BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Dr. Pramod R. Bokde

November 21, 2020

2

DISCLAIMER

This document does not claim any originality and cannot

be used as a substitute for prescribed textbooks. The infor-
mation presented here is merely a collection by the teacher
for his respective teaching assignments. Various sources as
mentioned at the end of the document as well as freely avail-
able material from internet were consulted for preparing this
document. The ownership of the information lies with the
respective authors or institutions.
Contents

1 D.C. CIRCUITS 13
1.1 Introduction to Electric Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.1.1 Basic Terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.2 R-L-C Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.2.1 Resistor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.2.2 Inductor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.2.3 Capacitor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1.3 Network Terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.3.1 Network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.3.2 Network Element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.3.3 Branch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.3.4 Junction Point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.3.5 Node . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.3.6 Mesh (or Loop) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.4 Classification of Electrical Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
1.5 Energy Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
1.5.1 Voltage Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
1.5.2 Current Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
1.5.3 Dependent Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
1.6 Ohm’s Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
1.6.1 Limitations of Ohm’s Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
1.7 Series Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
1.7.1 Characteristics of Series Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
1.8 Parallel Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
1.8.1 Characteristics of Parallel Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
1.9 Voltage Division in Series Circuits of Resistors . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
1.10 Current Division in Parallel Circuit of Resistors . . . . . . . . . . . 32
1.11 Source Transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
1.12 Combinations of sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
1.12.1 Voltage Sources in Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
1.12.2 Voltage Sources in Parallel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
1.12.3 Current Sources in Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
1.12.4 Current Sources in Parallel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
1.13 Kirchhoff’s Laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
1.13.1 Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
1.13.2 Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
1.13.3 Sign Conventions to be followed while applying KVL . . . . 40
1.13.4 Steps to Apply Kirchhoff’s Laws to Get Network Equations 41

3
4 CONTENTS

1.14 Delta/Star and Star/Delta Transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

1.14.1 Delta/Star Transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
1.14.2 Star/Delta Transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
1.15 Superposition Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
1.15.1 Explanation of Superposition Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
1.15.2 Steps to Apply Superposition Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . 47
1.16 Thevenin’s Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
1.16.1 Explanation of Thevenin’s Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
1.16.2 Procedure for Finding Thevenin Equivalent Circuit . . . . . 49
1.16.3 Advantages of Thevenin’s Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
1.17 Norton’s Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
1.17.1 Explanation of Norton’s Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
1.17.2 Steps to Apply Norton’s Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
1.18 Maximum Power Transfer theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
1.18.1 Proof of Maximum Power Transfer Theorem . . . . . . . . . 53
1.18.2 Steps to Apply Maximum Power Transfer Theorem . . . . . 54

2 A.C. Circuits 55
2.1 Some Important A.C. Terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
2.2 Important Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
2.3 Values of Alternating Voltage and Current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
2.4 Complex Waveform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
2.4.1 R.M.S. Value of Complex Waveform . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
2.5 A.C. Circuit Containing Resistance Only . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
2.5.1 Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
2.6 A.C. through Pure Inductance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
2.6.1 Concept of Inductive Reactance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
2.6.2 Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
2.7 A.C. through Pure Capacitance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
2.7.1 Concept of Capacitive Reactance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
2.7.2 Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
2.8 [Link] Series R-C Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
2.9 [Link] Series R-L-C Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
2.10 Resonance in A.C. Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
2.11 Resonance in Series A.C. Circuit (Series Resonance) . . . . . . . . . 78
2.11.1 Effects of series resonance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
2.11.2 Graphical Explanation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
2.11.3 Resonance Curve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80

3 Single Phase Transformer 1

3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
3.2 Working Principle of a Transformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
3.3 Transformer on DC Supply . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
3.4 Turns Ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
3.5 Transformation Ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
3.6 Ideal Transformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
3.6.1 Behaviour of Ideal Transformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
3.6.2 Phasor Diagram of Ideal Transformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
CONTENTS 5

