BEC402-MODULE 3

MODULE – 3
Unit 1: FUNDAMENTALS OF FREQUENCY MODULATION
Introduction:

A carrier can be modulated by varying its amplitude, frequency, or phase shift.

The basic equation for a carrier wave is
𝑪(𝒕) = 𝑨𝒄 Cos(2𝜋𝒇𝒄 t+𝜙)
where 𝑨𝒄 = amplitude, 𝒇𝒄 = frequency, and 𝜙 = phase angle
In angle modulation the frequency or phase of the carrier is varied according to the
modulating (message) signal keeping amplitude constant.

The two types of angle modulation are:

1. Frequency modulation
2. Phase modulation

Frequency modulation is defined as the frequency of the carrier is varied in accordance

with the modulating signal keeping the amplitude and phase constant.

Phase modulation is defined as the phase of the carrier is varied in accordance with the
modulating signal keeping the amplitude and frequency constant.

Basic Principles of Frequency Modulation:

In FM, the carrier amplitude remains constant and the carrier frequency is changed by the
modulating signal.
As the modulating signal amplitude increases, the carrier frequency increases. If the
amplitude of the modulating signal decreases, the carrier frequency decreases.
As the modulating signal amplitude varies, the carrier frequency varies above and below its
normal centre, or resting, frequency with no modulation.
The amount of change in carrier frequency produced by the modulating signal is known as
the frequency deviation fd.
Maximum frequency deviation occurs at the maximum amplitude of the modulating signal.

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The frequency of the modulating signal determines the frequency deviation rate, or how
many times per second the carrier frequency deviates above and below its center frequency.
If the modulating signal is a 500-Hz sine wave, the carrier frequency shifts above and below
the center frequency 500 times per second.

Figure 1: FM and PM signals. The carrier is drawn as a triangular wave for simplicity, but in practice it is a sine
wave. (a) Carrier. (b) Modulating signal. (c) FM signal. (d) PM signal.
Normally the carrier [Fig.(a)] is a sine wave, but it is shown as a triangular wave here to
simplify the illustration.
With no modulating signal applied, the carrier frequency is a constant-amplitude sine wave
at its normal resting frequency.
The modulating information signal [Fig.(b)] is a low-frequency sine wave.
As the sine wave goes positive, the frequency of the carrier increases proportionately. The
highest frequency occurs at the peak amplitude of the modulating signal. As the modulating

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signal amplitude decreases, the carrier frequency decreases. When the modulating signal is
at zero amplitude, the carrier is at its center frequency point.
When the modulating signal goes negative, the carrier frequency decreases. It continues to
decrease until the peak of the negative half-cycle of the modulating sine wave is reached.
Then as the modulating signal increases toward zero, the carrier frequency again increases.

In Fig.(c), where the carrier sine waves seem to be fi rst compressed and then stretched by
the modulating signal. In practice, however, the frequency deviation is expressed as the
amount of frequency shift of the carrier above or below the center frequency.

Note: The frequency of the modulating signal has no effect on the amount of deviation,
which is strictly a function of the amplitude of the modulating signal.

If the modulating signal is a pulse train or series of rectangular pulses (ex: series of binary
data) then the modulating signal has only two amplitudes.
when the modulating signal is a binary 0, the carrier frequency is the center frequency
value. When the modulating signal is a binary 1, the carrier frequency abruptly changes to a
higher frequency level.
The amount of the shift depends on the amplitude of the binary signal. This kind of
modulation, called frequency-shift keying (FSK), is widely used in the transmission of
binary data in Bluetooth headsets, wireless speakers, and many forms of industrial
wireless.

Figure 2: Frequency-modulating of a carrier with binary data produces FSK.

