7.6 -8.7 1.1 1.0 2.8
1.5 m (From 4 m to 5.5 m) 3.3 -9.1 -11.5 -12.8 3.1 4.8 5.5
2 m (From 4 m to 6 m) 3.3 -7.2 -9.1 -9.3 8.4 10.5 11.1
3 m (From 4 m to 7 m) 3.3 -2.8 -2.3 -2.9 19.1 19.8 19.6
1 m (From 4 m to 5 m) 3.6 -6.0 -8.3 -9.3 2.2 2.1 2.3
1.5 m (From 4 m to 5.5 m) 3.6 -11.0 -14.6 -14.0 4.9 5.2 5.3
2 m (From 4 m to 6 m) 3.6 -8.6 -11.5 -10.9 11.5 13.0 10.0
3 m (From 4 m to 7 m) 3.6 -4.2 -5.0 -4.8 21.6 20.4 17.6

110 3-story SS
4-story SS
Cost per square meter ($)

100 5-story SS
3-story RCS
90
4-story RCS
5-story RCS
80

70

60

50

40
4 5 5.5 6 7
Span length (m)

Figure 4.31: Influence of increasing span length on the total cost in

square meter of RC and steel structures with H=3.3 m

75
 110 3-story SS
Cost per square meter ($)

4-story SS
100
5-story SS
90 3-story RCS
4-story RCS
80
5-story RCS
70

60

50

40
4 5 5.5 6 7
Span length (m)

Figure 4. 32: Influence of increasing span length on the total cost in

square meter of RC and steel structures with H=3.6 m

4.2.3 Impacts of rising story height on the total cost of RC and steel structures

By increasing the story height in the building structures (RC and steel), the construction cost
will be increased. Figures 4.33, 4.34, and 4.35 illustrate that in all types of multi-stories and
span lengths, the direction of cost graph lines by rising story height is going upward.

The maximum rate of cost increase by the effect of 30 cm story rising in RC structures is 6.32%
in the 5-story with L= 4 m, and the higher cost increasing rate in steel structures is in 4-story
with L= 6 m by the amount of 5.35% (Table 4.19). This increasing cost is because by rising
story height, the quantity of material and their installation activities will increase in the same
building area.

76
Table 4.19: Amount of total cost increase per square meter by rising story height in the RCS
and SS

3-story 4-story 5-story

RCS SS RCS SS RCS SS
L H
Cost per m2

Cost per m2

Cost per m2

Cost per m2

Cost per m2

Cost per m2
% Increase

% Increase

% Increase

% Increase

% Increase

% Increase
(m) (m) in cost

in cost

in cost
in cost

in cost

in cost
($)

($)

($)

($)

($)

($)
3.3 50.4 81.1 58.1 82.9 60.5 87.1
4 4.58 1.48 6.06 3.02 6.32 3.15
3.6 52.7 82.3 61.7 85.4 64.4 89.8
3.3 47.3 82.0 53.7 83.7 55.3 89.5
5 4.86 2.56 5.31 4.18 5.62 2.68
3.6 49.6 84.1 56.6 87.2 58.4 91.9
3.3 45.8 83.6 51.5 86.9 52.8 91.9
5.5 2.49 3.23 2.36 3.34 4.81 2.93
3.6 47.0 86.3 52.7 89.8 55.3 94.6
3.3 46.8 87.9 52.8 91.6 54.9 96.8
6 3.05 4.40 3.34 5.35 4.43 2.13
3.6 48.2 91.8 54.6 96.5 57.3 98.9
3.3 49.0 96.6 56.8 99.3 58.7 104.2
7 3.09 3.62 3.16 3.52 4.28 1.44
3.6 50.5 100.1 58.6 102.8 61.3 105.7

100 4m RCS
Cost per square meter ($)

5m RCS
90 5.5m RCS
6m RCS
80 7m RCS
4m SS
5m SS
70
5.5m SS
6m SS
60
7m SS

50

40
3.3 3.6
Story height (m)

Figure 4.33: Influence of rising 30 cm story height on the total

cost per square meter of 3-story RCS and SS

77
 105
Cost per square meter ($)
4m RCS
5m RCS
95 5.5m RCS
6m RCS
85 7m RCS
4m SS
5m SS
75
5.5m SS
6m SS
65 7m SS

55

45
3.3 3.6
Story height (m)

Figure 4.34: Influence of rising 30 cm story height on the total

cost per square meter of 4-story RC and SS

4m RCS
5m RCS
105 5.5m RCS
Cost per square meter ($)

6m RCS
95 7m RCS
4m SS
85 5m SS
5.5m SS
75 6m SS
7m SS
65

55

45
3.3 3.6
Story height (m)

Figure 4.35: Influence of rising 30 cm story height on the total

cost per square meter of 5-story RC and SS

78
4.2.4 Effect of using different materials (RC and steel) on the total structural
construction cost

The total cost of multi-story structural construction utilizing various alternatives (RC and steel)
per square meter and their differences in percent is clearly explained by Table 4.20 below. As
obviously shown, the prices by using steel in structures are more costly than RC in different
stories, span length, and story heights. The cost of constructing one square meter building
structure by steel is more than 1.5 square meter of structures cost built by RC (the percentage of
extra cost is more than 50%) in all cases except for 4 m span length in 4- and 5-story buildings
with both H= 3.3 m and 3.6 m.

By figures 4.36 and 4.37, the percentage of the cost difference is illustrated simpler. The rate of
the cost increase in the 3-story building is higher compare to 4- and 5- stories, and especially in
7 m span lengths, this rate gets a higher level among its equivalent indicator bars. The maximum
percentage of the cost difference is 97.9% in the 3-story structures with L= 7 m, H= 3.6 m.
As a result, increasing all parameters (span length, number of stories, and rising story height)
directly influences the rising cost of steel structure construction by a rate more than using RC
materials. The high price of constructing a structure by steel is also related to the expensive
supplying steel material price in Erbil-Iraq and its installation compared to concrete and
formwork materials.