3.7 EMF Equation of a Transformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

3.8 Magnetic Leakage flux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
3.9 Practical Transformer with Resistance and Leakage Reactance . . . 9
3.10 Resistance and Reactance of the Transformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
3.10.1 Primary Side Referred to Secondary Side . . . . . . . . . . . 11
3.11 Transformer on No Load Condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
3.12 Transformer on Load Condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
3.12.1 Phasor Diagram of Transformer on Inductive Load . . . . . 15
3.12.2 Phasor Diagram of Transformer on Capacitive Load . . . . . 17
3.13 Equivalent Circuit of a Transformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
3.13.1 Equivalent Circuit when all the Quantities are referred to
Primary side . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
3.13.2 Equivalent Circuit when all the Quantities are referred to
Secondary side . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
3.14 Voltage Regulation of a Transformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3.15 All Day Efficiency of a Transformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
3.16 Polarity Test of Transformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
3.17 Tests on Transformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
3.17.1 Open Circuit Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
3.17.2 Short Circuit Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
3.18 Parallel Operation of Transformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
3.18.1 Necessity of Parallel Operation of Transformers . . . . . . . 30
3.18.2 Conditions for parallel operation of Transformers . . . . . . 31

4 Three Phase Transformer 33

4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
4.2 Construction of Three Phase Transformers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
4.2.1 Core Type Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
4.2.2 Shell Type Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
4.3 Working of Three Phase Transformers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
4.4 Three Phase Transformer Connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
4.5 Open Delta Connection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
4.6 Scott Connection of Transformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
4.7 Autotransformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
4.7.1 Why do we need to go for Auto Transformer? . . . . . . . . 45
4.7.2 Principle of Operation of Autotransformer . . . . . . . . . . 45
4.7.3 Equivalent Circuit of Autotransformer . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
4.7.4 Advantages of Autotransformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
4.7.5 Disadvantages of Autotransformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
4.7.6 Applications of Autotransformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
4.8 Tap Changing Transformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
4.8.1 Off-load tap-changing transformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
4.8.2 On-load tap-changing transformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52

5 THREE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR 53

5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
5.2 Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
5.2.1 Stator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
6 CONTENTS

5.2.2 Rotor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
5.3 Rotating Magnetic Field Due to 3-Phase Currents . . . . . . . . . . 56
5.3.1 Speed of Rotating Magnetic Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
5.3.2 Direction of rotating magnetic field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
5.4 Principle of Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
5.5 Slip . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
5.6 Rotor Current Frequency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
5.7 Effect of Slip on Rotor Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
5.8 Rotor Current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
5.9 Rotor Torque . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
5.10 Starting Torque . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
5.11 Condition for Maximum Starting Torque . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
5.12 Effect of Change of Power Supply . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
5.13 Starting Torque of 3-phase Induction Motor . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
5.14 Motor Under Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
5.15 Torque Under Running Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
5.16 Maximum Torque under Running Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
5.17 Torque-Slip Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
5.18 Comparison of Induction Motor and Transformer . . . . . . . . . . 76
5.19 Speed Regulation of Induction Motors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
5.20 Speed Control of 3-phase Induction Motors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
5.21 Power Stages in an Induction Motor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
5.22 Induction Motor Torque . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
5.23 Rotor Output . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
5.24 Equivalent Circuit of 3-Phase Induction Motor at Any Slip . . . . . 81
5.25 Equivalent Circuit of the Rotor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
5.26 Transformer Equivalent Circuit of Induction Motor . . . . . . . . . 85
5.27 Approximate Equivalent Circuit of Induction Motor . . . . . . . . . 86
5.28 Starting of 3-phase Induction Motors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
5.29 Methods of Starting of 3-phase Induction Motors . . . . . . . . . . 88
5.30 Methods of Starting Squirrel-Cage Motors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
5.30.1 Direct-on-line starting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
5.30.2 Stator Resistance Starting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
5.30.3 Autotransformer Starting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
5.30.4 Star-delta starting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
5.31 Starting of Slip Ring Motors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
5.32 Slip-Ring Motors Versus Squirrel Cage Motors . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
5.33 Induction Motor Rating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95

6 Single Phase Induction Motors 97

6.1 Types of Single Phase Motors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
6.2 Single Phase Induction Motors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
6.3 Making Single Phase Motors Self Starting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
6.4 Split-Phase Induction Motor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
6.5 Capacitor-Start Motor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
6.6 Capacitor-Start Capacitor-Run Motor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
6.7 Shaded Pole Motor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
6.8 A.C. Series Motor or Universal Motor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
CONTENTS 7

6.9 Single Phase Repulsion Motor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108

6.10 Repulsion-Start Induction-Run Motor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
6.11 Repulsion-Induction Motor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
6.12 Single-Phase Synchronous Motors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
6.13 Reluctance Motor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
6.14 Hysteresis Motor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115