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Principles of Phase Modulation:

 When the amount of phase shift of a constant-frequency carrier is varied in
accordance with a modulating signal, the resulting output is a phase modulation (PM)
signal.
 A modulator circuit whose basic function is to produce a phase shift, i.e., a time
separation between two sine waves of the same frequency.
 The greater the amplitude of the modulating signal, the greater the phase shift.
Assume further that positive alternations of the modulating signal produce a lagging
phase shift and negative signals produce a leading phase shift.
 If a constant-amplitude, constant-frequency carrier sine wave is applied to the phase
shifter whose phase shift is varied by the intelligence signal, the output of the phase
shifter is a PM wave.
 As the modulating signal goes positive, the amount of phase lead, and thus the delay
of the carrier output, increases with the amplitude of the modulating signal.
 When the modulating signal goes negative, the phase shift becomes laging. This
causes the carrier sine wave to be effectively speeded up, or compressed.
 FM is produced only as long as the phase shift is varying.
 The modulating signal shown in Fig.(a), which is a triangular wave whose positive
and negative peaks have been clipped off at a fixed amplitude.
 During time t0, the signal is zero, so the carrier is at its center frequency.
 Applying this modulating signal to a Frequency modulator produces FM signal
shown in fig (b).
 During the time the waveform is rising (t1), the frequency increases.
 During the time the positive amplitude is constant (t2), the FM output frequency is
constant.
 During the time the amplitude decreases and goes negative (t3), the frequency
decreases.
 During the constant-amplitude negative alternation (t4), the frequency remains
constant, at a lower frequency.
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 During t5, the frequency increases.

 In fig (c) During increases or decreases in amplitude (t1, t3, and t5), a varying
frequency is produced.
 During the constant-amplitude positive and negative peaks, no frequency change
takes place.
 When a modulating signal is applied to a phase modulator, the output frequency
changes only during the time that the amplitude of the modulating signal is varying.
 The maximum frequency deviation produced by a phase modulator occurs
during the time when the modulating signal is changing at its most rapid rate.
 For a sine wave modulating signal, the rate of change of the modulating signal is
greatest when the modulating wave changes from plus to minus or from minus
to plus. In fig (c) the maximum rate of change of modulating voltage occurs
exactly at the zero crossing points.

Figure 3: A frequency shift occurs in PM only when the modulating signal amplitude varies. (a) Modulating signal.
(b) FM signal. (c) PM signal.

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Relationship Between the Modulating Signal and Carrier Deviation:

In FM, the frequency deviation is directly proportional to the amplitude of the modulating
signal. The maximum deviation occurs at the peak positive and negative amplitudes of the
modulating signal.
In PM, the frequency deviation is also directly proportional to the amplitude of the
modulating signal. The maximum amount of leading or lagging phase shift occurs at the
peak amplitudes of the modulating signal.

Figure 4: Frequency deviation as a function of (a) modulating signal amplitude and (b) modulating signal frequency.

The Fig. (b), shows that the frequency deviation of an FM signal is constant for any value of
modulating frequency.
Only the amplitude of the modulating signal determines the amount of deviation.
The higher the modulating signal frequency, the shorter its period and the faster the voltage
changes.
Higher modulating voltages result in greater phase shift, and this, in turn, produces greater
frequency deviation.
In PM, then, the carrier frequency deviation is proportional to both the modulating
frequency (slope of modulating voltage) and the amplitude.
In FM, frequency deviation is proportional only to the amplitude of the modulating signal,
regardless of its frequency.

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Converting PM to FM:
To make PM compatible with FM, the deviation produced by frequency variations in the
modulating signal must be compensated for. This can be done by passing the intelligence
signal through a low-pass RC network, as illustrated in Figure below:

Figure 5 Using a low-pass filter to roll off the audio modulating signal amplitude with frequency.

The low pass filter called a frequency-correcting network, predistorter, or 1/f filter, causes
the higher modulating frequencies to be attenuated.
The predistorter compensates for the excess frequency deviation caused by higher
modulating frequencies. The result is an output that is the same as an FM signal. The FM
produced by a phase modulator is called indirect FM.