79
Table 4.20: Percentage of extra structural construction cost by steel related to RC per square
meter

3-story 4-story 5-story

Cost Cost Cost
L H Cost % Cost % Cost %
of of of
(m) (m) of SS Extra of SS Extra of SS Extra
RCS RCS RCS
($) cost of ($) cost of ($) cost of
($) ($) ($)
per m2 SS per m2 SS per m2 SS
per m2 per m2 per m2
4 3.3 50.4 81.1 60.8 58.1 82.9 42.6 60.5 87.1 43.9
5 3.3 47.3 82.0 73.5 53.7 83.7 55.9 55.3 89.5 61.9
5.5 3.3 45.8 83.6 82.5 51.5 86.9 68.9 52.8 91.9 74.0
6 3.3 46.8 87.9 88.0 52.8 91.6 73.4 54.9 96.8 76.3
7 3.3 49.0 96.6 96.9 56.8 99.3 74.8 58.7 104.2 77.4
4 3.6 52.7 82.3 56.1 61.7 85.4 38.5 64.4 89.8 39.6
5 3.6 49.6 84.1 69.7 56.6 87.2 54.2 58.4 91.9 57.4
5.5 3.6 47.0 86.3 83.8 52.7 89.8 70.5 55.3 94.6 70.9
6 3.6 48.2 91.8 90.4 54.6 96.5 76.7 57.3 98.9 72.4
7 3.6 50.5 100.1 97.9 58.6 102.8 75.4 61.3 105.7 72.5

3-story 4-story 5-story

96.9
100
88.0
82.5
76.3 77.4
% Cost difference

80 73.5 74.0 73.4 74.8

68.9
60.8 61.9
60 55.9

42.6 43.9
40

20

0
4 5 5.5 6 7

Span length (m)

80
 Figure 4.36: Percentage of extra construction cost of SS
related to RCS with H=3.3 m

3-story 4-story 5-story

97.9
100 90.4
83.8
% Cost difference

76.7 75.4 72.5

80 69.7 70.5 70.9 72.4

56.1 57.4
60 54.2

38.5 39.6
40

20

0
4 5 5.5 6 7
Span length (m)

Figure 4.37: Percentage of extra construction cost of SS

related to RCS with H=3.6 m

81
 CHAPTER 5
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Conclusions

This study evaluates the effects of four different parameters (span length, number of stories,
story height, and different materials) on the cost of structural building construction. The various
cost prediction approaches for low-rise and med-rise RC and multi-story steel buildings have
been performed under the effects of different mentioned parameters. The study's broad
validation was built by comparing cost-effective parameter alternatives with detailed data of the
designed building's construction. In addition to specifying cost-effective parameters of building
construction, the research would help assess the different types of structures with the effect of
various parameters.

The results of cost comparisons in this study demonstrate that RC material is a more economical
choice in constructing multi-story structures than steel material in all cases of different used
parameters. From the results obtained in the quantities of construction materials and total cost
of structures can conclude the effects of various parameters on the quantities and cost of models
as bellows:

An abbreviated conclusion about the consequences of formwork quantity under the effect of
different parameters in the RC structure

1- The quantity of concrete formwork is increase by adding the number of stories. This quantity
increment in the higher story buildings is due to their needs for a wider and thicker foundation
and greater columns section in the lower stories. The maximum percentage of quantity
increase by rising the structure from 3-story to 4-story is 1.95%. While this maximum
percentage is higher in between 4-story and 5-story that include: 2.54%.

2- Increasing span length directly affect decreasing the quantity of formwork. The amount of
formwork in structures with L= 4 m is higher than the structure with L= 5 m or 5.5 m or 6 m

82
 or 7 m. For example, in 4-story framed structures, by increasing span length from 4 m to 7
m, the quantity of formwork will decrease by 17.16%. This decrease in quantity is because
of the lesser number of columns in the building.

3- By rising story height from 3.3 m to 3.6 m, the quantity of formwork in RC structures will
increase at various rates. The maximum increasing rate of quantity for 3-story buildings is
5.11% and for 4-story is 4.89%, while this rate in 5-story buildings is received to 3.35%.
These rates are proportional to the number and dimension of columns in all stories. As the
height of columns and partition walls increase, it needs more structural and covering
materials. As a result, the gravity loads will increase, which requires greater dimensions of
all structural members.

An abbreviated conclusion about the consequences of the concrete quantity under the effect of
different parameters in the RC structure

1- Increasing the number of stories is proportional to the increasing quantity of concrete. The
maximum percentage of concrete quantity increased by rising the structure from 3-story to
4-story is 31.44%, while this percentage is lesser in between 4- and 5-story that is 4.56%.
The higher rate of concrete difference between 3- and 4-story is due to the difference in their
foundation’s type. In 3-story, the single footing was used with less concrete, but in 4- and 5-
story, the raft foundation needed more concrete amount.

2- The rate of concrete quantities required for construction is decreased gradually by increasing
the span from 4 m till 5.5 m compared to the same multi-story and story height, but it is
increasing again in 6 m and 7 m. It means the amount of concrete needed in the construction
of framed structures with a 4 m span is higher than the same structure with a 5 m or 5.5 m
span and less than 6 m and 7 m span lengths. For example, in 5-story buildings increasing
span length from 4 m to 5.5 m will decrease the rate of concrete quantity by 8.3%. The
maximum percentage of decrease in concrete quantities is 9.2% in the 5-story model by
increasing 1.5 m span length, and the maximum rate of the concrete quantity increase is
20.2% in the 4-story and by increasing the span from 4 m to 7 m.

83
3- Rising the building's height will increase the quantity of concrete in RCS by various per cents.
The maximum increase rate in 3-story structures is 4.10%, in 4-story structures is 3.70%, and
in 5-story structures, it will be decreased to 2.50%. The reduction in quantities has a relation
to the dimension of columns in all stories. By rising the height of columns and partition walls,
it needs to more structural and covering materials. As a result, the gravity loads increase,
which needs the bigger dimensions of all structural members.