7 ELECTRICAL INSTALLATIONS 119

7.1 Wire and Cable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
7.1.1 Difference between Wire and Cable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
7.1.2 Classification of Wires and Cables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
7.1.3 Specifications of Cables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
7.2 Earthing or Grounding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
7.2.1 Necessity of Earthing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
7.2.2 Methods of Earthing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
7.2.3 Selection of Earthing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
7.2.4 Earth Resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
7.2.5 Difference Between Earth Wire and Neutral Wire . . . . . . 127
7.3 Fuse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
7.3.1 Desirable Characteristics of Fuse Element . . . . . . . . . . 127
7.3.2 Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
7.3.3 Types of Fuses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
7.4 Circuit Breaker . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
7.4.1 Miniature Circuit Breaker (MCB) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
7.4.2 Earth Leakage Circuits Breaker (ELCB) . . . . . . . . . . . 132
7.4.3 Molded Case Circuits Breaker(MCCB) . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
7.5 Safety precautions in Handling Electrical Appliance . . . . . . . . . 137
7.6 Battery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
7.6.1 Types of Primary Cells / Batteries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
7.6.2 Types of Secondary Cells/Batteries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
7.6.3 Comparison of Primary and Secondary Cells . . . . . . . . . 145
7.6.4 Battery Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
7.7 Energy Consumption Calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
8 CONTENTS
List of Figures

1.1 Resistor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.2 Inductor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.3 Capacitor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1.4 An Electrical Network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.5 Active and Passive Network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
1.6 Ideal Voltage Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
1.7 Practical Voltage Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
1.8 D.C. Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
1.9 A.C. Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
1.10 Ideal Current Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
1.11 Practical Current Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
1.12 D.C. Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
1.13 A.C. Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
1.14 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
1.15 Ohm’s Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
1.16 A Series Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
1.17 A Parallel Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
1.18 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
1.19 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
1.20 Voltage Source and Current Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
1.21 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
1.22 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
1.23 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
1.24 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
1.25 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
1.26 Current Sources in Parallel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
1.27 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
1.28 Junction Point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
1.29 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
1.30 Delta-Star Network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
1.31 Star-Delta Conversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
1.32 Different forms of Star-connection and Delta Connections . . . . . . 45
1.33 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
1.34 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
1.35 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
1.36 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
1.37 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
1.38 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

9
10 LIST OF FIGURES

1.39 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
1.40 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
1.41 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
1.42 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
1.43 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54

2.1 AC Waveform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
2.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
2.3 Sinusoidal Current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
2.4 Pure Resistive Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
2.5 A.C. through purely resistive circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
2.6 V, I and P for purely resistive circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
2.7 Purely Inductive Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
2.8 A.C. through purely Inductive Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
2.9 VL Vs f . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
2.10 Waveform of voltage, current and power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
2.11 Purely Capacitive Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
2.12 A.C. through purely capacitive circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
2.13 XC vs f . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
2.14 Series RC circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
2.15 Phasor diagram of series RC circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
2.16 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
2.17 Series R-L-C circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
2.18 Graph of Series Resonance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
2.19 Resonance Curve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80

3.1 Simple Transformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

3.2 Transformer Symbol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
3.3 Ideal Transformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
3.4 Phasor Diagram of an Ideal Transformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
3.5 Flux Waveform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
3.6 Magnetic Leakage Flux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
3.7 Practical Transformer with Resistance And Leakage Reactance . . . 10
3.8 Primary Side of transformer referred to secondary side . . . . . . . 11
3.9 Transformer is operating at no load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
3.10 Phasor diagram when transformer is on No-Load . . . . . . . . . . 13
3.11 Operation of the Transformer on Load Condition . . . . . . . . . . 14
3.12 Operation of the Transformer on Load Condition . . . . . . . . . . 15
3.13 Phasor Diagram of the Transformer on Inductive Load . . . . . . . 16
3.14 Phasor Diagram of the Transformer on Capacitive Load . . . . . . . 17
3.15 Equivalent circuit diagram of a transformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
3.16 Circuit Diagram of Transformer when all the Secondary Quantities
are Referred to Primary Side . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
3.17 Circuit Diagram of Transformer When All the Primary Quantities
are Referred to Secondary Side . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3.18 Simplified Equivalent Circuit Diagram of a Transformer . . . . . . . 22
3.19 Equivalent Circuit of transformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
3.20 Polarity test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
3.21 Circuit Diagram of Open Circuit Test on Transformer . . . . . . . . 27
LIST OF FIGURES 11