NOTE:
The general equation of FM signal is given by,

𝑠(𝑡) = 𝐴𝑐 cos⁡[2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + 2𝜋𝐾𝑓 ∫ 𝑚(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡⁡] − − − − − (1)

Where 𝐾𝑓 =Frequency sensitivity parameter in Hz / volt.

m(t) = message signal

The general equation of PM signal is given by,

𝑠(𝑡) = 𝐴𝑐 cos⁡[2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + 𝐾𝑝 𝑚(𝑡)] ⁡ − − − − − (2)

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Where 𝐾𝑝 = Phase sensitivity parameter.

m(t) = message signal

NOTE:
Case 1: Implementation of FM using PM:

Figure 6: Implementation of FM using PM

An FM wave can be generated by first integrating the message signal m(t) with respect to
𝑡
time t i.e., ∫0 𝑚(𝜏)𝑑𝜏⁡⁡and then using the resulting signal as the input to a phase modulator,
as shown in figure 6.
Case 2: Implementation of PM using FM:

Figure 7: Generation of PM using FM

Conversely, a PM wave can be viewed as an FM wave produced by the modulating wave
𝑑𝑚(𝑡)⁄𝑑𝑡⁡.⁡⁡Hence, a PM wave can be generated by first differentiating m(t) with respect to
time t and then using the resulting signal as the input to a frequency modulator, as shown in
figure 7.

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MODULATION INDEX AND SIDEBANDS:

 Any modulation process produces sidebands. When a constant-frequency sine wave
modulates a carrier, two side frequencies are produced. The side frequencies are the
sum and difference of the carrier and the modulating frequency.
 In FM and PM, a large number of pairs of upper and lower sidebands are generated.
As a result, the spectrum of an FM or a PM signal is usually wider than that of an
equivalent AM signal.
 Fig. below shows the frequency spectrum of a typical FM signal produced by
modulating a carrier with a single-frequency sine wave.
 Theoretically, the FM process produces an infinite number of upper and lower
sidebands and, therefore, a theoretically infinitely large bandwidth.

Figure 8 Frequency spectrum of an FM signal. Note that the carrier and sideband amplitudes shown are just examples. The amplitudes depend
upon the modulation index mf .

 As the amplitude of the modulating signal varies, the frequency deviation changes.
The number of sidebands produced, and their amplitude and spacing, depends on the
frequency deviation and modulating frequency.
 Since an FM signal is a summation of the sideband frequencies, the sideband
amplitudes must vary with frequency deviation and modulating frequency if their sum
is to produce a constant-amplitude but variable-frequency FM signal.

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 The FM process produces an infinite number of upper and lower sidebands and,
therefore, a theoretically infinitely large bandwidth. However, in practice, only those
sidebands with the largest amplitudes are significant in carrying the information.
 Typically any sideband whose amplitude is less than 1 percent of the unmodulated
carrier is considered insignificant.

Modulation Index:
The ratio of the frequency deviation to the modulating frequency is known as the
modulation index (𝑚𝑓 ):
𝑓𝑑
𝑚𝑓 = ⁡
𝑓𝑚
where 𝑓𝑑 is the frequency deviation and 𝑓𝑚 is the modulating frequency. Sometimes Greek

letter delta (δ) is used instead of 𝑓𝑑 to represent deviation;

𝛿
𝑚𝑓 = ⁡
𝑓𝑚
When the maximum allowable frequency deviation and the maximum modulating frequency
are used in computing the modulation index, 𝑚𝑓 is known as the deviation ratio.

Example:
What is the deviation ratio of TV sound if the maximum deviation is 25 kHz and the
maximum modulating frequency is 15 kHz?
Solution:

Bessel Functions:
 If the modulation index is given, then number and amplitudes of the significant
sidebands can be determined by solving the basic equation of an FM signal.
 The FM equation is given by,

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where VFM is the instantaneous value of the FM signal and mf is the modulation index.
 The term whose coefficient is mf is the phase angle of the carrier. Here the phase
angle is expressed in terms of the sine wave modulating signal.
 This equation is solved with a complex mathematical process known as Bessel
functions.

 The FM wave is expressed as a composite of sine waves of different frequencies and

amplitudes that, when added, give an FM time-domain signal.
 The first term is the carrier with an amplitude given by a Jn coefficient, in this case
J0.
 The next term represents a pair of upper and lower side frequencies equal to the sum
and difference of the carrier and modulating signal frequency. The amplitude of these
side frequencies is J1.
 The amplitudes of the sidebands are determined by the Jn coefficients, which are, in
turn, determined by the value of the modulation index. These amplitude coefficients
are computed by using the expression.