An abbreviated conclusion about the consequences of steel bar quantity under the effect of
different parameters in the RC structure

1- The quantity of steel bars in RC structures increases by increasing the number of stories. The
maximum percentage of increase from 3- to 4-story is 22.77%. While this percentage is lesser
in between 4- and 5-story, which is 9.32%. The higher rate of difference in 3- and 4-story is
related to the difference in their foundation form. In 3-story, the single footing was used with
less steel bar amount, but in 4- and 5-story, the raft foundation was used that need more steel
bars.

2- By extending span lengths, the quantity of steel bars in RC structures will decrease in all three
types of multi-stories buildings. As the span length increases from 4 m to 5.5 m for the same
multi-story and story height, the steel bar will decrease, but in 6 m and 7 m, it increases. The
minimum percentage of decrease in steel bar quantities is 2.76% in the 3-story model by
increasing 3m span length. In comparison, the maximum rate of the reinforcement quantity
decrease is 19.3% in the 4-story model by increasing the span length from 4 m to 5.5 m.

3- With rising the height of building stories from 3.3 m to 3.6 m, the quantity of steel bar will
increase in RC structures at various rates. The range of increase is between 3.45% to 8.03%
for 3-story building structures, and for 4-story models are between 2.90% to 8.83%, while
the rate will be higher in 5-story by the range of 8.26% to 12.28%. Total increasing amounts
are depending on the dimension and height of columns in all stories. As the height of columns
and walls increases, it needs more structural and covering materials which require the greater
dimension of framed members to carry these extra gravity loads.

84
An abbreviated conclusion about the consequences of steel quantity under the effect of different
parameters in the steel structure

1- Increasing number of stories directly influences increasing steel quantity in steel structures;
the quantity of steel in 5-story structures is more than low- rise buildings. An increase in the
number of stories needs to more quantity of steel; for example, for a structure with a span of
5 m and 3.6 m story height, the required construction steel per square meter of the structure
is 97.13 kg, 100.53 kg, and 107.08 kg for 3-, 4- and 5-story respectively. The higher
percentage of steel difference between 3- and 4-story is 3.51% in 5 m span length, while the
higher percentage rate between 4-and 5-story is 8.44% for 5 m span length. This increase in
steel quantity for riser framed buildings is due to the higher rate of loads in the lower stories,
which need the wider dimension of columns and foundation reinforcement.

2- Increasing span length is the second parameter for increment the quantity of steel in steel
structures and all multi-story types. In a 3-story structure with a 3.6 m story height, the
percentage increasing length with 1 m, 1.5 m, 2 m, and 3 m is 2.3%, 5.79%, 14.01%, and
24.91%, respectively. A greater amount of steel quantity (kg) in the constructed structure is
with the longer span used in this study, 7 m in all story-rise types. As an example, the quantity
of steel in kg per square meter of steel structure for 4 m and 7 m with a constant story height
of 3.6 m is as follows 94.94 kg - 118.59 kg in 3-story, 97.71 kg – 120.11 kg in 4-story, and
105.02 kg – 122.62 kg in 5-story. This increase in the amount of steel in longer spans is due
to a greater section of steel beams used with the higher weight that require wider section of
steel columns and foundation reinforcement to support the extra dead loads.

3- Rising the story heights directly affects the increasing steel quantities of structures, because
in the same building area for all stories must use more steel quantities. Rising story height
means increasing the building's weight totally, which transports heavy loads to the lower
stories and foundation. The maximum percentage of increase in 3-story is 5.23%, in 4-story
structures is 6.48% and in 5-story is 3.77%.

85
An abbreviated conclusion about the consequences of total construction cost under the effect of
different parameters in the RC and steel structure

1- The main objective of materials quantity prediction is to estimate the project's total
construction cost and provide the determined budget to start project implementation. That
will be a process of converting the materials quantity measurement rate (units) to the currency
measurement rate (like US dollar), which will present the structural construction budget and
the detail of each material and activities cost to the owners, contractors, and non-engineers.

2- Increasing number of stories has a different impact on RC and steel structures construction
cost. By rising the structure from 3- to 4-story with 5 m span length and 3.3 m story height,
the cost increase in RC structures is 13.6%, which is more than steel structures (2.1%). And
these percentages reversed between 4- to 5-story building with the same conditions, the steel
structures have higher cost increase (6.9%) related to RC structures (3.0%). In 3- to 4-story,
the foundation type was changed, and since the weight of RC is heaver related to steel
structure, increasing one story needs to the thicker and wider foundation and columns
sections. The types of foundation in 4- to 5-stories are the same, but increasing steel columns
sections need more expenses than RC columns since the cost of steel columns is near twice
the RC columns' cost in some cases.

3- The span length is a considerable parameter in structural building construction because it

must balance architectural plan, construction expense, and structural stability. Extending
span lengths will decrease RC structures' cost while increasing the cost of steel structures by
the same conditions. By increasing the span length from 4 m to 6 m with 3.3 m floor height,
the cost of RC structures is decreased by the rate 7.2%, 9.1%, and 9.3% for 3-, 4- and 5-story
respectively, but inversely the rates of steel structures cost are increased by 8.4%, 10.5% and
11.1% for 3-, 4- and 5-story structures respectively. These amounts specify that increasing
span length by any rate will increase the construction cost of steel structures and, conversely,
decrease RC structures' cost in all types of multi-story and story heights in this research.

86
4- By increasing the story height in RC and steel structures, the construction cost will be
increased. The maximum rate of cost increase by rising 30 cm story height in RC structures
is 6.32% in the 5-story with 4 m span length, and the higher cost increasing rate in steel
structures is in 4-story with 6 m span length by the rate of 5.35%. The cause of this increased
cost by rising story height is related to the incrementation of materials quantity and their
installation activities for the same building area.

5- The total cost of steel structures is more costly than RC structures in all cases of different
stories, span length, and story heights. The cost of constructing one square meter building
structure by steel is more than 1.5 square meters of structures cost built by RC in all cases
except for 4 m span length in 4- and 5-story buildings. The cost increase in the 3-story
building is more compared to 4- and 5- stories, especially in 7 m span lengths. The maximum
percentage of the cost difference is 97.9% in the 3-story structures with 7 m span length and
3.6 m story height. As a result, increasing all parameters (span length, number of stories, and
rising story height) directly influences the rising cost of steel structure construction by a rate
more than using RC materials.