3.22 Circuit Diagram of Short Circuit Test on Transformer . . . . . . . . 29

4.1 Three Phase Transformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

4.2 Three phase transformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
4.3 Core Type transformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
4.4 Shell Type Transformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
4.5 Working of Three Phase Transformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
4.6 Three Phase Transformer Connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
4.7 Three phase transformer connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
4.8 Open Delta Transformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
4.9 Open Delta Connection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
4.10 Scott Connection of transformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
4.11 Phasor Diagram of Scott Connection Transformer . . . . . . . . . . 43
4.12 secondary Phasor diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
4.13 Auto-Transformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
4.14 Auto transformer on load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
4.15 Equivalent Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
4.16 Phasor Diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
4.17 Off-load tap-changing transformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
4.18 On Load Tap Changing using reactor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52

5.1 Stator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
5.2 Squirrel Cage Rotor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
5.3 Wound Rotor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
5.4 Three brushes connected to a 3-phase star-connected rheostat . . . 56
5.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
5.6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
5.7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
5.8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
5.9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
5.10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
5.11 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
5.12 Circuit of a 3-phase induction motor at any slip . . . . . . . . . . . 66
5.13 Phase of Rotor Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
5.14 Variation of Starting Torque with rotor resistance . . . . . . . . . . 69
5.15 3-phase induction motor under load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
5.16 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
5.17 Torque-Slip Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
5.18 Power Stages in an induction motor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
5.19 Equivalent Circuit Per Phase of Induction Motor . . . . . . . . . . 82
5.20 Phasor Diagram of Induction Motor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
5.21 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
5.22 Equivalent Circuit per phase of a 3-phase induction motor . . . . . 85
5.23 Equivalent circuit of induction motor as referred to primary side . . 86
5.24 Approximate Equivalent Circuit of 3-phase Induction Motor . . . . 87
5.25 Stator Resistance Starting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
5.26 Autotransformer starting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
5.27 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
5.28 Star-Delta Starting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
12 LIST OF FIGURES

5.29 Starting of Slip Ring Motors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94

6.1 Single Phase Induction Motor having squirrel cage rotor . . . . . . 98

6.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
6.3 Split Phase Induction Motor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
6.4 Capacitor Start Motor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
6.5 Capacitor Start Capacitor Run Motor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
6.6 Shaded Pole Motor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
6.7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
6.8 A.C. Series Motor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
6.9 Single Phase Repulsion Motor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
6.10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
6.11 Repulsion Induction Motor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
6.12 Reluctance Motor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
6.13 Hysteresis Motor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116

7.1 Plate Earthing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123

7.2 Pipe Earthing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
7.3 Rod Earthing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
7.4 Re-wireable or Kit-Kat fuse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
7.5 HRC Cartridge Fuse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
7.6 Cross section of HRC Cartridge Fuse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
7.7 Miniature Circuit Breaker . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
7.8 Cross section of MCB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
7.9 Voltage earth leakage circuit breaker . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
7.10 Current- earth leakage circuit breaker . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
7.11 Moulded Case Circuit Breaker . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
Chapter 1

D.C. CIRCUITS

1.1 Introduction to Electric Circuits

Network theory is the study of solving the problems of electric cir-
cuits or electric networks. In this introductory chapter, let us first
discuss the basic terminology of electric circuits and the types of
network elements.

1.1.1 Basic Terminology

In Network Theory, we will frequently come across the following
terms -

• Electric Circuit

• Electric Network

• Current

• Voltage

• Power

So, it is imperative that we gather some basic knowledge on these

terms before proceeding further. Let’s start with Electric Circuit.

Electric Circuit

An electric circuit contains a closed path for providing a flow of

electrons from a voltage source or current source. The elements
present in an electric circuit will be in series connection, parallel
connection, or in any combination of series and parallel connections.

13
14 CHAPTER 1. D.C. CIRCUITS

Electric Network

An electric network need not contain a closed path for providing a

flow of electrons from a voltage source or current source. Hence, we
can conclude that ”all electric circuits are electric networks” but the
converse need not be true.

