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Introduction
Name-rajat kumar
Class-12th sec-a
Roll no-21
Subject-Physics
Subject teacher-Mr. Avinash Singh
School-saint Theresa’s college

Certificate of Completion

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This is to certify that Rajat kumar, a student of Class XII, has
successfully completed the English Literature Project for the
academic year 2025-26
The project titled Electric Charges and Fields from the ISC
syllabus. The student has demonstrated commendable effort,
research, and literary understanding throughout the project.
This work has been submitted in partial fulfilment of the English
coursework requirements under the guidance of [Mr Avinash
Singh] at [Saint Theresa’s College].

Acknowledgement

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I would like to express my sincere gratitude to everyone who
supported me throughout the completion of this project.
First and foremost, I am deeply thankful to my Physics teacher,
[Mr Avinash Singh]and our respected Principal (Fr. John Paul
Bara) for their guidance, encouragement, and valuable insights
that helped me understand the depth and beauty of project. Their
support motivated me to research and interpret the poem with
greater clarity.
I would also like to thank my school, [Saint Theresa’s college],
for providing me with the opportunity and resources.
A heartfelt thank you to my parents and friends for their constant
encouragement and help during the project. Lastly, I acknowledge
the use of various online educational platforms and reference
materials that greatly enhanced my understanding.

Index
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 [Link]. Title Page No.

01 Introduction 06

02 Electric Charge 07-08

03 Coulomb’s Law 09-11

04 Electric Field 12-19

05 Electric Dipole 20-23

06 Electric Field Lines 24-27

07 Electric Flux and Gauss Law 28-32

08 Application of Electrostatics 33-34

09 Conclusion 35

10 Bibliography 36

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[Link]:

All of us have the experience of seeing a spark or hearing a

crackle when we take off our synthetic clothes or sweater,
particularly in dry weather. Have you ever tried to find any
explanation for this phenomenon? Another common example of
electric discharge is the lightning that we see in the sky during
thunderstorms. We also experience a sensation of an electric
shock either while opening the door of a car or holding the iron
bar of a bus after sliding from our seat. The reason for these
experiences is discharge of electric charges through our body,
which were accumulated due to rubbing of insulating surfaces.
You might have also heard that this is due to generation of static
electricity. This is precisely the topic we are going to discuss in
this and the next chapter. Static means anything that does not
move or change with time. Electrostatics deals with the study of
forces, fields and potentials arising from static charges.

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[Link] CHARGE
Historically the credit of discovery of the fact that amber rubbed
with wool or silk cloth attracts light objects goes to Thales of
Miletus, Greece, around 600 BC. The name electricity is coined
from the Greek word ‘elektron’ meaning amber. Many such pairs
of materials were known which on rubbing could attract light
objects like straw, pith balls and bits of papers. It was observed
that if two glass rods rubbed with wool or silk cloth are brought
close to each other, they repel each other. The two strands of
wool or two pieces of silk cloth, with which the rods were
rubbed, also repel each other. However, the glass rod and wool
attracted each other. Similarly, two plastic rods rubbed with cat’s
fur repelled each other [Fig. 1.1(b)] but attracted the fur. On the
other hand, the plastic rod attracts the glass rod [Fig. 1.1(c)] and
repel the silk or wool with which the glass rod is rubbed. The
glass rod repels the fur.

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We say that the bodies like glass or plastic rods, silk, fur and pith
balls are electrified. They acquire an electric charge on rubbing.
There are two kinds of electrification and we find that (i) like
charges repel and (ii) unlike charges attract each other. The
property which differentiates the two kinds of charges is called
the polarity of charge. When a glass rod is rubbed with silk, the
rod acquires one kind of charge and the silk acquires the second
kind of charge. This is true for any pair of objects that are rubbed
to be electrified. Now if the electrified glass rod is brought in
contact with silk, with which it was rubbed, they no longer attract
each other. They also do not attract or repel other light objects as
they did on being electrified.

