Skeletal System

What is the Skeletal System?

Human skeleton, the internal skeleton that serves as a framework for the body. This framework
consists of many individual bones and cartilages. There also are bands of fibrous connective
tissue—the ligaments and the tendons—in intimate relationship with the parts of the skeleton.

Functions of the Skeletal System

1.​ Supports the body - serves as a framework of the body, especially to the soft parts
2.​ Attachment of muscles - as these muscles are connected/attached to surfaces, it allows
humans to facilitate movement.
3.​ Protection of internal organs - examples of these would the cranium (skull) protecting the
brain and the rib cage protecting the heart and lungs.
4.​ Acts as levers for movement - with bones attached to the muscles, it allows us to do
simple movements.
5.​ Production of blood cells - blood cells such as red blood cells and white blood cells are
produced in the bone marrow, in the center.
6.​ Gives stability and shape to the body - the skeletal system acts as a rigid framework,
providing a foundation for the body’s structure, shape, and stability.

Types of Bones
As to Formation:
●​ Membrane/Dermal Bone - direct ossification without involving cartilage. ex. forehead,
clavicle (collarbone)
●​ Endochondral/Cartilage Bone - involves cartilage tissue getting replaced by bone tissue.
ex. healing of fracture, long bones

As to Bone Tissue:
1.​ Spongy Bone Tissue
-​ Located at the ends and interior of long bones
-​ “bone marrow”
-​ composed of an open lattice of bone
-​ within this lattice framework, RBC are produce
2.​ Compact Bone Tissue
-​ surrounds the spongy bone tissue
-​ also found at the core of bones
-​ gives strength to withstand mechanical stress

As to Location:
1.​ Exoskeleton/Dermal Skeleton - built up outside the body
2.​ Skeleton
-​ muscles are attached to the inner surface
-​ limits the size of the animal
-​ formed from a secretion called chitin
-​ characteristics of arthropods
3.​ Endoskeleton
-​ built up inside the body
-​ muscles are attached to the outer surface
-​ characteristics of vertebrates
-​ divided into axial and appendicular skeletons
Axial Skeleton
It forms the main axis of the body.
●​ Notochord
- the primitive axial skeleton
- unsegmented and composed of dense fibrous connective tissue
- the first skeletal element to appear in the embryo of chordate

●​ Vertebral Column - commonly known as the backbone/spine. It is composed of tiny

bones called vertebrae. Its function is to protect the spinal cord, which delivers and
receives messages to the brain, as well as to provide rigidity and support to the body.

●​ Rib cage - is comprised of pairs of cartilaginous pairs of long bones going in opposite
directions. It protects the thoracic cavity's vital organs, including the heart, lungs, trachea,
etc.

●​ Sternum
- “breast bone”; an elongated structure lying in the mid-ventral region of the anterior
trunk and articulates with the pectoral girdle. Sternum strengthens the anterior part of the
trunk.
- This is not present in snakes, limbless lizards, and turtles (with plastron). However, in
man, the sternum is flat and narrow, divided into three parts: manubrium, the upper part;
gladiolus, the middle or body and largest part; xiphoid or ensiform process, the lowest
portion.
- The first two parts are notches for the reception of sternal ends of the upper seven costal
cartilages, while the xiphoid has no ribs attached to it but some abdominal muscles

●​ Skull - the framework of the head; the most complex of all parts of the endoskeleton
because of its origin cartilaginous during embryonic stage

●​ ORIGIN OF THE SKULL

1.​ Chondrocranium - composed of cartilage; base of the skull, including sense
capsule; replaced by bone
2.​ Dermatocranium - composed of membrane bones; roof over the chondrocranium
3.​ Splanchnocranium - derived from the visceral skeleton; cartilaginous covered by
membrane bones
●​ PARTS OF THE SKULL
1.​ Cranium - the brain case
2.​ three pairs of sense capsule for the organs of smell , sight, and hearing
3.​ visceral skeleton

Regions in the Vertebral Column

●​ Cervical Region - The first seven vertebrae, starting from the top (C1-C7).
●​ Thoracic Region - Composed of twelve vertebrae (T1-T12).
●​ Lumbar Region - Comprises of five vertebrae (L1-L5).
●​ Sacral Region - The vertebrae Sacrum, is a triangular bone that is a fusion of 5 vertebrae
●​ Coccygeal Region - The vertebrae Coccyx (commonly known as the tailbone), comprises
four fused vertebrae.
Types of Ribs
Bones in ribs are classified into three, which vary on the manner it attaches or connect to the
sternum:
●​ True Ribs - attaches itself directly to the sternum through the costal cartilage (1-7)
●​ False Ribs - attaches through the lowest true rib, then the costal cartilage to the sternum
(8-10)
●​ Floating Ribs - does not attach to the sternum in any manner (11-12)