Current

The current I flowing through a conductor is nothing but the time

rate of flow of charge. Mathematically, it can be written as -
dQ
I=
dt
Where,
• Q is the charge and its unit is Coloumb.
• t is the time and its unit is second.
As an analogy, electric current can be thought of as the flow of water
through a pipe. Current is measured in terms of Ampere. In general,
Electron current flows from negative terminal of source to positive
terminal, whereas, Conventional current flows from positive terminal
of source to negative terminal.
Electron current is obtained due to the movement of free electrons,
whereas, Conventional current is obtained due to the movement of
free positive charges. Both of these are called as electric current.

Voltage

The voltage V is nothing but an electromotive force that causes the

charge (electrons) to flow. Mathematically, it can be written as -
dW
V =
dQ
Where,
• W is the potential energy and its unit is Joule.
• Q is the charge and its unit is Coloumb.
As an analogy, Voltage can be thought of as the pressure of water
that causes the water to flow through a pipe. It is measured in terms
of Volt.
1.2. R-L-C PARAMETERS 15

Power

The power ”P” is nothing but the time rate of flow of electrical
energy. Mathematically, it can be written as -
dW
P =
dt
Where,
• W is the electrical energy and it is measured in terms of Joule.
• t is the time and it is measured in seconds.
We can re-write the above equation as -
dW dW dQ
P = = × =VI
dt dQ dt
Therefore, power is nothing but the product of voltage V and current
I. Its unit is Watt.

1.2 R-L-C Parameters

1.2.1 Resistor
The main functionality of Resistor is either opposes or restricts the
flow of electric current. Hence, the resistors are used in order to limit
the amount of current flow and / or dividing (sharing) voltage.
Let the current flowing through the resistor is I amperes and
the voltage across it is V volts. The symbol of resistor along with
current, I and voltage, V are shown in the following figure 1.1.

Figure 1.1: Resistor

According to Ohm’s law, the voltage across resistor is the prod-

uct of current flowing through it and the resistance of that resistor.
16 CHAPTER 1. D.C. CIRCUITS

Mathematically, it can be represented as -

V = IR
V
∴I=
R
The current flowing through the resistor is directly proportional
to the applied voltage across resistor and inversely proportional to
the resistance of resistor.
Power in an electric circuit element can be represented as -

P =VI
∴P = (IR)R
∴P = I 2R
OrP =VI
 
V
∴P =V
R
2
V
∴P =
R

1.2.2 Inductor
In general, inductors will have number of turns. Hence, they produce
magnetic flux when current flows through it. So, the amount of total
magnetic flux produced by an inductor depends on the current, I
flowing through it and they have linear relationship.
Mathematically, it can be written as –

ψ∝I
∴ ψ = LI

Where,

• ψ is the total magnetic flux

• L is the inductance of an inductor

Let the current flowing through the inductor is I amperes and the
voltage across it is V volts. The symbol of inductor along with
current I and voltage V are shown in the following figure 1.2.
1.2. R-L-C PARAMETERS 17

Figure 1.2: Inductor

According to Faraday’s law, the voltage across the inductor can

be written as –
dψ
V = (1.1)
dt
Substitute ψ = LI in the above equation.
dLI
V =
dt
dI
∴V =L
dt
Z
1
∴I= V dt
L
From the above equations, we can conclude that there exists a lin-
ear relationship between voltage across inductor and current flowing
through it.
We know that power in an electric circuit element can be repre-
sented as -
P =VI
Substituting V = L dI
dt in the above equation.
 
dI
P = L I
dt
dI
∴ P = LI
dt
By integrating the above equation, we will get the energy stored
in an inductor as -
1
W = LI 2
2
So, the inductor stores the energy in the form of magnetic field.
18 CHAPTER 1. D.C. CIRCUITS

1.2.3 Capacitor
In general, a capacitor has two conducting plates, separated by a
dielectric medium. If positive voltage is applied across the capacitor,
then it stores positive charge. Similarly, if negative voltage is applied
across the capacitor, then it stores negative charge.
So, the amount of charge stored in the capacitor depends on the
applied voltage V across it and they have linear relationship. Math-
ematically, it can be written as –
Q∝V
∴ Q = CV
Where,
• Q is the charge stored in the capacitor.
• C is the capacitance of a capacitor.
Let the current flowing through the capacitor is I amperes and the
voltage across it is V volts. The symbol of capacitor along with
current I and voltage V are shown in the following figure 1.3.