87
5.2 Recommendations

In this research, only the effect of the number of stories, steel and RC materials, story height,
and span length is considered. But can be prepared several studies on more parameters and
factors which have a significant effect on the cost of building construction, such as types of
slabs (flat slab, waffle slabs, etc.), the composite material of steel and RC, precast concrete
elements, and can be considered the total life-cycle cost of the building.

More studies can also be done to quantify and estimate the impact of different systems of
structures, occupancy, types of sub-grade soil, and foundations on the cost of construction.

88
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97
APPENDICES

98
 APPENDIX 1
MATERIALS QUANTITY IN STRUCTURAL CONSTRUCTION

A.1.1 Concrete Formwork Quantity in RC Structures

Table A.1.1: Concrete formwork quantity of the whole RC structures

L H Total RCS formwork (m2)

(m) (m) 3-story 4-story 5-story
4 3.3 853 1,159 1,486
5 3.3 1,251 1,693 2,150
5.5 3.3 1,430 1,928 2,433
6 3.3 1,634 2,203 2,785
7 3.3 2,137 2,887 3,633
4 3.6 896 1,207 1,536
5 3.6 1,279 1,736 2,207
5.5 3.6 1,453 1,968 2,481
6 3.6 1,659 2,242 2,828
7 3.6 2,183 2,928 3,690

Table A.1.2: Formwork quantity per square meter of RC structures

L H Quantity of concrete formwork (m2) per square meter

(m) (m) 3-story 4-story 5-story
4 3.3 1.85 1.89 1.93
5 3.3 1.76 1.78 1.81
5.5 3.3 1.67 1.69 1.70
6 3.3 1.59 1.61 1.63
7 3.3 1.54 1.56 1.57
4 3.6 1.94 1.96 2.00
5 3.6 1.80 1.83 1.86
5.5 3.6 1.70 1.72 1.74
6 3.6 1.62 1.64 1.65
7 3.6 1.57 1.58 1.60

99
A.1.1.1 Formwork quantity in low- and med-rise RC structures

4,000 4
5
Formwork (m2)

5.5
3,200 6
7

2,400

1,600

800
3 4 5
Number of story
Figure A.1.1: Formwork quantity versus number of stories
in RC multi-story structure with H=3.3 m

4,000 4
5
Formwork (m2)

5.5
3,200 6
7

2,400

1,600

800
3 4 5
Number of story
Figure A.1.2: Formwork quantity versus number of stories
in RC multi-story structures with H=3.6 m

100
A.1.1.2 Formwork quantity in various span lengths of RC structures

4,000 3-story
4-story
Formwork (m2)

5-story
3,200

2,400

1,600

800
4 5 5.5 6 7
Span length (m)

Figure A.1.3: Formwork quantity versus various span

lengths in the RCS with H=3.3 m

4,000 3-story
4-story
Formwork (m2)

5-story
3,200

2,400

1,600

800
4 5 5.5 6 7

Span length (m)

Figure A.1.4: Formwork quantity versus various span

length in the RCS with H= 3.6 m

101
A.1.1.3 Formwork quantity in various story heights (3.3 m and 3.6 m) of RC structures

Table A.1.3: The increased formwork quantity in RCS by rising story height from 3.3 m to 3.6
m

L Increased quantity of formwork (m2)

(m)
3-story 4-story 5-story

4 43.61 57.66 49.84

5 28.04 42.96 56.88

5.5 23.04 60.52 47.77

6 25.44 38.72 43.20

7 45.44 40.80 57.15

Table A.1.4: Percentage of increased formwork in RCS by rising story height from 3.3 m to 3.6
m

L %Increased concrete formwork

(m) 3-story 4-story 5-story

4 5.11 4.89 3.35

5 2.24 2.57 2.70

5.5 1.61 3.17 2.00

6 1.56 1.77 1.53

7 2.13 1.41 1.57

102
Table A.1.5: Formwork quantity per square meter of RCS by rising story height from 3.3 m to
3.6 m

L H Formwork quantity (m2) per square meter

(m) (m)
3-story 4-story 5-story
3.3 1.85 1.92 1.93
4
3.6 1.94 2.01 2.00
3.3 1.76 1.76 1.78
5
3.6 1.80 1.81 1.83
3.3 1.67 1.67 1.68
5.5
3.6 1.70 1.72 1.71
3.3 1.59 1.60 1.65
6
3.6 1.62 1.63 1.68
3.3 1.54 1.56 1.57
7
3.6 1.57 1.58 1.60

2,400 4
5
Formwork (m2)

2,100 5.5
6
7
1,800

1,500

1,200

900

600
3.3 3.6
Story height (m)

Figure A.1.5: Formwork quantity versus story

heights in the 3-story RCS

103
 4
5
Formwork (m2)
3,000 5.5
6
2,600 7

2,200

1,800

1,400

1,000

600
3.3 3.6
Story height (m)

Figure A.1.6: Formwork quantity versus story

height in the 4-story RCS

4,000 4
5
5.5
Formwork (m2)

3,500
6
7
3,000

2,500

2,000

1,500

1,000
3.3 3.6
Story height (m)

Figure A.1.7: Formwork quantity versus story

height in the 5-story RCS

104
A.1.2 Concrete Quantity in RC Multi-Story Structures

Table A.1.6: Concrete quantity of the whole RC structures

Total concrete (m3)

L (m) H (m)
3-story 4-story 5-story
4 3.3 135.7 227.3 297.1
5 3.3 205.6 336.0 437.0
5.5 3.3 238.8 395.5 506.0
6 3.3 319.9 533.9 689.3
7 3.3 468.8 821.5 1069.6
4 3.6 141.3 235.8 304.5
5 3.6 210.6 343.3 445.2
5.5 3.6 243.1 402.4 513.6
6 3.6 324.0 539.6 695.7
7 3.6 472.3 826.6 1075.5

