MODULE 1: INTRODUCTION

Unit I: Units and Dimensions

Table of Contents
Page
1.0 Introduction 7

2.0 Objecttves 7

3.0 Units of Physical Quantilies 7

3.[ Concept of Sl 7

3.2 Basic Units 7

3.3 Derived Units 9

4.0 Conclusion 12

5.0 Summary 12

6.0 References and Other Resources 12

7.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment 12
10 Introduction
In your previous course of studying science in general and chemistry in particular. you would have
realized that you are often engaged in problems solYing. Specifically in physical chemistry. equations
containing physical quantities are eminent in problem solving. For you to be at case with these
mathematical expressions and applications. you will need to understand how to represent one single
physical quantity in terms of its magnitude and umts.

In this Unit, we shall examine how .1ysteme mternatwnalc (SI) came about. We will study the
principles of representing the units of the physical quantities. In this unit also. we shall state the SI umts
for a few basic and denvcd quantt!Ics

2 0 Objectives
By the end of this Unit, vou should be able to:
• Explam the need for SI units
• State basic and derived Sl units
• Define the basic and derived units
• Derive the dimension and the SI unit of a physical quantity using an appropnatc equation
3.0 Units of Physical Quantities
3. I Concept of Sl
Till recently in the scientific world. mainly two systems of units have been in common use. One is
the metric system. that is. c.g.s (centimetre. gram and second) which was more commonly used over the
European continent and the other is f.p.s (foot. pound and second) prevalent in England. A common
system of units helps in exchanging the scientific facts and ideas originating from different countries. It
is better still if the system of units could be derived from the scientific formulae or fundamental
constants. This long felt need for a common system of scientific units was realized at a meeting
called General Conference on We1ght and ll1easures m 1960. At this meeting. the international
scientific community agreed to adopt common units of measurement known as International System of
Units. This is abbreviated as SI units from the French name. Systeme lnternatwnale.

3.2 Basic Units

There are seven basic physical quantities from which all other physical quantities can be derived.
Can you mention two of those basic physical units you are familiar with? You are right if length.
time. mass. temperature are parts of what you stated in your answer. Each of these physical quantities
has a unit termed basic unit. with a specified symbol. Table 1.1 presents in details the names of these
physical quantities along with their symbols of SI units. Each of these quantities is regarded as having
its own dimension. The dimensions of basic quantities are useful in defining the derived phystcal
quantities. which wwould use in Sec 3.2. We will be using the symbol given in column
(II) of Table 1.1 to refer to the dimensions of the basic quantities.
Table 1.1: Basic Physical Quantities and their Units

Physical quantity Symbol of the quantity Name of SI unit Symbol of

SI unit
Length I metre m
Mass m kilogram kg
Time t second s
Electric current I ampere A
Temperature T Kelvin K
Luminous Intensity I candela cd
Amount of Substances n mole mol

Note that m (italized) is the symholfi>r mass olan oh1ecrwhile m (roman) is the symbol olSlunitfor
metre.

Before vou proceed, have you ever thought of what these basic quantities are? Assuming you can
not remember what length. mass. time. temperature. electric current. luminous of intensity and amount
of substancarc. thelf definitions arc briefly stated here.

Recall that length is a measure of distance or duration of time. Let us consider temperature as a
measurement of the hotness or coldness of matter. Have you ewr thought of the relationship between
temperature and heat'' What is heat and what is temperature'' \\<bat relationship exists between the two'>
To hdp you, from11hat we sav temperature is. it means it 1S a property of matter whereas. heat is an
energv flow to and from matter. When heat is added to matter or removed, there will be an increased or
decrease in temperature. The quantit,· of heat added to a matter determines its temperature. In Table 1.1
_ the unit of temperature is Kelvin and not Celsius or Fahrenheit. Whv is Kelvin used tl1r temperature
and ho11 is it obtamcd''

HowevcL \\ e arc uot going to define kilogram. meter. etc. since our aim is to usc these unitS and not to
establish the basis of these units. Have you ever thought of how these units are used in daily life
experience'' For instance. a meter man comes home to read your meter, what does he read. the electric
current or the quantity of electricity that will be used to calculate your bill'' If vour answer is electric
current, why do you think you arc correct? It IS important you clarify your answers tram the National
Electric Power Authority (NEPA) office.