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[Link]’S LAW
The force of interaction of two stationary point charges
in vacuum is directly proportional to the product of these
charges and inversely proportional to the square of their
separation
F = kq1q2/r2 (1.1)
where k is a constant which depends on the system of
units. Its value in SI unit is
k = 9 × 109 Nm2C-2
The constant is often written in the form
k = 1/4πε0
where ε0 is called the permittivity constant which is
numerically equal to
εo = 8.85 × 10−12 C2 /Nm2
The coulomb force acts along the straight line joining the
points of location of the charges. This force is central and
spherically symmetric.
The vector form of Coulomb’s law is
F12 = (kq1q2/r2) r12 (1.2)
where r12 is the unit vector, directed from q1 to q2 and
F12 is the force on the charge q1 due to q2. Similarly
force on charge q2 due to q1 is F21 .
F21 = (kq1q2/r2) (-r12)
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-Important points regarding Coulomb’s law
[Link] are assumed to be at rest.
When charges are in motion they also produce and
experience magnetic forces.
[Link] are assumed to be on point particles.
Coulomb’s law cannot be applied directly to a finite charge
distribution.
There is an exception: when the charge is distributed
uniformly over a spherical surface, the force on a point
charge outside the surface may be computed from Coulomb’s
law by treating the charge on the sphere as if it were
concentrated at the centre. For charged body of finite size,
there is no well−defined value of the separation r, integration
is required.

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Step-by-step Derivation:
 From experiments, it is observed that the electrostatic
force is a central force (acts along the line joining the

F ∝ 1 / r²
charges) and follows an inverse-square law:

 The force is also proportional to the product of the

F ∝ q1 * q2
magnitudes of the charges:

F ∝ (q1 * q2) / r²
 Combining both relations:

 Introducing a constant of proportionality k:

F = k * (q1 * q2) / r²
 In SI units, k = 1 / (4 * π * ε₀), where ε₀ is the
permittivity of free space:
ε₀ = 8.854 × 10⁻¹² C² N⁻¹ m⁻²
 Final expression of Coulomb’s law:
F = (1 / (4 * π * ε₀)) * (q1 * q2) / r²
Vector form:
If vector r points from q1 to q2, then the force on q2 due to q1
is:
F₁₂ = (1 / (4 * π * ε₀)) * (q1 * q2) / r² * r̂
where r̂ is the unit vector from q1 to q2.
.

4. Electric Field
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An electric field is defined mathematically as a
vector field that can be associated with each point
in space, the force per unit charge exerted on a
positive test charge at rest at that point.
The formula of the electric field is given as,
E = F /Q
Where,
E is the electric field.
F is the force.
Q is the charge.
The direction of the field is taken as the direction of
the force which is exerted on the positive charge.
The electric field is radially outwards from the
positive charge and radially towards the negative
point charge.

The electric field is generated by the electric charge

or by time-varying magnetic fields. In the case of an
atomic scale, the electric field is responsible for the
attractive forces between the atomic nucleus and
electrons which hold them together.

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According to Coulomb’s law, a particle with electric
charge q1 at position x1 exerts a force on a particle
with charge q0 at position x0 of,

Where,
r1,0 is the unit vector in the direction from point x1 to
point x0
ε0 is the electric constant, also known as absolute
permittivity of free space C2m-2N-1
When the charges q0 and q1 have the same sign, the
force is positive, and the direction is away from
other charges, which means they repel each other.
When the charges have unlike signs, the force is
negative, and the particles attract each other.
The electric field is force per unit charge,

The electric field can be found easily by

using Gauss’s law which states that the total electric
flux out of a closed surface is equal to the charge
enclosed divided by the permittivity.
Or total flux linked with a surface is 1/ ε0 times the
charge enclosed by the closed surface.
The electric field can also be calculated by
Coulomb’s law, but Gauss’s law is easier. Besides,
Gauss’s law is just a replica of Coulomb’s law. If we
apply Gauss’s theorem to a point charge enclosed
by a sphere, we will arrive at Coulomb’s law.