Table A.1.7: Concrete quantity per square meter of RC structures

Concrete (m3) per square meter

L (m) H (m)
3-story 4-story 5-story
4 3.3 0.294 0.370 0.386
5 3.3 0.289 0.354 0.369
5.5 3.3 0.279 0.346 0.354
6 3.3 0.312 0.390 0.403
7 3.3 0.338 0.444 0.463
4 3.6 0.306 0.383 0.396
5 3.6 0.296 0.362 0.375
5.5 3.6 0.284 0.352 0.360
6 3.6 0.316 0.394 0.407
7 3.6 0.341 0.447 0.465

105
A.1.2.1 Concrete quantity in low- and med-rise RC structures

1,100 4
Concrete (m3)

5
5.5
900
6
7
700

500

300

100
3 4 5
Number of story

Figure A.1.8: Concrete quantity versus number of

stories in the RCS with H=3.3 m

1,100 4
5
Concrete (m3)

5.5
900 6
7
700

500

300

100
3 4 5

Number of story

Figure A.1.9: Concrete quantity versus number of

stories in the RCS with H=3.6 m

106
A.1.2.2 Concrete quantity in various span lengths of RC structures

1100 3-story
4-story
Concrete (m3)

900 5-story

700

500

300

100
4 5 5.5 6 7
Span length (m)

Figure A.1.10: Concrete quantity versus span lengths

in the RCS with H=3.3 m

1100 3-story
4-story
900 5-story
Concrete (m3)

700

500

300

100
4 5 5.5 6 7
Span length (m)

Figure A.1.11: Concrete quantity versus span lengths

in the RCS with H=3.6 m

107
A.1.2.3 Concrete quantity in different story height (3.3 m and 3.6 m) of RC structures

Table A.1.8: Increased concrete quantity by rising story height from 3.3 m to 3.6 m in RCS

Increased quantity of concrete (m3)

L (m)
3-story 4-story 5-story

4 5.6 8.5 7.4

5 4.9 7.3 8.2

5.5 4.3 6.9 7.6

6 4 5.7 6.4

7 3.6 5.1 5.9

Table A.1.9: Percentage of increased concrete quantity by rising story height from 3.3 m to 3.6
m in RCS

% Concrete increase
L (m)
3-story 4-story 5-story

4 4.1 3.7 2.5

5 2.4 2.2 1.9

5.5 1.8 1.7 1.5

6 1.3 1.1 0.9

7 0.8 0.6 0.6

108
Table A.1.10: Amount of increased concrete quantity by rising story height from 3.3 m to 3.6
m per square meter of RCS

Increased concrete (m3) per square meter

L (m) H (m)
3-story 4-story 5-story
3.3 0.294 0.370 0.386
4
3.6 0.306 0.383 0.396
3.3 0.289 0.354 0.369
5
3.6 0.296 0.362 0.375
3.3 0.279 0.346 0.354
5.5
3.6 0.284 0.352 0.360
3.3 0.312 0.390 0.403
6
3.6 0.316 0.394 0.407
3.3 0.338 0.444 0.463
7
3.6 0.341 0.447 0.465

550 4
5
5.5
450 6
7
Concrete (m3)

350

250

150

50
3.3 3.6
Story height (m)

Figure A.1.12: Concrete quantity versus story

heights in the 3-story RCS

109
 4
900
5
5.5
750 6
Concrete (m3)

7
600

450

300

150
3.3 3.6
Story height (m)

Figure A.1.13: Concrete quantity versus story

heights in the 4-story RCS

900 4
5
750 5.5
6
7
Concrete (m3)

600

450

300

150
3.3 3.6
Story height (m)

Figure A.1.14: Concrete quantity versus story

heights in the 5-story RCS

110
A.1.3 Steel Bar Quantities in RC Multi-Story Structures

Table A.1.11: Steel bar quantity of the whole RC structures

Total steel bar (kg)

L (m) H (m)
3-story 4-story 5-story
4 3.3 16,027 25,276 33,085
5 3.3 22,348 34,758 44,749
5.5 3.3 26,546 39,931 51,773
6 3.3 32,113 48,185 63,793
7 3.3 46,579 70,794 92,222
4 3.6 16,745 27,410 36,415
5 3.6 24,142 37,827 50,246
5.5 3.6 27,461 41,088 56,145
6 3.6 33,743 50,969 69,096
7 3.6 48,952 74,933 99,836

Table A.1.12: Steel bar quantity per square meter of RC structures

L H Steel bar (kg) per square meter of RCS

(m) (m) 3-story 4-story 5-story
4 3.3 34.74 41.10 43.03
5 3.3 31.41 36.64 37.74
5.5 3.3 30.98 34.95 36.25
6 3.3 31.28 35.20 37.28
7 3.3 33.59 38.29 39.90
4 3.6 36.30 44.57 47.37
5 3.6 33.93 39.87 42.37
5.5 3.6 32.05 35.97 39.32
6 3.6 32.86 37.23 40.38
7 3.6 35.30 40.53 43.20

111
A.1.3.1 Steel bar quantity in low- and medium-rise RC structures

110,000 4
5
5.5
90,000 6
7
Steel bar (kg)

70,000

50,000

30,000

10,000
3 4 5
Number of story

Figure A.1.15: Steel bar quantity versus number of

stories in the RCS with H=3.3 m

110,000 4
5
5.5
90,000
6
7
Steel bar (kg)

70,000

50,000

30,000

10,000
3 4 5
Number of story

Figure A.1.16 Steel bar quantity versus number of

stories in the RCS with H=3.6 m

112
A.1.3.2 Steel bar quantity in various span lengths of RC structures

110,000 3-story
4-story
90,000 5-story
Steel bar (kg)

70,000

50,000

30,000

10,000
4 5 5.5 6 7
Span length (m)

Figure A.1.17: Steel bar quantity versus span

length in the RCS with H=3.3 m

110,000 3-story
4-story
90,000 5-story
Steel bar (kg)

70,000

50,000

30,000

10,000
4 5 5.5 6 7
Span length (m)