The Bessel coefficients for a range of modulation indexes are given in table below.

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Table1: Carrier and sideband amplitudes for different modulation indexes of FM signals
based on the Bessel functions.

Figure 9: Plot of the Bessel function data from table shown above

Example:
What is the maximum modulating frequency that can be used to achieve a modulation index
of 2.2 with a deviation of 7.48 kHz?
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Solution:

Figure 10: Examples of FM signal spectra. (a) Modulation index of 0 (no modulation or
sidebands). (b) Modulation index of 1. (c) Modulation index of 2. (d) Modulation index of
0.25 (NBFM).

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FM Signal Bandwidth:
 The higher the modulation index in FM, the greater the number of significant
sidebands and the wider the bandwidth of the signal.
 The bandwidth can then be determined with the simple formula,

where N is the number of significant sidebands in the signal.

 Another way to determine the bandwidth of an FM signal is to use Carson’s rule.
 This rule recognizes only the power in the most significant sidebands with amplitudes
greater than 2 percent of the carrier (0.02 or higher).

 Carson’s rule will always give a bandwidth lower than that calculated with the
formula BW=2fmN.

Example:
What is the maximum bandwidth of an FM signal with a deviation of 30 kHz and a
maximum modulating signal of 5 kHz as determined by (a) Fig. 5-8 and (b) Carson’s rule?
Solution:

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Noise Suppression Effects of FM:

 Noise is interference generated by lightning, motors, automotive ignition systems,
and any power line switching that produces transient signals.
 Such noise is typically narrow spikes of voltage with very high frequencies. They add
to a signal and interfere with it.
 The potential effect of such noise on an FM signal is shown in Fig.11.

Figure 11: An FM signal with noise.

 Any amplitude variations occurring on the FM signal are effectively clipped off.
 This does not affect the information content of the FM signal, since it is contained
solely within the frequency variations of the carrier. Because of the clipping action of
the limiter circuits, noise is almost completely eliminated.
 Even if the peaks of the FM signal itself are clipped or flattened and the resulting
signal is distorted, no information is lost.
 one of the primary benefits of FM over AM is its superior noise immunity.
 The process of demodulating or recovering an FM signal actually suppresses noise
and improves the signal-to-noise ratio.
Noise and Phase Shift:
 The noise amplitude added to an FM signal introduces a small frequency variation, or
phase shift, which changes or distorts the signal.
 The carrier signal is represented by a fixed-length (amplitude) phasor S. The noise is
usually a short duration pulse containing many frequencies at many amplitudes and
phases according to Fourier theory.
 In Fig.12(a), this noise signal is represented as a rotating phasor N. The composite
signal of the carrier and the noise, labelled C, is a phasor whose amplitude is the
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phasor sum of the signal and noise and a phase angle shifted from the carrier by an
amount ϕ.
 If the noise phasor rotating, you can also imagine the composite signal varying in
amplitude and phase angle with respect to the carrier.
 The maximum phase shift occurs when the noise and signal phasors are at a right
angle to each other is shown in fig b.

Figure12: How noise introduces a phase shift.

This angle can be computed with the arcsine or inverse sine according to the formula:

How much of a frequency shift a particular phase shift produces by using the formula:

Assume that if the maximum allowed deviation given then the ratio of the shift produced by
the noise to the maximum allowed deviation can be calculated and this ratio is the noise-to-
signal ratio N/S.

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The reciprocal of this value gives you the FM signal-to-noise ratio.