These questions are raised to enable you prepare \\-ell for our subsequent discussion.

Exercise 1
(a) What was the name of the German Scientist that devised earliest temperature scales'' ......

(b) Recall from your previous school chemistry. the mathematician and phvsicist who invented the
Absolute scale and what does Kelvin stand for''
3.3 Derived Units
Apart from the basic physical quantities there are others called derived physical quantities. As the
name implies, they are derived from the seven basic quantities shown in Table 1.1. The derivations
are done by definitions involving multiplication, division, differentiation and integration.

In Table 1.2 and Table 1.3 the derived SI units without and with special names are given. You will
find it useful. throughout your study of chemistry to refer to these tables whenever some physical
quantities are to be expressed. Since electrochemistry will be studied in this course, a few useful
electrical quantities are also included in Table 1.3

Table 1.2 Derived SI Units Without Special Names

Physical Quantity Definition Dimensional Name of the Symbol of the

Formula SI unit SI unit

Area* Length x length r square metre m'

Volume* Length X length I' cubic metre m'
x length
Densit\· Mass/ Volume ml·' kilogram per kg m·-'
cubic metre
Velocity Displacement/Time It I metre per ms 1

second
Acceleration Change 111 VelocitY/ It 2 metre per second ms 2

time squared
Molar mass Mass/ amount of nu1 _, kilogram per
the substance mole kg mol'

*The definitions given for area and volume arc of general type. although specific formulae are to be
used depending on the geometry of a surface or an ob_1ect.

Let us examine how the SI units of acceleration arc \\Orkcd out from its dimensions.
Go back to Tables 1.1 and 1.2.

In Table 1.2, column (iii) the dimensions of acceleration is it 2 . What is the corresponding unit of
acceleration''

You are correct if you state that units of acceleration m s ' (sec columns(ii) and (iv) of Tables I.])

Let us sec how the defmitions and the units of physical quantities can be obtained usin!J Tables I I - 1.3
Table 1.3: Derived SI Units Having Special Names

Physical Quantity Definition Dimensional Name of' the Symbol of the

Formula SI unit SI unit
Force Mass x acceleration mit' newton '"Nor kg m s'
Pressure Force mit ';rml '1 ' Pa or N m-:
Area pascal or kg m 1 s-c
Energy or Work Force x Distance mit 'Im!'t-'
JOUle J or N m or P<l m-'

Electric charge Electric current x Time it coulomb Cor As

Electric potential Elcctnc Energy m/: t :
= mH 1 t' volt v or J c-•
difference Electric clmrgc it or kg m" A 1 s-'
Electric resistance (Electric Potential diJI) ml' t' ohm Or VA-'
Electric current Ft
Electric conduc- I I siemens SorA V'
mFFt
- or A s'kg 1 111 =
tance Electric resistance 1

Frequency (Number of "m-es or cycles) l hertz Hz or s· 1

Time t

Deductions of the Sl unit physical quantity (Tables l.l-1.3)

Now, Iwant you to use the dimensions of these quantities to derive the dimension and the unit of
R,
What do you have in your substitution?
Your answer should look thus:
The mathematical relationship to be used for the ideal gas equation is as shown below_ (We shall
study more of th•s in Unit 2_)

Pressure x Volume Amount of the substance x gas constant x temperature _ (3 _I)

Rearranging this,

Pressure x Volume
R =
Amount of the Substance x Temperature (3 2)

The dimensions of the quantities in the right hand side ofEq_ 3_1 are mentioned in Tables Ll-1_3_
We use the dimensions of these quan!ities to derive the dimension and the unit of R as shown below
-
D•mens•ons 0
- f R -
= Dtmens•ons
- 0f
I Pressure x Voltune
LA.n,otinloCthcsubstancexternperature
J

1-1 -"t' 1 1
= = (ml'C') (n- )(T
m t_::_ )
nT
Hence, the units of R =joule mole-' Kelvin-'
(using the units corresponding to the dimensions mentioned in Tables Ll- 1_3)

Thus, R has the dimensions of (energy) (amount of substance)-' (temperature)-' and the unit
J mol-' K-'

10
In generaL the following hints would be useful in the deduction of the unit of a quantity (which we
name as test quantity):
(i) Write an equation relating the test quantity to other quantities of known dimensions.
(ii) Rearrange this equation such that only the test quantity is on the left hand side and others are
on the right hand side.
(iii) Substitute the dimensions of the quantities on the right hand side and simplify.
(iv) Write down the units corresponding to the simplified dimensions, using Tables 1.1- 1.3.