Appendicular Skeleton
It consists of the anterior pectoral appendages, the girdle, and the posterior pelvic appendages.
COMPOSITION OF THE APPENDICULAR SKELETON
Pectoral girdle
1.​ Scapula - a pair of shoulder blade, one in one side.
2.​ Coracoid - bone in the shoulder region that serves as a site or surface for the attachment
and connection of muscles and ligament involved with movement in the area.
3.​ Clavicle - collarbone; connects the shoulder blade to the breast bone (sternum)
4.​
Forelimbs
1.​ Humerus - longest bone found in the arm; provides support and movements in the region.
2.​ Radius and Ulna - Log bones making up the forearm, from the elbow to the wrist. The
radius is lateral to the ulna, on the other hand, the ulna is medial to the radius.
3.​ carpals - a group of short bones, also known as wrist bones that makes up the wrist until
the radius and ulna, they are also collectively known as carpus and they articulate with
the long bones and metacarpals
4.​ metacarpals - a group of bones in the human hand with carpals

Pelvic girdle
1.​ Ilium- the large broad bone forming the upper part of each half of the pelvis.
2.​ Ischium- forms the lower and back part of the hip bone and the posterior and inferior
boundary of the obturator foramen.
3.​ Pubis- the most forward-facing (ventral and anterior) of the three bones that make up the
hip bone

Hindlimbs
1.​ Femur - thigh bone; this bone is considered as the largest, heaviest, longest, and most
weight-bearing bone in the body. It is the main support when doing various activities.
2.​ Patella - kneecap; protects the knee joints by covering it and absorbing the impact forces
from human activities.
3.​ Fibula - lateral to the tibia; the thinner and outer leg. Its main function is to provide
muscle attachment.
4.​ Tibia - medial to the fibula; shin bone. It is also one of the most weight-bearing bones in
the body.
5.​ Tarsals - considered as the main attachment points for the muscles of the feet and leg.
6.​ Metatarsals - the five long bones in each foot.
7.​ Phalanges - the small bones in our toes/fingers. It is composed of the proximal, middle
and distal (except for the hallux, the biggest toe, finger which is composed of only the
proximal and distal).
Distribution of Bones in a Human Adult
-​ There are a total of 206 bones in an adult human; infants have more bones than adult due
to numerous joints:
-​ cranium - 8
-​ face - 14
-​ ears - 6
-​ hyoid - 1
-​ vertebral column - 26
-​ sternum - 1
-​ ribs - 24
-​ pectoral girdle and forelimbs - 64
-​ pelvic girdle and hindlimbs - 62

●​ Joints - articulations between cartilages or bones; syndesmology - study of joints

Types as to Amount of Movement and Structural Composition

1.​ Synarthroses - immovable joints; connected by fibrous tissue or cartilage-like sutures,

which are the lines of junction of the skull
2.​ Amphiarthroses - slightly movable joints
-​ Symphysis, a joint where two long bony surfaces are connected by a broad, flat
disc of fibrocartilage
-​ Synchondrosis, a temporary form of joint made of cartilage; found between the
epiphysis and bodies of long bones
3.​ Diarthroses - freely movable joints, most common joint in the body

TYPES OF DIARTHROSES

1.​ gliding joint - gliding movement only; wrists, ankles, vertebrae

2.​ hinge joint - angular movement in one direction; humerus and ulna, knee, ankle,
phalanges
3.​ condyloid joint - angular movement in two directions, as when the condyle is recieved
into an elliptical cavity as in the wrist joint
4.​ saddle joint - shaped like saddles and cannot rotate ex. metacarpal of thumb
5.​ pivot joint - rotary movement, atlas and axis ex. radius and ulna, hand to the lower of the
radius
6.​ ball and socket - angular movement in all directions ex. shoulder joint

Gait - manner of walking of animal or the manner by which any part of the foot ore hand in
contact with ground when the animal walks
Types of Gait
1. plantigrade- entire sole of the foot touches the ground; man, apes, bears, raccoons
2. digitigrade- digits with pads touch the ground and the rest of the foot is elevated; cat family
3. Ungultigrade - tips of the digits (specialized into hoofs) touch the ground; ungu- lates or
hoofed animals, cows, carabaos, pigs, horse, goats

Bone Structure and Formation

• bone is a special form of cartilage in which the collagen fibers are coated by a calcium phosphate
salt
• bone is formed in two stages:
• collagen is laid down in a matrix of fibrils along lines of stress
• calcium-containing minerals (hydroxyapatite) impregnate the fibril
• hydroxyapatite provides rigidity, while the collagen provides flexibility
• bone is laid down in concentric layers called lamellae
• lamella are laid down as a series of tubes around narrow chanels called Haversian
canals
• Haversian canals are interconnected containing blood vessels and nerve cells

Common Diseases Associated with the Skeletal System

●​ Osteoporosis - bone tissue become brittle, thin, and spongy; causes: hereditary, sex,
ethnicity, history of broken bones

●​ Scoliosis - causes the spine to curve to the left or right side; causes: present at birth,
hereditary

●​ Kyphosis - abnormal rounding of the spine that occurs in the upper and middle part of the
back; causes: poor posture, runs at families/genetics, present at birth

●​ Rickets - a bone-softening disease that causes severe bowing of the legs,poor growth, and
sometimes muscle pain and weakness; causes: Lack of Vitamin D, Not enough calcium
in one's diet, Kidney and liver diseases

●​ Arthritis - inflammation, swelling, redness of a joint; causes: cartilage is wearing away,

lack of Synovial fluid, infection