Example:
The input to an FM receiver has an S/N of 2.8. The modulating frequency is 1.5 kHz. The
maximum permitted deviation is 4 kHz. What are (a) the frequency deviation caused by the
noise and (b) the improved output S/N?
Solution:

Preemphasis:
 Noise can interfere with an FM signal, and particularly with the high-frequency
components of the modulating signal. Since noise is primarily sharp spikes of energy,
it contains a lot of harmonics and other high-frequency components.
 These frequencies can be larger in amplitude than the high-frequency content of the
modulating signal, causing frequency distortion that can make the signal unclear
(jumbled).
 In voice communication systems, the bandwidth of the signal is limited to about 3
kHz, which permits acceptable clarity.
 In contrast, musical instruments typically generate signals at low frequencies but
contain many high-frequency harmonics that give them their unique sound and must
be passed if that sound is to be preserved. Thus a wide bandwidth is needed in high-
fidelity systems. Since the high-frequency components are usually at a very low level,
noise can eliminate them.

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 To overcome this problem, most FM systems use a technique known as pre-

emphasis that helps offset high-frequency noise interference. At the transmitter, the
modulating signal is passed through a simple network that amplifies the high-
frequency components more than the low-frequency components.

Figure 13: Preemphasis circuit and Preemphasis curve.

 It is used at the transmitter.

 It is a simple High pass filter circuit.
 The time constant is given by t=RC, where the standard value of ‘t’ is 75µs.
 Any combination of resistor and capacitor (or resistor and inductor) giving this time
constant will work.

 Such a circuit has a cutoff frequency of 2122 Hz; frequencies higher than 2122
Hz will be linearly enhanced.
 The output amplitude increases with frequency at a rate of 6 dB per octave.
 The pre-emphasis circuit increases the energy content of the higher frequency
signals so that they become stronger than the high-frequency noise components.
This improves the signal-to-noise ratio and increases intelligibility and fidelity.
 The pre-emphasis circuit also has an upper break frequency fu, at which the signal
enhancement flattens out is given by

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The value of fu is usually set well beyond the audio range and is typically greater
than 30 kHz.

Deemphasis:
 It is used at the receiver.
 It uses a simple low pass filter circuit with time constant is given by t=RC, where the
standard value of ‘t’ is 75µs.
 Signals above its cutoff frequency of 2123 Hz are attenuated at the rate of 6 dB per
octave.

Figure 14: De-emphasis circuit and De-emphasis curve

The combined effect of pre-emphasis and de-emphasis is to increase the signal-to-noise

ratio for the high- frequency components during transmission so that they will be stronger
and not masked by noise. Fig. 15 shows the overall effect of pre-emphasis and de-emphasis.

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Figure 15: Combined frequency response.

Frequency Modulation Versus Amplitude Modulation:

Advantages of FM:
1. Noise Immunity: The immunity to noise is better in FM compared to AM. The
clipper limiter circuit in the receiver clip off all unwanted signals. Because of clip off
action the complete recovery of the message is not possible in any case. FM can
nevertheless tolerate a much higher noise level than AM for a given carrier
amplitude.
2. Capture Effect: Another major benefit of FM is that interfering signals on the same
frequency are effectively rejected. Because of the amplitude limiters and the
demodulating methods used by FM receivers, a phenomenon known as the capture
effect takes place when two or more FM signals occur simultaneously on the same
frequency.
If one signal is more than twice the amplitude of the other, the stronger signal
captures the channel, totally eliminating the weaker signal.
Although the capture effect prevents the weaker of two FM signals from being heard,
when two stations are broadcasting signals of approximately the same amplitude, fi
rst one may be captured and then the other.
In contrast, when two AM signals occupy the same frequency, both signals are
generally heard, regardless of their relative signal strengths.
3. Transmitter Efficiency:
FM signals have a constant amplitude, and it is therefore not necessary to use linear
amplifiers to increase their power level. In fact, FM signals are always generated at a
lower level and then amplified by a series of class C amplifiers to increase their
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power. The result is greater use of available power because of the high level of
efficiency of class C amplifiers. Even more efficient class D, E, or F amplifiers are
also used in FM or PM equipment.
Recall that AM can be produced by both low-level and high-level modulation
techniques. The most efficient is high-level modulation in which a class C amplifier
is used as the final RF power stage and is modulated by a high-power modulation
amplifier.

Disadvantages:
1. Excessive Spectrum Use: The bandwidth of an FM signal is, in general, considerably
wider than that of an AM signal transmitting similar information.