Use the above hints and work out the following Exercises.

Exercise 2
Derive the dimension and the unit of root mean square speed (Um.l of a gas using the following
equation:
U = /3 x gas constantx te tu
=• 'I Molarmass

The dimension of molar mass is mn-1

Exercise 3
From the equation, kinetic energy= y, X mass x (velocity)'. derive the unit of kinetic energy.
4.0 Conclusion
In the study of physical chemistry, there are many physical quantities both basic and derived you
will be coming across. In this Unit we have been able to state all and define some of the basic units.
From the basic units, derived units are obtained. Using the units in the tables provided. we were also
able to do some deductions. The SI units. must be consistently used. in applications on quantities.

5.0 Summary
In this Unit you have learned that:
• There are seven basic physical quantities namely length. mass. time, electric current.
temperature. luminuous intensity and amount of substance.
• Length is a measure of distance or duration of time and temperature is a measure of how hot or
cold a matter is but its measurement is a function of heat energy flow
• Other physical quantities with their corresponding SI units can be derived or deduced.
• The gas constant, R. has dimensions of (energy) (amount of substance)·' (temperaturet 1

6.0 References and Other Resources

IGNOU ( 1997). States of Matter: Physical Chemistry CHE-04 New Delhi.

7.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment

I. Examine the following statements and indicate their validity by writing T for True and F for
False. if false. Indicate the reason for your answer:
(i) The SI unit of mass is gram
(ii) The symbol of SI unit of temperature is k
(iii) The SI unit of pressure is pascal
(iv) IN= I kg m s '
(v) IO-'g=ll-!g
2. If 25.3g of a substance occupies a volume of 23cm' calculate its density in SI units.
3. The molar mass (Mm) of an ideal gas is related to its pressure (p), density ( p) and temperature
(T) according to the equation.

Mm= !.
p
In this expression, R is the gas constant. Find the SI unit of molar mass.
Unit 2: SI Prefixes

Table of Contents
Page
1.0 Introduction 14

2.0 ObJectives 14

3.1 SI Prefixes 14

3 2 Grammatical Rules for Representing the SI units 15

3.3. Conversion of Non-S!units to SI units 16

3.3.1 Construction of a Unit Factor 17

3.3.2 Conversion into SI unit 17

4.0 Conclusion IR
5.0 Summary IS

6.0 References and Oiher Resources 19

7.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment

1.0 Introduction
In Unit I of this Module. we discussed the historv of SI units and explained the basic and derived units.
In this Unit. \\C shall explain the prefixes used to change the order of magnitude of the SI units.
Also we shall state the mles tor representing the Sl units and the procedure of converting non- S! units
into SJ units.

2.0 Objectives
By the end of this Unit. vou should be able to:
• Explain how the multiples and the sub-multiples of SJ units can be obtained.
• Describe the niles for wnung SI umts and
• Convert non-S! lmns uno Sl Umts.
• Use the mlcs accordingly when solving problems.

3.1 SI Prefixes
We now discuss how to overcome the difficulty of expressing the units of physical quantities which
are either very large or small. as compared to the Sl units. We add a prefix to the unit such that the
magnitude of the physical quantity is 7. 4 x IO·" m. We express it conveniently as 74 pm where pico
is the SI prefix and p is its S)mbol. The list of SJ prefixes is given in Table 2.1 and it is possible to
change the order of magnitude of anv unit using this table.