Figure 1.3: Capacitor

We know that the current is nothing but the time rate of flow of
charge. Mathematically, it can be represented as –
dQ
I=
dt
Substitute Q = CV in the above equation –
d(CV )
I=
dt
dV
∴I=C
dt
Z
1
orV = Idt
C
1.3. NETWORK TERMINOLOGY 19

From the above equations, we can conclude that there exists a lin-
ear relationship between voltage across capacitor and current flowing
through it.
We know that power in an electric circuit element can be repre-
sented as –
P =VI
Substitute I = C dV
dt in the above equation
 
dV
P =V C
dt
dV
∴ P = CV
dt
By integrating the above equation, we will get the energy stored in
the capacitor as –
1
W = CV 2
2
So, the capacitor stores the energy in the form of electric field.

1.3 Network Terminology

In this section, we will define some of the basic terms related to
electrical network.

1.3.1 Network
Any arrangement of different circuit elements along with the electri-
cal energy sources is called an electrical [Link] example of
electrical network is shown in figure 1.4.

1.3.2 Network Element

Any individual circuit element with two terminals which can be con-
nected to other circuit element, is called a network element.
Network element can be either active elements or passive ele-
ments. Active elements are the elements which supply power or
energy to the [Link] source and current source are the ex-
amples of active elements. Passive elements are the elements which
either store energy or dissipate energy in the form of heat. Resistor,
inductor and capacitor are the three basic passive elements. Induc-
tors and capacitors can store energy and resistors dissipate energy
in the form of heat.
20 CHAPTER 1. D.C. CIRCUITS

Figure 1.4: An Electrical Network

1.3.3 Branch
A part of the network which connects the various points of the net-
work with one another is called a branch. In figure 1.4, AB, BC,
CD, DA,DE, CF and EF are the various branches. A branch may
consists of more than one element.

1.3.4 Junction Point

A point where three or more branches meet is called a junction point.
Point D and D are the junction points in the network shown in figure
1.4.

1.3.5 Node
A point at which two or more elements are joined together is called
node. The junction points are also the nodes of the network. In the
network shown in figure 1.4, A, B, C,D, E and F are the nodes of
the network.

1.3.6 Mesh (or Loop)

Mesh (or Loop) is a set of branches forming a closed path in a net-
work in such a way that if one branch is removed then remaining
branch do not form a closed path. A loop also can be defined as
a closed path which originates from a particular node, terminating
at the same node, travelling through various other nodes, without
travelling through any node [Link] the figure 1.4 paths A-B-C-D-A,
A-B-C-F-E-D-A, D-C-F-E-D etc are the loops of the network.
1.4. CLASSIFICATION OF ELECTRICAL NETWORKS 21

1.4 Classification of Electrical Networks

The behavior of the entire electrical network depends on the behav-
ior and characteristics of its [Link] on such characteristics
electrical network can be classified as below:

1. Linear Network :A circuit or network whose parameters i.e.

elements like resistances, inductances and capacitances are al-
ways constant irrespective of the change in time, voltage, tem-
perature etc, is known as linear network. The Ohm’s law
can be applied to such network. The mathematical equations
of such network can be obtained by using the law of superpo-
sition. The response of the various network elements is linear
with respect to the excitation applied to them.

2. Non Linear Network: A circuit whose parameters change

their values with change in time, temperature, voltage etc. is
known as non linear network. The Ohm’s aw may not be
applied to such network. Such network does not follow the law
of superposition. The response of the various elements is not
linear with respect to their [Link] best example is a
circuit consisting of a diode where diode current does not vary
linearly with the voltage applied to it.

3. Bilateral network : A circuit whose characteristics, behavior

is same irrespective of the direction of current through various
elements of it, is called bilateral network. Network consisting
of ony resistances is good example of bilateral network.

4. Unilaternal Network: A circuit whose operation, behavior

is dependent on the direction of the current through various
elements is called unilateral network. Circuit consisting of
diodes, which allows flow of current only in one direction is
good example of unilateral circuit.

5. Active Network : A circuit which contains at least one source

of energy is called active network. An energy source may be
a voltage or current source.