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  The electric field is a vector field which is
associated with the Coulomb force experienced
by a test charge at each point in the space to
the source charge. The magnitude and the
direction of the electric field can be determined
by the Coulomb force F on the test charge q. If
the field is created by a positive charge, the
electric field will be in a radially outward
direction, and if the field is created by a
negative charge, the electric field will be in a
radially inwards direction.
 Let a point charge Q be placed in a vacuum.
Then, if we introduce another point charge q
(test charge) at a distance r from the charge Q,

Then, the electric field at point p due to the point charge Q is given by,

The direction of the electric field due to a point charge Q is shown in the
above figure. The magnitude of the electric field is proportional to the
length of E. If a test charge, which is relatively larger, is brought within the

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area of the source charge Q, it is bound to modify the original electric field
due to the source charge. A simple way to escape from this conflict is to
use a very negligible test charge q.

Then, our definition of electric field modifies to,

According to this definition,

The electric field at point P due to point charge Q is,

-Electric Field Due to Line Charge

One application of Gauss’s law is to find the
electric field due to the charged particle. Electric
field due to line charge can be found easily by
using Gauss’s law. Consider,

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A line charge is in the form of a thin charged rod
with linear charge density λ.

To find the electric intensity at point P at a

perpendicular distance r from the rod, let us
consider a right circular closed cylinder of radius
r and length l with an infinitely long line of charge
as its axis.
The magnitude of the electric field intensity at

every point on the curved surface of the

Gaussian surface (cylinder) is the same since all
points are at the same distance from the line
charge.
Therefore, the contribution of the curved surface
of the cylinder towards electric flux,

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2 Π rl is the curved surface area of the cylinder.
On the ends of the cylinder, the angle between
the electric field and its direction is 90o. So, these
ends of the cylinder will not have any effect on
the electric flux.
Therefore,
ϕ E =q/ εo
Charge enclosed in cylinder=line charge density
× length= λ l, so according to Gauss’s law,
ϕ E =q/ εo
E(2 Π rl)= λ l/ εo
Or,
E= λ /(2 Π εor).

Electric Field Due to Ring

We want to find the electric field at an axial point P
due to a uniformly charged ring, as shown in the
figure:

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The centre of the ring is at point O.
The circumference of the circle makes an angle θ
with line OP drawn from the centre of the ring to
point P.
Now, consider a small element from the ring as
dq, and calculate the field at point P due to this
charge element.
We know that the electric field at point P is,

The direction of the field is along AP. So, by

resolving it, we get one along the positive x-
direction and another along the negative y-
direction, as shown in the above figure.
The x component of the electric field due to
charge element dq is,

The y component of the electric field due to

charged element dq is,

To calculate the total electric field at point P due

to the charge ring, we need to integrate dE over
the ring,
But due to axial symmetry, the y component will
vanish, and only the x component will exist,
Then,
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[Link] Dipole:

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-What is Electric Dipole?
An electric dipole is defined as a couple of opposite
charges “q” and “–q” separated by a distance “d”.
By default, the direction of electric dipoles in space
is always from negative charge “-q” to positive
charge “q”. The midpoint “q” and “–q” is called the
centre of the dipole. The simplest example of an
electric dipole is a pair of electric charges of two
opposite signs and equal magnitude separated by
distance.

-Visualising Electric Dipole

Suppose there are two charges of equal magnitude
“q”, separated by a distance, “d”. Let the first
charge be negative and the second charge is
positive. This combination can be called an electric
dipole.

An electric dipole is denoted by the symbol “p”. We

know that electric dipole is the product of the
magnitude of the charges multiplied by the distance
between them., and this can be mathematically
represented as follows:

 The magnitude of an electric dipole is given as:

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  Direction of Electric Dipole Moment
The electric dipole moment is a vector quantity. It
has a defined direction which is from the negative
charge to the positive charge. Though, it is
important to remember that this convention of
direction is only followed in Physics. In Chemistry,
the convention is taken to be opposite i.e. from
positive to negative. The line along the direction of
an electric dipole is called the axis of the dipole.