Table 2.1: SI Prefixes

Sub-multiple Prefix Symbol Multiple Prefix Symbol

J0-1 deci d 10 deca da
J0-2 centi c J02 hccto h
mili m I0-' ktlo
10"" mtcro 10" mega
JO·" nano I 109 gtga
j()-12 1012 tcra
' o·''
l
I femto
atto 10" exa ' E

More examples tor usage of prefixes are given below:

103m= lkm: JO·'s Ins

The unit for mass is kg \\hich is alreadv prefixed. We do not add a second prefix but rather usc a
single prefix on the unit gram. Thus to represent JO·' gran1. the S\mbol used is ng and not pkg. For 10
' gram. nog IS used and not pkg.

Exercise 1
Write down the following \\Jth proper Slunit symbols and prefixes:
(a) IU 'metre (b)]()-··second (c) 103 pascal
 Exercise 2
Suggest a convenient SI unit to specify the diameters of atoms and molccuks. which arc in the
region of I0- m.
10

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3.2 Grammatical Rules for Representing the Sl units

The following rules will be of help to you while using the SI units:

(i) The symbol of a unit is never to be used in plural form. Writing I 0 kilogram as I 0 kg is
correct and not as I 0 kgs.
(ii) In normal usage. full stop is used to indicate the end of a sentence or the presence of an
abbreviation. To denote Sl unit as an abbreviation by means of a full stop after the symbol
is incorrect: but if the Sl unit is at the end of a sentence. then full stop can be used.
(iii) When there is a combination of units. there should be space between the symbols. If the units
arc written without leaving space. the first letter is taken as a prefix. Thus m/s represents metre
per second whereas ms stands for milli second.
(iv) Always leave a space between the magnitude and the unit symbol of a physical quantity.
For exan1ple. writing 0. 51 kg is correct but not 0. 51kg.
(v) Symbol of the unit derived from a proper name is represented using capital letters but not the
nan1e of the unit (Table 1.3 in Unit I) for example. writing I 00 newton or I 00 N is correct
but not I 00 Newton or l 00 n.
(vi) For nu_mbers less than unity. zero must be inserted to the left of the decimal point. Thus
writing 0. 23 kg is correct but not .23 kg.
. (vii) For larger numbers exceeding five figures, one space above every three digits (counting
from the right end) must be left blank. Commas should not be used to space digits in numbers.
For example is 15 743 231 N is correct but not 15.743. 231 N. It is preferable to use proper
Sl prefixes.
(viii) The degree sign is to be omitted before K while representing temperature. For example
298 K is correct but not 298" K.
(ix) You should not mtx words and symbols for representing Sl units for example. For it is proper
to write N m·'or Newton per square metre and not N per square metre.
(x) Exponents (or powers) operate on prefixes also. Let also derive the relationship between cm3
and m3 using the relation. I emI O-' m.
(xi) To show that the particular unit symbol has a negative component, one may be tempted to use
the sign''/" as solidus. It is better to avoid the usage of this sign and if used no more than one
should be employed. For example. representing pascal (kg m-1 s·') as kglm s' is allowed but
not kglm/s.
So far. we studied some rules for writing Sl units. Let us now discuss the dimensions for some
mathematical functions. which are useful in studying this course

While representmg the relationship among the physical quantities of substances. we often come
across the mathematical functions like sin e.
cos e·' and In x. It is to be kept in mind that trigonometric
(sin e. e
cos etc) exponential (e' ore·') and logarithmic functions (In x or log x) are dimensionless
quantities and hence have no units.
You can understand the validity of this statement. once you recapitulate the definitions of these
functions. We shall illustrate this for the functions. sin 8 and e".
From the right-angle triangle PQO.
length ofFQ
Sin 8 =
length ofOP
Evidently sin 8 is dimensionless and has no unit. The same is true of other trigonometric functions
also.
p

As an illustration for the exponential senes. let us expand e'.

: 3 4
e·: : ]XX
-r-T-
X
- +X-+ ..

+
]I 21 31 4'
Since addition or subtraction must be done bc'tween quantities of the same dimensions. etc. e and x
in the above series must all be of the same dimensions. This indicates that x and e·' are dimensionless
and unitless. Again this is tme of c 'and In x or log x also.

Exercise 3
In Module 2. Unit 2 of this book. vou will study that Bragg equation,
nA. = 2 d sm 8
is useful in the diffraction studies of X- ravs bv crystals Given that n is dimensionless and A has the
dim::nsion of lcnght. find the dimension and unit of d.