Figure A.1.18: Steel bar quantity versus span

length in the RCS with H=3.6 m

113
A.1.3.3 Steel bar quantity in various story heights (3.3 m and 3.6 m) of RC structures

Table A.1.13: Increased steel bars quantity by rising story height from 3.3 m to 3.6 m in RCS

Increased steel bars (kg)

L (m)
3-story 4-story 5-story

4 718 2,134 3,329

5 1,794 3,068 5,497

5.5 915 1,156 4,371

6 1,629 2,783 5,303

7 2,373 4,138 7,913

Table A.1.14: Percentage of increased steel bars by rising the story height from 3.3 m to 3.6 m
in RCS

% Steel bar increase

L (m)
3-story 4-story 5-story

4 4.48 8.44 10.06

5 8.03 8.83 12.28

5.5 3.45 2.90 8.44

6 5.08 5.78 8.31

7 5.09 5.85 8.26

114
Table A.1.15: Steel bars quantity in different story heights (3.3 m and 3.6 m) per square meter
of RCS

L H Steel bar (kg) square meter

(m) (m) 3-story 4-story 5-story
3.3 34.74 41.10 43.03
4
3.6 36.30 44.57 47.37
3.3 31.41 36.64 37.74
5
3.6 33.93 39.87 42.37
3.3 30.98 34.95 36.25
5.5
3.6 32.05 35.97 39.32
3.3 31.28 35.20 37.28
6
3.6 32.86 37.23 40.38
3.3 33.59 38.29 39.90
7
3.6 35.30 40.53 43.20

60,000 4
5
5.5
50,000 6
7
Steel bar (kg)

40,000

30,000

20,000

10,000
3.3 3.6
Story height (m)

Figure A.1.19: Steel bar quantity versus story

heights in the 3-story RCS

115
 80,000 4
5
70,000 5.5
6
60,000 7
Steel bar (kg)

50,000

40,000

30,000

20,000
3.3 3.6

Story height (m)

Figure A.1.20: Steel bar quantity versus story

heights in the 4-story RCS

4
110,000 5
5.5
95,000 6
7
Steel bar (kg)

80,000

65,000

50,000

35,000

20,000
3.3 3.6

Story height (m)

Figure A.1.21: Steel bar quantity versus story

heights in the 5-story RCS

116
A.1.4 Steel Quantity in Multi-Story Steel Structures

Table A.1.16: Quantity of steel for the whole steel structure

L H Total steel quantity (kg)

(m) (m) 3-story 4-story 5-story
4 3.3 43,071 58,369 77,807
5 3.3 67,070 90,757 123,025
5.5 3.3 82,843 113,706 153,078
6 3.3 105,620 143,688 193,540
7 3.3 157,714 213,096 279,750
4 3.6 43,794 60,094 80,738
5 3.6 69,104 95,371 126,974
5.5 3.6 86,056 118,314 157,612
6 3.6 111,141 153,006 198,432
7 3.6 164,454 222,084 283,409

Table A.1.17: Quantity of steel per square meter of SS

H Steel (kg) per square meter of SS
L (m)
(m) 3-story 4-story 5-story
4 3.3 93.4 94.9 101.2
5 3.3 94.3 95.6 103.7
5.5 3.3 96.7 99.5 107.2
6 3.3 102.8 104.9 113.1
7 3.3 113.7 115.2 121.1
4 3.6 94.9 97.7 105.2
5 3.6 97.1 100.5 107.1
5.5 3.6 100.4 103.5 110.4
6 3.6 108.2 111.7 115.9
7 3.6 118.6 120.1 122.6

117
A.1.4.1 Steel quantity in low- and med-rise steel structures

290,000 4
5
5.5
240,000 6
7
190,000
Steel (kg)

140,000

90,000

40,000
3 4 5
Number of story

Figure A.1.22: Steel quantity versus number of

stories in the SS with H=3.3 m

290,000 4
5
5.5
240,000
6
7
190,000
Steel (kg)

140,000

90,000

40,000
3 4 5
Number of story
Figure A.1.23: Steel quantity versus number of
stories in the SS with H=3.6 m

118
A.1.4.2 Steel quantity in various span lengths of steel structure

290,000 3-story
4-story
240,000 5-story
Steel (kg)

190,000

140,000

90,000

40,000
4 5 5.5 6 7
Span length (m)

Figure A.1.24: Steel quantity versus span lengths

in the SS with H=3.3 m

290,000 3-story
4-story
240,000 5-story
Steel (kg)

190,000

140,000

90,000

40,000
4 5 5.5 6 7
Span length (m)

Figure A.2.25: Steel quantity versus span lengths

in the SS with H=3.6 m
119
A.1.4.3 Steel quantity in various story height (3.3 m and 3.6 m) of steel structure

Table A.1.18: Amount of increased steel quantity by rising story height from 3.3 m to 3.6 m in
SS

L Increased steel quantity (kg)

(m) 3-story 4-story 5-story

4 723 1,725 2,931

5 2,034 4,614 3,949

5.5 3,213 4,608 4,534

6 5,521 9,318 4,892

7 6,740 8,988 3,659

Table A.1.19: Percentage of increased steel quantity by rising story height from 3.3 m to 3.6 m
in SS

L % Increased steel quantity

(m) 3-story 4-story 5-story

4 1.68 2.96 3.77

5 3.03 5.08 3.21

5.5 3.88 4.05 2.96

6 5.23 6.48 2.53

7 4.27 4.22 1.31

120
Table A.1.20: Steel quantity in different story height (3.3 m and 3.6 m) per square meter of SS

Steel quantity (kg) per square meter

L (m) H (m)
3-story 4-story 5-story
3.3 93.4 94.9 101.2
4
3.6 94.9 97.7 105.1
3.3 94.3 95.6 103.7
5
3.6 97.1 100.5 107.1
3.3 96.7 99.5 107.2
5.5
3.6 100.4 103.5 110.4
3.3 102.8 104.9 113.1
6
3.6 108.2 111.7 115.9
3.3 113.7 115.2 121.1
7
3.6 118.6 120.1 122.6