 Electric potential due to a Dipole (V)

Suppose there are two charges, “–q”, placed at A,
and “+q” placed at B, separated by a distance “d”,
forming a dipole. Suppose the midpoint of AB is “O”.
The Electric potential due to a dipole at any point P,
such that OP = r will be:

Case 1: If θ = 90°

Case 2: If θ = 0°

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Physical Significance of Dipole
Electric dipole is not only prominent in electrostatics
but also in chemistry. In most molecules the centre
of positive and negative charges coincide at the
same point because of which the distance between
two charges is zero. Carbon dioxide and methane
fall under the category of zero dipole moment. This
type of molecules are known as non-polar
molecules. The molecules that have permanent
dipole moment as the centre of positive and
negative charge don’t coincide are called polar
molecules.

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[Link] Field Lines:

 What is Electric Field Line?

Electric field lines are an excellent way of visualizing
electric fields. They were first introduced by Michael
Faraday himself.
A field line is drawn tangential to the net at a point.
Thus, at any point, the tangent to the electric field
line matches the direction of the electric field at that
point. Secondly, the relative density of field lines
around a point corresponds to the relative strength
(magnitude) of the electric field at that point. In
other words, if you see more electric field lines in
the vicinity of point A as compared to point B, then
the electric field is stronger at point A.

 Properties of Electric Field Lines

 The field lines never intersect each other.
 The field lines are perpendicular to the surface
of the charge.
 The magnitude of charge and the number of
field lines, both are proportional to each other.
 The start point of the field lines is at the positive
charge and end at the negative charge.
 For the field lines to either start or end at
infinity, a single charge must be used.

 Electric Field Lines Attraction and Repulsion

Electric field lines always point away from a
positive charge and towards a negative point. In
fact, electric fields originate at a positive charge
and terminate at a negative charge.

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Also, field lines never cross each other. If they do, it
implies that there are two directions for the electric
field at that point. But this is impossible since
electric fields add up vectorially at any point and
remember that “A field line is drawn tangentially to
the net electric field at a point”. Thus, electric field
lines can never intersect one another.
As said before field lines are a great way to visualize
electric fields. You can almost feel the attraction
between unlike charges and the repulsion between
like charges as though they are trying to push each
other away.

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  Rules for Drawing Electric Field Lines
Following are the rules for drawing electric field
lines:
1. The field line begins at the charge and ends
either at the charge or at infinity.
2. When the field is stronger, the field lines are
closer to each other.
3. The number of field lines depends on the
charge.
4. The field lines should never crossover.
5. Electric field and electric field line are tangent
at the point where they pass through.

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 [Link] Flux and Gauss’s Law
-Electric Flux

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The total number of electric field lines passing a
given area in a unit of time is defined as the electric
flux.
if the plane is normal to the flow of the electric
field, the total flux is given as:

When the same plane is tilted at an angle θ, the

projected area is given as A cosθ, and the total flux
through this surface is given as:

Where,
 E is the magnitude of the electric field
 A is the area of the surface through which the
electric flux is to be calculated
 θ is the angle made by the plane and the axis
parallel to the direction of flow of the electric
field.

-Gauss’s Law
According to Gauss law, the total flux linked with
a closed surface is 1/ε0 times the charge
enclosed by the closed surface.

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For example, a point charge q is placed inside a
cube of the edge ‘a’. Now, as per Gauss law, the
flux through each face of the cube is q/6ε0.
The electric field is the basic concept of knowing
about electricity. Generally, the electric field of the
surface is calculated by applying Coulomb’s law, but
to calculate the electric field distribution in a closed
surface, we need to understand the concept of
Gauss law. It explains the electric charge enclosed in
a closed surface or the electric charge present in the
enclosed closed surface.