Conversion of Non-SJ units to Sl units

Often m textbooks we see that the quantities are expressed 111 non-Slunits such as c.g.s and f.p.s. ln
such a Situation. we must kno\\· how to convert non-S I units into Slunits. There is a Simple procedure
availabic for this purpose. It is called 1111!1 fi1ctor method This method can be explained usmg the
following cxamp!e.

Example
An important practical unit of pressure is ; atmosphere (atm). To be c:•<act. at 29X.2 K a column of
mercury. 76 em high (h = 7h em) exerts a pressure of I arm. (Table 2.2).
The SI equivalent of I atm pressure can be obtained before substituting the value of h. g
(acceleration due to gravity) and p (density of mercury) 111 SI tmits m the fonnula:
P=hgp .3.1
 The values of g and pin c.g.s units are 980.66 ems·' and 13.595 gem·' respectively. We have to convert
the values of h. g, and pinto SI units, before substituting them in equation 3.1. To accomplish this we
must know how to construct a unit factor.

3.3. I Construction of a Unit Factor

A unit factor is a ratio that is equal to I. It states the relationship between the SI and the non-S!units
of a physical quantity. It is constructed from the equivalent statement relating both these units. For
example, for the conversion of the unit ofh from c.g.s into SI units, the equivalence statement is
JOOcm=lm
From this equivalent statement, the unit factor for conversion can be constructed by dividing both
sides by 100 em (i.e equivalent value in non-S!unit).

IOOcm=i= . ...... 3.2

IOOcm IOOcm

In general, the unit factor for conversion of a physical quantity into SI is given by the relationship:

Sl unit of a physical quantity

Unit factor = Equivalent amount of the physical quantitv in non-S!unit

Let us now see how the unit factor is useful in unit conversion.

3.3.2 Conversion into SI unit

The unit factor is to be multiplied by the actual value of the physical quantity in non-S!unit to get
the quantity in [Link]. For example. the value ofh (actual value= 76cm) is to be multiplied bv the
unit factor. I rnJ I00 em to get it in metre unit.
lm
h in Sl unit =76cm x 0.76m
I 00 em

The conversion of units of h. g and pinto Sl units is represented in Table 2.2

Table 2.2: Conversion of Units of h, g and p

Ph ·sical Equivalence The actual vallK
quanti! S.)mhol Statement Unit factor II the quantity in The Quantity in
non-S.I unit(s)

or em
em
column

Accclcrmion g ] till Clll S

980 66 ems·' x 1 m s·'
due to IOOcm s' ems·'
gr:wity = 9.8066 m s..'
or p 13.595
McrC'UJ! em- (ltl'g g 103 8 106 em·')
10<kgcm 3

m·'
= 1.3595 x 10' kg m'
 Noting that:
* (I 0' em)'I or·em' = I m'
** Dcnsitv Mass/Volume
Unit tactor for mass conversion
***Unit factor for density conversionUnit factor for volume conversion

The values of h. g and p from the last column of Table 3.5 are to be substituted in Eq 3.3 to get the
SI equivalent of I atm pressure.
i.e.. P 0.76 m x 9.8066 m s 'X 1.3595 X 104 kg m'
1.0132x IO'kgm 1 s'I.OI32x 10 5 Pa

Hence. SI equivalent of I atm is 1.0132 x 10' Pa. Using the above illustration. we can sum up the
steps for the conversion of non-S! units of a physical quantity into SI units as follows:
(i) Obtain the equivalence statement relating the SI and the non-S!units.
(ii) Construct the unit factor.

Exercise 4
The value of the gas constant R is often expressed as I 987 cal moJ-1 K 1
• Obtain its value in SI units
(J moi-1 K-1 ). Given that I cal4.184 J.

4.0 Conclusion
In this Unit we have attempted to examine some prefixes. We have put you through some rules that
must be obeyed while using the SI unit quantities. The method of converting non-S!units into SI
umts has also been explained. With adequate illustrations. we have been able to convert non-S!
umts mto SI units.