2. Circuit Complexity: One major disadvantage of FM in the past involved the

complexity of the circuits used for frequency modulation and demodulation in
comparison with the simple circuits used for amplitude modulation and
demodulation.

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Unit 2 : FM Circuits
Frequency Modulators: Voltage Controlled Oscillators:
 It is a voltage to frequency converter.
 Generally in oscillator frequency is controlled by time constant RC.
 But here the frequency is controlled by a voltage
 In VCO output is controlled by input voltage.
Example: IC NE/SE 566 -----> Provides square and triangular wave outputs as a
function of input voltage.

Figure 16 Frequency modulation with an IC VCO. (a) Block diagram with an IC VCO.

 External resistor R1 sets the value of current produced by the internal current sources.
The current sources linearly charge and discharge external capacitor C1 (pin7).
 External voltage Vc (pin5) is used to vary the amount of current produced by the
current sources.
 Schmitt trigger is a level detector. It controls the current source by switching between
charging and discharging when C charges and discharges to a specific voltage level.
 Frequency of oscillation is determined by R1, C and Vc.
 The triangular output is obtained at terminal 4 by alternately charging C1 with current
source and discharging by another current source.
 Charge and discharge levels are determined by Schmitt trigger.

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 Due to Schmitt trigger action we can get another type wave output i.e., square wave.
 Both these output waveforms are buffered so that output of each waveform is 50Ω.
 The typical peak to peak amplitude of triangular wave is 2.4V and of square wave is
5.4V.
 R1 and C1 are the output resistance and capacitor.
A complete frequency modulator circuit using the NE566 is shown in Fig. 17.

Figure 17: Basic frequency modulator using the NE566 VCO.

The current sources are biased with a voltage divider made up of R2 and R3. The
modulating signal is applied through C2 to the voltage divider at pin 5.
The 0.001μF capacitor between pins 5 and 6 is used to prevent unwanted oscillations. The
centre carrier frequency of the circuit is set by the values of R1 and C1.
Carrier frequencies up to 1 MHz may be used with this IC. If higher frequencies and
deviations are necessary, the outputs can be filtered or used to drive other circuits, such as a
frequency multiplier.
The modulating signal can vary the carrier frequency over nearly a 10 :1 range, making very
large deviations possible. The deviation is linear with respect to the input amplitude over the
entire range.

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FREQUENCY DEMODULATOR:
SLOPE DETECTOR:
The simplest frequency demodulator, the slope detector, makes use of a tuned circuit and
a diode detector to convert frequency variations to voltage variations.
The 2 steps involved in slope detector circuit are:
1. Conversion of the modulated wave to AM signal.
2. Using envelope detector message signal can be recovered.
The basic circuit of slope detection is,

Figure 18: Slope detector circuit

Working:
The FM signal is applied to transformer T1 made up of L1 and L2. Together L2 and C1
form a series resonant circuit. The primary of the transformer is tuned to frequency f c and
the secondary of T1 is tuned to frequency f r. The fr is the resonant frequency and always
fr>>fc.
At resonant frequency the output voltage is maximum and above or below ‘fr’ frequency the
voltage falls off.
The response curve is as shown below:

Figure 19: Response curve of slope detector

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To use the circuit to detect or recover FM, the circuit is tuned so that the centre or carrier
frequency of the FM signals is approximately centered on the leading edge of the response
curve, as shown in Fig. 19.
As the carrier frequency varies above and below its centre frequency, the tuned circuit
responds as shown in the figure. If the frequency goes lower than the carrier frequency, the
output voltage across C1 decreases. If the frequency goes higher, the output across C1 goes
higher.
Thus, the ac voltage across C1 is proportional to the frequency of the FM signal. The
voltage across C1 is rectified into dc pulses that appear across the load R1. These are
filtered into a varying dc signal that is an exact reproduction of the original modulating
signal.
The main difficulty with slope detectors lies in tuning them so that the FM signal is
correctly centered on the leading edge of the tuned circuit. In addition, the tuned
circuit does not have a perfectly linear response. It is approximately linear over a
narrow range, as Fig.19 shows, but for wide deviations, amplitude distortion occurs
because of the nonlinearity.