200,000 4
5
170,000 5.5
6
140,000 7
Steel (kg)

110,000

80,000

50,000

20,000
3.3 3.6
Story height (m)

Figure A.1.26: Steel quantity versus story

height in the 3-story SS

121
 240,000 4
5
200,000 5.5
6
7
160,000
Steel (kg)

120,000

80,000

40,000
3.3 3.6
Story height (m)

Figure A.1.27: Steel quantity versus story

height in the 4-story SS

290,000 4
5
5.5
240,000 6
7
190,000
Steel (kg)

140,000

90,000

40,000
3.3 3.6
Story height (m)

Figure A.1.28: Steel quantity versus story

height in the 5-story SS

122
 APPENDIX 2
TOTAL COST OF STRUCTURAL CONSTRUCTION

Table A.2.1: Price of structural building construction material in Erbil- Iraq

Formwork Steel bar Concrete Steel sections
Company Name
($) / m2 ($) / ton ($) / m3 ($) / ton
Gulan 8 570 42 640
Soran 7.8 570 41 634
Bahat 8.1 575 41 645
Hemn 8 560 43 645
Average price 8 568.75 41.75 641

Table A.2.2: Total structural cost of RCS and SS

L H Cost of RCS ($) Cost of SS ($)

(m) (m) 3-story 4-story 5-story 3-story 4-story 5-story
4 3.3 23,261 35,758 46,535 37,410 50,985 66,961
5 3.3 33,622 50,943 65,539 58,340 79,401 106,129
5.5 3.3 39,257 58,789 75,407 71,631 99,278 131,237
6 3.3 48,023 72,334 93,969 90,268 125,399 165,649
7 3.3 67,998 105,036 135,776 133,906 183,606 240,831
4 3.6 24,327 37,926 49,475 37,962 52,524 69,071
5 3.6 35,257 53,650 69,222 59,835 82,721 108,975
5.5 3.6 40,236 60,177 79,038 73,944 102,591 135,081
6 3.6 49,489 74,749 98,136 94,242 132,109 169,171
7 3.6 70,099 108,351 141,582 138,759 190,077 244,298

123
Table A.2.3: Total cost of structures per square meter of RCS and SS

L H Cost of RCS ($) per m2 Cost of SS ($) per m2

(m) (m) 3-story 4-story 5-story 3-story 4-story 5-story
4 3.3 50.4 58.1 60.5 81.1 82.9 87.1
5 3.3 47.3 53.7 55.3 82.0 83.7 89.5
5.5 3.3 45.8 51.5 52.8 83.6 86.9 91.9
6 3.3 46.8 52.8 54.9 87.9 91.6 96.8
7 3.3 49.0 56.8 58.7 96.6 99.3 104.2
4 3.6 52.7 61.7 64.4 82.3 85.4 89.8
5 3.6 49.6 56.6 58.4 84.1 87.2 91.9
5.5 3.6 47.0 52.7 55.3 86.3 89.8 94.6
6 3.6 48.2 54.6 57.3 91.8 96.5 98.9
7 3.6 50.5 58.6 61.3 100.1 102.8 105.7

A.2.1 Effects of Number of Stories on the Total Cost of RC and Steel Structures

Table A.2.4: Percentage of total cost increase per square meter of RCS and SS by adding the
number of stories

RC structure Steel structure

L H %Cost %Cost %Cost %Cost
(m) (m) increase from increase from increase from increase from
3- to 4- story 4- to 5- story 3- to 4- story 4- to 5- story
4 3.3 15.2 4.1 2.2 5.1
5 3.3 13.6 3.0 2.1 6.9
5.5 3.3 12.4 2.5 3.9 5.8
6 3.3 12.9 4.0 4.2 5.7
7 3.3 15.8 3.3 2.8 4.9
4 3.6 17.0 4.4 3.8 5.2
5 3.6 14.2 3.2 3.7 5.4
5.5 3.6 12.2 4.9 4.1 5.3
6 3.6 13.3 4.9 5.1 2.4
7 3.6 15.9 4.6 2.7 2.8

124
 4m RCS
255,000 5m RCS
5.5m RCS
Total structure cost ($)

212,500 6m RCS
7m RCS
170,000 4m SS
5m SS
127,500
5.5m SS
85,000 6m SS
7m SS
42,500

0
3 4 5
Number of story

Figure A.2.1: Total cost versus numbers of stories in

the RCS and SS with H= 3.3 m

4m RCS
255,000 5m RCS
5.5m RCS
Total structure cost ($)

212,500 6m RCS
7m RCS
170,000 4m SS
5m SS
127,500 6m SS
7m SS
85,000 5.5m SS

42,500

0
3 4 5
Number of story

Figure A.2.2: Total cost versus number of stories in

the RCS and SS with H= 3.6 m

125
A.2.2 Effects of Extending Spans Length on the Total Cost of RC and Steel Structures

255,000 3-story SS
4-story SS
Total structure cost ($)

212,500
5-story SS
170,000 3-story RCS
4-story RCS
127,500 5-story RCS

85,000

42,500

0
4 5 5.5 6 7
Span length (m)

Figure A.2.3: Total cost versus span length in

the RCS and SS with H=3.3 m

255,000
3-story SS
Total structure cost ($)

212,500 4-story SS
5-story SS
170,000 3-story RCS
4-story RCS
127,500
5-story RCS
85,000

42,500

0
4 5 5.5 6 7
Span length (m)

Figure A.2.4: Total cost versus span length in

the RCS and SS with H=3.6 m

126
A.2.3 Effects of Rising Story Height on the Total Cost of RC and Steel Structure

Table A.2.5: Amount of cost increase in RCS and SS by rising story height from 3.3 m to 3.6
m

The cost increase in RCS The cost increase in SS

L
(m)
3-story 4-story 5-story 3-story 4-story 5-story

4 1,066 2,168 2,941 552 1,540 2,110

5 1,635 2,707 3,682 1,494 3,320 2,846

5.5 978 1,388 3,630 2,313 3,313 3,843

6 1,466 2,415 4,167 3,974 6,709 3,522

7 2,100 3,315 5,806 4,853 6,471 3,467

Table A.2.6: Percentage of RCS and SS cost increase by rising story height from 3.3 m to 3.6
m