5.0 Summary
In this Unit. you have learnt that:
• There arc non-S!units and non-S!unit quantities. But to solve any problem given. attempt must
be made to convert the non-S! units into SI units before proceeding.
• Some rules for representing SI units exist and must be mastered.
• Converting the non-S!units of h. g and pin c.g.s. units into SI units requires a construction of a
unit factor.
• A unit factor is a ratio that is equal to I .
• Converting the non-S! units of a physical quantity into SI units involves first. obtaining the
 equivalent statement relating the Sl units and the non-S!units and second, constructing a unit
factor.

6.0 References and Other Resources

IGNOU ( 1997). States of Matter: Physical Chemistry CHE-04 New Delhi.

7.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment

I. The reduced mass (u) of two objects of masses m, and m, is given by the fonnula·
u-- m,m2
- (m1 +m2)
What is the unit of reduced mass'/'
2. Complete the following conversions:
(a) Img = ........ kg= ........... g
(b) ls= ........... ms=............ ns
(c) Ikm= ....... m= .......... mm.
Unit 3: Separation Techniques

Table of Contents
Page
10 Introduction 2!
2.0 Ob_1ectives 2!
3.1 Instrumentation 2!
3.2 Reportmg Practical Work 23
3.3 Separation Techniques 23
40 Conclusion 25
50 Summa > 25
6.0 References and Other Resources 26
7.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment 26
I0 Introduction
Any course in chemistry requires an appropriate understanding of the apparatus and familiarity with
reagents. Similarly, it is important that we are able to follow instruction accordingly when conducting
practical work and be honest when reporting our observation and calculations. In th1s Unit. we will
examine the concept of instrumentation as well as various separation techniques you might be applying
according to task at hand. Reporting practical \\Drk has not been given a relevant place as such. but
the Unit will briefly mention some key pomts.

2.0 Objectives
By the end of this Unit. you should be able to :
• ldentit}· some key apparatus and explain their uses.
• Describe the various techniques for separating mixtures.
• State maJor ways of reporting practical \\Drk in chemistry.

3.1 Instrumentation
In th1s section. we will be looking at various instruments that will be needed in the course of studying
chemistrv lnstmmentation is a skillful process of identifymg. substituting and using correct apparatus
appropriately in the laboratory. The first task you should carrv out is to familiarise vourself with
some. fundamental and commonly used apparatus in University chemistry laboratory. It is possible to
visit the laboratorY technologist for e><posure or traimng in this area.

Some commonly used apparatus found in the chemistrY laboratories arc not unrelated to the various
experiments designed for that course. Most used instruments include:
I. Melting point tubes: These arc basically used for dctennining the melting points of substances.
The melting point tube is often used in experiments that cover dctem1ination of molecular
\\CJght of substances.
2. Balance: This is a very important instrument in the laboratory for weighing subst:mces. They vary
in types and kinds.
3. Titration apparatus: TI1is covers back titration. conductance titration or direct titration. The
common apparatus used include pipette, burette. beakers. conical flask. measuring cylinder and
volumetnc flask. The pipette for instance is calibrated. It is quite essential that whenever
experiments arc to be pcrfom1ed. you should always make usc of the correct technique and correct
measure when usmg an)' apparatus.

4. Thermometer: TI1erc arc different types that arc used for measuring hotness or coldness of
an obJect: The Beckman thermometer IS used m the Beckman·s apparatus for dctem1inmg the
tfeezmg pomt of a substance. Ynu need to tam1hanzc yourself with this appararus. A thermometer
IS also used mother apparatus like s1mplc steam distillation apparatus.

5. pH meter: This is for mcasunng the srrcngth of an acid or base.

6. Electrochemical cells: Various t'pes of this exist and mu should be able to differentiate. We
have the conductance cell also.
7. Barometer: This is one tYpe of apparatus ,-ou must know how to usc. It is used for measuring
pressure and can be found useful m Barometric method of measuring vapour pressure.
8. An Ost ald viscometer: It IS used for measuring the viscositY of a subsrance.
(i) (li)

Low.:r buft'o!r duunbli!r

Fig. 3.1: (i) Flame Calorimerer (ii) Page cell

Exercise I
List the basic steps that \'OU need to folio\\ \\hen measuring with pipette 25 cm-1 of NaOH into a
conical flask

Other apparatus include Bomb calonmctcr or sunplc calorimeter. test tubes of different types (micro
test tubes. semi-micro test tubes). crucible (e.g. porcelain crucible). chromatographic column.
conductivitv meter. desiccators. isotemiscope tube. fractional distillation apparatus. conductivitv cell
and Bunsen burner.