PHASE LOCKED LOOP:

 It is also a frequency demodulation circuit. PLL is a negative feedback system. It
tracks the phase and frequency of the carrier component of an incoming signal.
 It is usually used to demodulate the angle modulated wave when SNR is poor.
 It is a frequency or phase sensitive feedback control circuit used in frequency
demodulation, frequency synthesizer and filtering, signal detection application.
 It has 3 basic elements:
1. Phase detector: Compare the FM input which is referred to as reference signal to
the output of a Voltage Controlled Oscillator (VCO).
2. VCO: VCO frequency is varied by the DC output voltage from LPF.
3. LPF: It smoothes the output of phase detector into a control voltage that varies the
frequency of VCO.

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Figure 20 : Block diagram of a PLL

The primary job of the phase detector is to compare the two input signals and generate an
output signal that, when filtered, will control the VCO. If there is a phase or frequency
difference between the FM input and VCO signals, the phase detector output varies in
proportion to the difference. The filtered output adjusts the VCO frequency in an attempt to
correct for the original frequency or phase difference. This dc control voltage, called the
error signal, is also the feedback in this circuit.

Working :
 It works in 3 modes:
a) Free running stage / free running frequencies
b) Capture range
c) Locking range / Locking the frequency.
 Free running stage / free running frequencies: When no input signal is applied the
phase detector and LPF outputs are zero. Then VCO operates at free running
frequencies. The phase detector compares the input signals and gives output voltage
proportional to the frequency difference.
Let ‘fc’ be the FM input frequency and ‘fo’ be the VCO output signal frequency.
The phase detector output in the free running stage is not equal to zero.
fc – fo ≠ 0
 Capture Range: When input is applied then the output voltage controls frequency of
VCO. The phase detector compares the input signals frequencies. Because of dc
output voltage there is a variation in the VCO output and hence reduces the
frequency difference.
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 Locking Range: The error voltage causes the changes in the VCO frequency. At
some point the VCO frequency becomes equal to the carrier frequency then the
frequency difference becomes zero i.e fc – fo = 0 . This is the locking range or
locking frequency. So the PLL is said to be in the locked condition.

Figure 21: Capture and Lock ranges of a PLL

 Although the input and VCO frequencies are equal there is a 90 o phase
difference between them which reduces the dc output voltage that will cause
VCO to produce frequency that keeps the circuit locked.

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Unit 3 : Communication Receiver

Super heterodyne receiver:
 Superheterodyne receivers convert all incoming signals to a lower frequency, known
as the intermediate frequency (IF), at which a single set of amplifiers and filters is
used to provide a fixed level of sensitivity and selectivity.
 The performance of receiver is determined by the parameters Fidelity, selectivity
and Sensitivity.
 Fidelity: If the message signal is a multitone signal then the ability of the receiver to
detect all frequencies present in the input signal then the fidelity is high.
 Selectivity: The ability of an antenna to select the desired signal. This can be done by
tuned circuit.
 Sensitivity: The ability of the receiver to detect weakest signal. If so then the
selectivity is high.

 The tuned radio frequency (TRF) receiver is made up of only amplifiers, selective
filters and a demodulator. This is used in early radios. The expected performance can
not be obtained by such receiver in modern communication system.

 But Super heterodyne receiver converts all incoming signals to a lower frequency
known as IF at which single set of amplifier and filter is used to provide fixed level of
sensitivity and selectivity.

 The block diagram of Super heterodyne receiver is as shown below:

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Figure 22: Block diagram of Super heterodyne receiver

Antenna: It converts EM waves into electrical signals.

RF amplifier: It is also called as pre-selector because it provides initial gain and selectivity.
Antenna picks up weak radio signal and feed to the RF amplifier ( also called as low noise
amplifier). The tuned circuits help to select the desired signal in the frequency range where
the signal resides. The tuned circuits must be of high quality factor so that the selectivity
will be high.
The advantages of RF amplifier are:
1. Provides gain which improves sensitivity.
2. Provides better SNR.
3. Provides better selectivity to the receiver.
4. Provides image frequency rejection (image frequency means unwanted frequency
detected by the receiver).
5. Provides better coupling to the antenna (antenna and RF amplifier should match in
impedance).
6. Minimize the oscillator radiations.
Both Bipolar and FETs made with Si, GaAs or SiGe can be used as RF amplifier.