-Gauss Law Formula

As per the Gauss theorem, the total charge enclosed
in a closed surface is proportional to the total flux
enclosed by the surface. Therefore, if ϕ is total flux
and ϵ0 is electric constant, the total electric
charge Q enclosed by the surface is

Q = ϕ ϵ0
The Gauss law formula is expressed by
ϕ = Q/ϵ0
Where,
Q = Total charge within the given surface
ε0 = The electric constant.

The Gauss Theorem

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The net flux through a closed surface is directly
proportional to the net charge in the volume
enclosed by the closed surface.
Φ = → E.d → A = qnet/ε0
In simple words, the Gauss theorem relates the
‘flow’ of electric field lines (flux) to the charges
within the enclosed surface. If no charges are
enclosed by a surface, then the net electric flux
remains zero.
This means that the number of electric field lines
entering the surface equals the field lines leaving
the surface.

Applications of Gauss Law

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[Link] the case of a charged ring of radius R on its axis
at a distance x from the centre of the ring.

[Link] the case of an infinite line of charge, at a

distance, ‘r’. E = (1/4 × πrε0) (2π/r) = λ/2πrε0. Where λ
is the linear charge density.
3. The intensity of the electric field near a plane
sheet of charge is E = σ/2ε0K, where σ = Surface
charge density.
4. The intensity of the electric field near a plane-
charged conductor E = σ/Kε0 in a medium of
dielectric constant K. If the dielectric medium is air,
then Eair = σ/ε0.
5. The field between two parallel plates of a
condenser is E = σ/ε0, where σ is the surface charge
density.

[Link] of Electrostatics
The Van de Graaff Generator

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Figure 1. Schematic of Van de Graaff generator.

Van de Graaff generators (or Van de Graaffs) are not only

spectacular devices used to demonstrate high voltage due
to static electricity—they are also used for serious research.
The first was built by Robert Van de Graaff in 1931 (based
on original suggestions by Lord Kelvin) for use in nuclear
physics research. Figure 1 shows a schematic of a large
research version. Van de Graaffs utilize both smooth and
pointed surfaces, and conductors and insulators to
generate large static charges and, hence, large voltages.
A battery (part A in Figure 1) supplies excess positive
charge to a pointed conductor, the points of which spray the
charge onto a moving insulating belt near the bottom. The
pointed conductor (part B in Figure 1) on top in the large
sphere picks up the charge. (The induced electric field at
the points is so large that it removes the charge from the
belt.) This can be done because the charge does not
remain inside the conducting sphere but moves to its
outside surface. An ion source inside the sphere produces
positive ions, which are accelerated away from the positive
sphere to high velocities.

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A very large excess charge can be deposited on the
sphere, because it moves quickly to the outer surface.
Practical limits arise because the large electric fields
polarize and eventually ionize surrounding materials,
creating free charges that neutralize excess charge or allow
it to escape. Nevertheless, voltages of 15 million volts are
well within practical limits.

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[Link]
Through this project, I have developed a deeper understanding
of the fundamental concepts of electric charges and electric
fields. I explored how charged particles interact, how electric
fields are represented, and how Coulomb’s Law governs the
force between charges. The mathematical formulations and
visual interpretations—such as electric field lines—have
helped me appreciate the invisible yet powerful forces that
shape our physical world.
This study not only enhanced my theoretical knowledge but
also strengthened my analytical thinking and presentation
skills. It has laid a strong foundation for more advanced topics
in electromagnetism and real-world applications like
capacitors, electric circuits, and field mapping.
In conclusion, this project has been a valuable step in my
academic journey, reinforcing the importance of curiosity,
precision, and structured learning in Physics.

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[Link]:
 NCERT. Physics Textbook for Class XII – Part I & II.
National Council of Educational Research and Training,
2024.
 Halliday, David, Robert Resnick, and Jearl Walker.
Fundamentals of Physics. 11th ed., Wiley India, 2022.
 Tipler, Paul A., and Gene Mosca. Physics for Scientists
and Engineers. 6th ed., W.H. Freeman, 2021.
 Class 12th Physics Text book Balaji edition.

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