In phvsical chemistry. there arc some fundamental experiments that you must actively participate in.
Common activities that vou "ill often engage with in the course of these experimentations include
the followings·
I. Measurements: Often times. mam of ,·ou f1nd it difticult to measure aceuratelv 1vhen vou undergo
the followmg tasks
(a) \:Vcighing substances using balance:
(b) Reading the thermometer:
(c) Collecting n specified volume from an unknown quantity using pippettc or measuring
cylinder
In all. you shculd avoid \\3Slagc. Micro experiments arc prescntlv advocated.
2. Heating: At sccondarv school level. hardlv do some of vou make usc of the Bunsen burner It
demands s0me skills to usc. otherwise if not [Link]· handled. danger or was,c mav be
(.:lllJOCnt. lt 1s possibk all the tunto sec students meltmg a solid using tmmcrsJOn \\atcr bath
or direct hcarm. ustng thBunsen burner fl<Jmc.
J. Recording results, drawing and plottmg graphs: For tlus ass1gnmcnt. mat 1s also a cn.1ctal
rask m chcmistr\ practtcai work. \·ou should be mathemancally fncndly to calcui<Jttotb and
dma management. Abihry tn l::<trapolmc or mtcrpolatc, gradient dcrcnnmatton or usc graph ro
resolve 1ssues must be constantlv practiSed and dcveioped.
4 Exphlining and supporting observations with relevant theories: There IS no doubt thai
·ou need to do som1..' !ltcrnturc research pnor to your practical \Vork.
 2. Calculations may include determination of some quantities and functional computa- tions:
For instance, vou can be asked to detennine the solubility of salts in .water at a given
temperature: electrical conductance: and molecular weight.

3.2 Reporting Practical Work

Mostly. reporting is something that is given a place in chemistry even where laboratory manuals are
provided. The laboratory manual fonnat varies as the number oflccturers involved. Also the reporting
style varies as many as the number of supervisors involving students in practical work. Sometimes. the
results and not the procedure are major emphasis of supervisors. There should be some guidelines to
place you on the right course when reporting practical work. Let us just mention the major headlines that
should always be indicated in your report.
l. The Aim ofthe Experiment: Every experiment must always have a title indicating the aim or
what it is to be achieved by the end of the experiment.
2. Theory: This is the theoretical frame that throws light on the baseline of the experiment. It elicits
the conditions. basis and outcomes of the experiments.
3. Apparatus: We need to list out the apparatus as well as the reagents in their definite quantity
and measurements rcst>Cctively. Where a laboratory manual is provided. further readings become
necessary for you to be able to carry out the experiment with little or no difficulty.
4. Activities: A brief description of the procedure should be given. Sonietimes. the specif1ed
instruction in the laboratory manual may deviate partially and or completely from the conditions
or steps actually followed. Finally. you will need to provide an explanation why that procedure
is adopted by you.
5. Recording Accurately the Result and Errors: There is no experiment that is perfectly
don. There is the possibility of some sources of errors which should be reported and could justify
the reason tor some d >viations in the results.
6. Tabulation: Often in chemistry. it is advisable to always tabulate data for effective management.
overview and relativity
7. Answers to Questions: In some cases. some questions are raised to enable you relate your
findings to theoretical principles or values. Straight forward. very brief and direct answers are
expected from you.

3.3 Separation Techniques

Most substances as we all know exist in impure form in nature. Th "Y require to be made pure before
usc. A pure substance is a hmnogenous material that contains only one substance. Name any pure
dement you know. Do you say pure crystalline element of diamond? Yes. you are right. There are
many impure elements. compounds that you will come across in your study of physical chemistry.

