In networking, CRC (Cyclic Redundancy Check) is a mathematical method
used to detect errors in data transmission. It works by treating the data as a
binary polynomial, dividing it by a predefined polynomial (divisor), and
appending the remainder (CRC checksum) to the data. The receiver then
performs the same division and compares the result with the received
checksum to verify data integrity.
How it Works:
1. 1. Data as Polynomial:
The data being transmitted is treated as the coefficients of a binary polynomial.
2. 2. Division by Generator Polynomial:
The data polynomial is divided by a predefined polynomial, called the generator
polynomial, using modulo-2 arithmetic.
3. 3. Remainder as Checksum:
The remainder of this division is the CRC checksum, which is appended to the
original data.
4. 4. Receiver Verification:
The receiver performs the same division on the received data (including the
checksum) using the same generator polynomial.
5. 5. Error Detection:
If the remainder at the receiver is zero, the data is considered error-free. A non-
zero remainder indicates an error during transmission.
Why CRC is Used:
Error Detection:
CRC is highly effective at detecting errors, particularly random and burst errors,
which are common in data transmission.
Widely Used:
It's a standard error detection method in various protocols and standards.
Simple and Fast:
CRC calculations are relatively simple and computationally efficient, making them
suitable for real-time applications.
Data Integrity:
By ensuring the integrity of data, CRC contributes to reliable communication in
networks.
Example:
Imagine you have data "101101" and a generator polynomial "1101". You
would perform binary division as if they were polynomials. The remainder
would be the CRC checksum, which you would append to "101101" and
send. The receiver would then perform the same division to check for
errors.
In summary, CRC is a crucial error detection mechanism in networking,
ensuring that data transmitted over a network is reliable and free from
errors.
Protocols Used in the OSI Layers
Protocol
Layer Working Data Unit Protocols
Establishing
Physical
1 – Physical
Connections Bits USB, SONET/SDH, etc.
Layer
between
Devices.
Node to Node
2 – Data
Delivery of Frames Ethernet, PPP, etc.
Link Layer
Message.
Transmission of
data from one
3 – Network host to another, IP, ICMP, IGMP, OSPF,
Packets
Layer located in etc.
different
networks.
Take Service
Segments
from Network
4 – (for TCP)
Layer and
Transport or TCP, UDP, SCTP, etc.
provide it to the
Layer Datagrams
Application
(for UDP)
Layer.
Establishes
Connection,
Maintenance,
5 – Session NetBIOS, RPC, PPTP,
Ensures Data
Layer etc.
Authentication
and Ensures
security.
Data from the
application layer
6 – is extracted and
TLS/SSL, MIME, JPEG,
Presentation manipulated in Data
PNG, ASCII, etc.
Layer the required
format for
transmission.
Protocol
Layer Working Data Unit Protocols
Helps in
7 – identifying the
FTP, SMTP, DNS, DHCP,
Application client and Data
etc.
Layer synchronizing
communication.
Why Does the OSI Model Matter?
The OSI Model matters because it provides the user a clear structure of
“how the data moves in the network?”. As the OSI Model consists of 7
layers, each layer has its specific role, and due to which it helps in
understanding, identifying and solving the complex network problems
easily by focusing on one of the layers not the entire network.
As the modern Internet does not prefer the OSI Model, but still, the OSI
Model is still very helpful for solving network problems. It helps people
understanding network concepts very easily.
Difference Between OSI and TCP/IP Model
OSI Model TCP/IP Model
OSI stands for Open Systems TCP/IP stands for Transmission
Interconnection. Control Protocol/Internet Protocol.
OSI model has 7 layers. TCP/IP model consists of 4 layers.
Package delivery is guaranteed in Package delivery is not guaranteed in
OSI Model. the TCP/IP Model.
In the OSI model, only layers 1,2
All layers of the TCP/IP model are
and 3 are necessary for data
needed for data transmission.
transmission.
Layers are integrated; some layers
Protocols at each layer is
are required by other layers of TCP/IP
independent of the other layer.
model.
OSI Model is a conceptual
Widely used in actual networks like
framework, less used in practical
Internet and Communication Systems.
applications.
In computer networks, CSMA/CD and CDMA are both multiple access
methods, but they differ significantly in how they handle channel
access. CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection)
is a random access protocol used in early Ethernet technology, where
devices listen for the channel before transmitting and detect collisions,
while CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access) is a spread spectrum
technology that allows multiple transmissions simultaneously over the
same frequency band using unique codes.
Here's a more detailed breakdown:
CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection):
Random Access:
CSMA/CD is a random access protocol, meaning devices transmit when they
detect the channel is idle, and if a collision occurs, they wait a random time before
retransmitting.
Carrier Sensing:
Before transmitting, devices listen to the channel to see if it's busy. If another
device is transmitting, they wait until the channel is free.
Collision Detection:
CSMA/CD also has a mechanism for detecting collisions. If two or more devices
transmit simultaneously, the resulting signal will be corrupted. Devices can detect
this and back off, waiting a random time before trying again.
Used in early Ethernet:
CSMA/CD was the standard multiple access method for early Ethernet networks.
CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access):
Spread Spectrum:
CDMA uses spread spectrum technology, which involves spreading the signal over
a wider bandwidth than necessary.
Simultaneous Transmission:
CDMA allows multiple devices to transmit simultaneously on the same frequency,
but by using unique code sequences to identify each transmission.
Unique Codes:
Each transmitter uses a unique code (also called a "chip sequence") to modulate
its data. The receiver uses the same code to demodulate the signal and extract the
data.
Orthogonal Codes:
The codes used in CDMA are designed to be orthogonal, meaning that when two
codes are multiplied together, the result is close to zero. This allows receivers to
isolate the desired signal from interference.
Applications:
CDMA is used in various radio communication technologies, including some
cellular networks.
Key Differences:
Feature CSMA/CD CDMA
Access Method Random Access Spread Spectrum
Simultaneous No (requires collision Yes (through unique codes)
Transmission detection)
Collision Handling Collision detection and No collisions due to orthogonal codes
backoff
Channel Use Limited by collision More efficient use of bandwidth through
probabilities simultaneous transmissions
Applications Early Ethernet Radio communication (e.g., cellular networks)