6. Passive Network: A circuit which contains no energy source

is called passive circuit. This is shown in figure 1.5.
22 CHAPTER 1. D.C. CIRCUITS

Figure 1.5: Active and Passive Network

7. Lumped Network: A network in which all the network ele-

ments are physically separable is known as lumped network.
Most of the electric networks are lumped in nature, which con-
sists elements like R, L,C, voltage source etc.

8. Distributed Network: A network in which the circuit el-

ements like resistance, inductance etc. cannot be physically
separable for analysis purpose, is called distributed network.
The best example of such a network is a transmission line where
resistance, inductance and capacitance of a transmission line are
distributed all along its length and cannot be shown as a sepa-
rable elements, any where in the circuit.

1.5 Energy Sources

There are basically two types of energy sources; Voltage source and
Current Source. These are classified as :

1. Ideal Source

2. Practical Source

1.5.1 Voltage Source

Ideal voltage source is defined as the energy source which gives con-
stant voltage across its terminals irrespective of the current drawn
through its terminals. The symbol for ideal voltage source is shown
in figure 1.6(a). This is connected to the load as shown in figure
1.6(b). At any time the value of voltage at load terminals remains
same. This is indicated by V-I characteristics shown in figure 1.6.
1.5. ENERGY SOURCES 23

Figure 1.6: Ideal Voltage Source

Practical Voltage Source : Practically, every voltage source has

small internal resistance shown in series with voltage source and is
represented by Rse as shown in figure 1.7.

Figure 1.7: Practical Voltage Source

Because of Rse , voltage across terminals decreases slightly with

increase in current and it is given by expression,
VL = −(Rse )IL + VS = VS − IL Rse
Note : For ideal voltage source, RSe = 0.
Voltage sources are further classified as follows:
1. Time Invariant Sources : The sources in which voltage is not
varying with time are known as time invariant voltage sources
or D.C. sources. These are denoted by capital letters. Such a
source is represented in the figure 1.8.

Figure 1.8: D.C. Source

24 CHAPTER 1. D.C. CIRCUITS

2. Time Variant Sources : The sources in which voltage is vary-

ing with time are known as time variant voltage sources or A.C.
sources. These are denoted by small letters. This is shown in
figure 1.9.

Figure 1.9: A.C. Source

1.5.2 Current Source

Ideal current source is the source which gives constant current at its
terminals irrespective of the voltage appearing across its terminals.
The symbol for ideal current source is shown in the figure 1.10(a).
This is connected to the load as shown in figure 1.10(b). At any time,
the value of the current flowing through load IL is same i.e. is irre-
spective of voltage appearing across its terminals. This is explained
by V-I characteristics shown in the figure 1.10(c).

Figure 1.10: Ideal Current Source

But practically, every current source has high internal resistance,

shown in parallel with current source and it is represented by Rsh .
This is shown in the figure ??.
1.5. ENERGY SOURCES 25

Figure 1.11: Practical Current Source

Because of Rsh , current through its terminals decreases sightly

with increase in voltage at its terminals.
Note : For ideal current source Rsh = ∞.
Similar to voltage sources, current sources are classified as follows
:

1. Time Invariant Sources : The sources in which current is not

varying with time are known as time invariant current sources
or D.C. sources. These are denoted by capital letters. Such a
current source is represented in the figure 1.12.

Figure 1.12: D.C. Source

2. Time Variant Sources : The sources in which current is vary-

ing with time are known as time variant current sources or A.C.
sources. These are denoted by small letters. Such a source is
represented in the figure 1.13.

Figure 1.13: A.C. Source

26 CHAPTER 1. D.C. CIRCUITS

1.5.3 Dependent Sources

Dependent sources are those whose value of source depends on volt-
age or current in the circuit. Such sources are indicated by diamond
as shown in the figure ?? and further classified as :
1. Voltage Dependent Voltage Source : It produces a voltage
as a function of voltages elsewhere in the given circuit. This is
called VDVS. It is shown in the figure 1.14(a).

Figure 1.14:

2. Current Dependent Current Source : It produces a current

as a function of currents elsewhere in the given circuit. This is
called CDCS. It is shown in the figure 1.14(b).
3. Current Dependent Voltage Source : It produces a voltage
as a function of current elsewhere in the given circuit. This is
called CDVS. It is shown in the figure 1.14(c).
4. Voltage Dependent Current Source : It produces a current
as a function of voltage elsewhere in the given circuit. This is
called VDCS. It is shown in the figure 1.14(d).
K is constant and V1 and I1 are the voltage and current respectively,
present elsewhere in the given circuit. This dependent sources are
also known as controlled sources.