Exercise 2
List 3 1mpure substances that are solid. liquid or gaseous.
Mostly the impure substances are mixtures. Whether the mixture is homogeneous or heterogeneous.
separation techniques could be apphd to separate the components. These mixtures are separated
us1ng appropriate techmques that depend on:
1. relative solubilit,· of the solute in solvent
2. the absorbent 1i1 dium
3. the crystalline/non-crystalline: gas/solid/liquid: metallic/non-metallic: organic/inorganic nature
of the constituents
4. reaction of the substances to l)cat (melting, sublimmg, boiling. etc).

Separation Processes
Make attempt to list the separation proc sses that can be used to separate mixtures constituents. They
are evaporation. simple and fmctional distillation. sublimation. crystallisation. precipitation and
chromatography.
Let us consider each of these processes one by one.

Precipitation
Constituents in a solution mixture can be separated by applying a principle of equilibrium. You will
!cam about equilibrium in this course. Suppose the mixture components are silver trioxonitrate (V) salt
and sodium chloride. These t\YO substances have h1gh solubilities in water. What ions will be formed
in the solution mixture'' Your list should read Ag'. CJ-. Na' and NO,
In th1s solution, Ag'C/' 1 mil be formed.

Ag· (aq) + Cl-(aq) ----

AgCI(s)
And this is slightlY soluble in water. The fonnation of a solid from a solution is called precipitation.

Exercise 3
.:;;_,n a mixture containing Pb (N0 1) 0 and Mg (NO,),
( ) Which of the ions in the mixture can be precipitated''
(b) Is there anv need to introduce another substance'' What substance and for \\hat purpose''
(c) Will Mg'· precipate and if no. kind!ind1catc a reason''
(d) Write au equation for the reaction''

·n1ere is no doubt that you \\-111 be coming across these processes as you proceed in the course. You
will be Uken through these methods and as thev applv to vanous mixtpres and components

Crystallisation
TI1is IS the process of separatmg a pure solid from a solution llo\\· is this done. vou maY ask'' TI1is is
done by slowly heating the solution until small CIYStals of salt appear after cooling. There are some
conditions that must be obeyed \\hen crystallising. r:1rst. steam bath is used mstcad of direct heatmg to
prevent salt from jumping out of the basin and for safct\ Second. the filtration is done whi!st the solution
1s hot to prevent crystallisation in the crystallising liquid. These crvstals can be further washed
 with a small quantity of a liquid that will dissolve the crystals. For further purification of the crystals.
it can be dissolved in a little hot water and heat slowly as it was initially stated. The impurities are filtered
off remaining the pure crystals in the basin.

Sublimation
You will learn more about these processes but sublimation as a process is also crucial as any other
separation techniques. It refers to a process in which the solid directly evaporates without it melting. The
change of matter in one phase to another phase will be studied later.

Assuming you are given the following mixtures:

(a) NaCI +I,
(b) Solid co:+ MgSO,
(c) Ethanol +FCN

From our discussion FCN(s) +=!!:: FCN(g)

!CN(s) ICN(g)

In sublimation, does the tendency toward maximum randomness favour solid or gas? This and many
other questions will be answered later.
' -;.·''/•'
'·:;;: ·?t::: : '/

-.,

. - Solvent front
.: &-·-Red
i'
' i -r - Yellow

I
I •···-1 ····· Origin

\..:;::;1...· Ammonia
Fig. 3.3

4.0 Conclusion
In this Unit we have attempted to examine some essential guidelines that ''"ill enable you prepare and
function well in laboratory classes. We have put vou through some rules that must be obeyed while
performing experiments and reporting results. Equally, pure substances are necessary for various
products produced for consumption in the market. Thus. we also discussed some of the processes
that can be used to obtain pure components in a mi.,turc.

50 Summary
In this Unit, you have learnt that:
• Activities we often carried out mclude we1ghing and measuring temperature
• We need to develop the skills required for identin·ing and using mstruments.
• The title of an experiment must be wnttcn.
• Mixtures are substances we deal with in dC ily life but tLe:c need to be purified through some
processes.·
6.0 References and Other Resources
IGNOU ( 1997). States of Matter: Physical Chemistry CHE-04 Ne\\' Delhi.

7.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment

1. List three substances that can undergo sublimation.
2. (a) Under what basic principle is fractional distillation employed in separating
mixtures''
(b) What major processes are mvolved 111 fractional distillatiOn''