Mixers and Local Oscillators: The output of RF amplifier is given to the mixer as input.
The mixer receives another input from local oscillator. It produces sum and difference of
frequencies of these signals. The tuned circuit at the output of mixer selects the difference
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frequency or Intermediate frequency (IF). The mixer may be a diode, balanced modulator or
transistor. MOSFETs and hot carrier diodes are preferred as mixers because of their low
noise characteristics.

Local oscillator: It is made tunable so that its frequency can be adjusted over a wide range.

IF amplifier: The output of mixer is an IF signal containing the same modulation that
appeared on the input signal. The signal is amplified by one or more IF amplifier stages.
Most of the receiver gain is obtained at these stages. Selective tuned circuits provide fixed
selectivity for example crystal filter, DSP filters etc. can be used for selectivity.

Demodulators: High amplified IF signal is given to demodulator which recovers original

modulating information. Demodulator can be diode detector for AM and Quadrature
detector for FM. In modern digital super heterodyne radios, the IF signal is first digitized by
and ADC and then sent to DSP where demodulation is carried out by a programmed
algorithm. The recovered signal is converted to analog by a DAC. The output of
demodulator or DAC is fed to an audio amplifier with sufficient large voltage and power
gain to operate a speaker.

Automatic Gain Control (AGC): The output of demodulator is a original modulating

signal. The amplitude of which is directly proportional to the amplitude of the received
signal. The recovered signal is ‘ac’ is rectified and filtered into a dc voltage by a circuit
called AGC circuit.
The dc voltage is fed back to the IF amplifier and some time to RF amplifier to control the
receiver gain.
AGC circuits maintains constant output voltage level over a wide range of RF input levels.
With AGC the overall gain of receiver can be adjusted depending on input signal level.
The signal amplitude at the output of detector is directly proportional to the signal amplitude
of input signal.

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If the signal amplitude is high at the output of detector then AGC produces high dc output
voltage and thereby reducing the gain of IF amplifier. So it eliminates distortions produced
by input signal.
When an incoming signal is weak the detector output is low. The output of AGC is a smaller
dc voltage. This causes the gain of the IF amplifier to remain high.

FREQUENCY CONVERSION:
 It is a process of translating a modulating signal to a higher or lower frequency while
retaining all the originally transmitted information.
 In radio receivers high frequency radio signals are converted to a low IF where the
improved gain and selectivity is obtained and this is called down conversion.
 In satellite communication original signal is generated at a lower frequency and
converted to higher frequency for transmission. This is called up conversion.

MIXING PRINCIPLES:
 Frequency conversion is a form of amplitude modulation or analog multiplication
carried out at the mixer circuit. The function performed by the mixer is called
hererodyning.

Figure 23: Concept of mixer

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 Mixer accepts 2 inputs.

 The input signal of frequency fs is translated to another frequency fo which is the
another input generated from the local oscillator.
 The mixer performs multiplication of 2 input signals. The output of mixer can be fs,
fo, fo+fs, fo-fs or fs-fo.
 The frequencies fs or fo obtained at the mixer are filtered out. The sum or difference
of frequency signal is a desired signal.
 Example: To translate a input signal to lower frequency, difference signal fo-fs is
chosen.
 When translating to a higher frequency the upper sideband or sum signal f o+fs is
chosen
 A tuned filter or circuit is used at the output of the mixer to select the desired signal
and reject all others.
FET Mixer:
 A JFET mixer is as shown below:

Figure 24: JFET mixer

 The FET mixers provide gain, have low noise and nearly perfect square law response.
It is biased to operate in non linear portion of its range.
 Input signal is applied to the gate. The local oscillator signal is coupled to the source.
The tuned circuit in the drain selects the difference frequency.

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