The % Cost increase in RCS The % Cost increase in SS

L
(m)
3-story 4-story 5-story 3-story 4-story 5-story

4 4.58 6.06 6.32 1.48 3.02 3.15

5 4.86 5.31 5.62 2.56 4.18 2.68
5.5 2.49 2.36 4.81 3.23 3.34 2.93
6 3.05 3.34 4.43 4.40 5.35 2.13
7 3.09 3.16 4.28 3.62 3.52 1.44

127
Table A.2.7: Amount of RCS and SS cost in different story height (3.3 m and 3.6 m)

L H Cost of RCS ($) Cost of SS ($)

(m) (m) 3-story 4-story 5-story 3-story 4-story 5-story
3.3 23,261 35,758 46,535 37,411 50,985 66,962
4
3.6 24,327 37,926 49,475 37,962 52,525 69,072
3.3 33,623 50,943 65,539 58,341 79,401 106,129
5
3.6 35,258 53,650 69,222 59,835 82,721 108,975
3.3 39,258 58,789 75,407 71,631 99,278 131,238
5.5
3.6 40,236 60,177 79,038 73,944 102,591 135,081
3.3 48,023 72,335 93,969 90,268 125,400 165,649
6
3.6 49,489 74,750 98,137 94,242 132,109 169,171
3.3 67,998 105,036 135,776 133,906 183,606 240,832
7
3.6 70,099 108,351 141,582 138,759 190,077 244,299

4m RCS
160,000
5m RCS
5.5m RCS
Total structure cost ($)

130,000 6m RCS
7m RCS
4m SS
100,000 5m SS
5.5m SS
6m SS
70,000
7m SS

40,000

10,000
3.3 3.6
Story height (m)

Figure A.2.5: Total cost versus story height

in the 3-story RCS and SS

128
 4m RCS
220,000 5m RCS
5.5m RCS
6m RCS
Total structure cost ($)

180,000 7m RCS
4m SS
140,000 5m SS
5.5m SS
6m SS
100,000 7m SS

60,000

20,000
3.3 3.6
Story height (m)

Figure A.2.6: Total cost versus story height

in the 4-story RC and SS

270,000 4m RCS
5m RCS
5.5m RCS
230,000 6m RCS
Total structure cost ($)

7m RCS
190,000 4m SS
5m SS
150,000 5.5m SS
6m SS
7m SS
110,000

70,000

30,000
3.3 3.6
Story height (m)

Figure A.2.7: Total cost versus story height

in the 5-story RC and SS

129
A.2.4 Influence of Using Different Materials (RC and steel) on the Total Structural
Construction Cost

Table A.2.8: Extra structural construction cost of SS over RCS

L H The extra cost of SS over RCS

(m) (m) 3-story 4-story 5-story
4 3.3 14,149 15,227 20,427
5 3.3 24,718 28,458 40,590
5.5 3.3 32,373 40,489 55,830
6 3.3 42,245 53,065 71,680
7 3.3 65,908 78,570 105,056
4 3.6 13,635 14,599 19,596
5 3.6 24,577 29,071 39,754
5.5 3.6 33,708 42,414 56,043
6 3.6 44,753 57,359 71,035
7 3.6 68,660 81,726 102,717

Table A.2.9: Percentage of extra structural construction cost by steel over RC

L H % Extra cost of SS
(m) (m) 3-story 4-story 5-story
4 3.3 60.8 42.6 43.9
5 3.3 73.5 55.9 61.9
5.5 3.3 82.5 68.9 74.0
6 3.3 88.0 73.4 76.3
7 3.3 96.9 74.8 77.4
4 3.6 56.1 38.5 39.6
5 3.6 69.7 54.2 57.4
5.5 3.6 83.8 70.5 70.9
6 3.6 90.4 76.7 72.4
7 3.6 97.9 75.4 72.5

130
 3-story 4-story 5-story
120,000

100,000

80,000
Cost ($)

60,000

40,000

20,000

0
4 5 5.5 6 7
Span length (m)

Figure A.2.8: Extra cost of SS over RCS with H=3.3 m

3-story 4-story 5-story

120,000

100,000
Cost ($)

80,000

60,000

40,000

20,000

0
4 5 5.5 6 7
Span length (m)

Figure A.2.9: Extra cost of SS over RCS with H=3.6 m

131
 3-story RCS 3-story SS
150,000

120,000
Cost ($)

90,000

60,000

30,000

0
4 5 5.5 6 7
Span length (m)

Figure A.2.10: Cost of 3-story SS and RCS with H=3.3 m

4-story RCS 4-story SS

200,000

160,000
Cost ($)

120,000

80,000

40,000

0
1 2 3 4 5
Span length (m)

Figure A.2.11: Cost of 4-story SS and RCS with H=3.3 m

132
 5-story RCS 5-story SS
250,000

200,000
Cost ($)

150,000

100,000

50,000

0
1 2 3 4 5
Span length (m)

Figure A.2.12: Cost of 5-story SS and RCS with H=3.3 m

3-story RCS 3-story SS

250,000

200,000
Cost ($)

150,000

100,000

50,000

0
4 5 5.5 6 7
Span length (m)

Figure A.2.13: Cost of 3-story SS and RCS with H=3.6 m

133
 4-story RCS 4-story SS
250,000

200,000
Cost ($)

150,000

100,000

50,000

0
1 2 3 4 5
Span length (m)

Figure A.2.14: Cost of 4-story SS and RCS with H=3.6 m

5-story RCS 5-story SS

250,000

200,000
Cost ($)

150,000

100,000

50,000

0
1 2 3 4 5
Span length (m)

Figure A.2.15: Cost of 5-story SS and RCS with H=3.6 m

134
 APPENDIX 3

PLAGIARISM AND ETHICAL RULES CONTERACT FORM

135
 APPENDIX 4

SIMILARITY REPORT

136