1.6 Ohm’s Law

This law gives relationship between the potential difference (V), the
current (I) and the resistance (R) of a d.c. circuit. Dr. Ohm in 1827
discovered a law called Ohm’s Law. It states that -
”The current flowing through the electric circuit is directly pro-
portional to the potential difference across the circuit and inversely
1.6. OHM’S LAW 27

proportional to the resistance of the circuit, provided the temperature

remains constant”.
Mathematically,
V
I∝
R
where, I is the current fowing in amperes, the V is the voltage applied
and R is the resistance of the conductor, as shown in the figure 1.15.

Figure 1.15: Ohm’s Law

Now,
V
I=
R
The unit of potential difference is defined in such a way that the
constant of proportionality is unity.
Ohm’s Law is :
V
I= amperes
R
V = IR volts
V
= constant = R ohms
I
The Ohm’s law can be defined as,
The ratio of potential difference (V ) between any two points of a con-
ductor to the current (I) flowing between them is constant, provided
that the temperature of the conductor remains constant.
Ohm’s law can be applied either to the entire circuit or to the
part of a circuit. If it is applied to entire circuit, the voltage across
the entire circuit and resistance of the entire circuit should be taken
into account. If the Ohm’s law is applied to the part of a circuit,
then the resistance of that part and potential across that part should
be used.

1.6.1 Limitations of Ohm’s Law

The limitations of the Ohm’s Law are :
28 CHAPTER 1. D.C. CIRCUITS

1. It is not applicable to the nonlinear devices such as diodes, zener

diodes, voltage regulators etc.
2. It does not hold good for non-metallic conductors such as silicon
carbide. The law for such conductors is given by,

V = KI m

where, K, m are constants.

1.7 Series Circuit

A series circuit is one in which several resistances are connected one
after the other. Such connection is also called end to end connection
or cascade connection. There is only one path for the flow of current.
Consider the resistances connected as shown in figure 1.16.

Figure 1.16: A Series Circuit

The resistances R1 , R2 and R3 are said to be in series. The combi-

nation is connected across a source of voltage V volts. Naturally the
current flowing through all of them is same indicated as I amperes,
e.g. the chain of small lights, used for the decoration purposes is
good example of series combination.
Let V1 , V2 and V3 be the voltages across the terminals of resis-
tances R1 , R2 and R3 respectively. Then,

V = V 1 + V2 + V3

Now, according to Ohm’s Law, V1 = IR1 , V2 = IR2 , V3 = IR3 .

Current through all of them is same i.e. I.

∴ V = IR1 + IR2 + IR3 = I(R1 + R2 + R3 )

Applying Ohm’s Law to overall circuit,

V = IReq
1.8. PARALLEL CIRCUIT 29

where, Req = Equivalent resistance of the circuit. By comparison of

two equations,
Req = R1 + R2 + R3
i.e. total or equivalent resistance of the series circuit is arithmetic
sum of the resistances connected in series.
For n resistances in series,

R = R1 + R2 + R3 + ........ + Rn

1.7.1 Characteristics of Series Circuits

1. The same current flows through each resistance.
2. The supply voltage V is the sum of the individual voltage drops
across the resistances.

V = V1 + V2 + ....... + Vn

3. The equivalent resistance is equal to the sum of the individual

resistances.
4. The equivalent resistance is the largest of all the individual re-
sistances. i.e. R > R1 , R > R2 , .......R > Rn

1.8 Parallel Circuit

The parallel circuit is one in which several resistances are connected
across one another in such a way that one terminal of each is con-
nected to form a junction point while the remaining ends are also
joined to form another junction point. Consider a parallel circuit
shown in figure 1.17.

Figure 1.17: A Parallel Circuit

30 CHAPTER 1. D.C. CIRCUITS

In the parallel connection shown, the three resistances R1 , R2 and

R3 are connected in parallel and combination is connected across a
source of voltage ’V ’.
In parallel circuit current passing through each resistance is differ-
ent. Let total current drawn is say I as shown. There are 3 paths for
this current, one through R1 , second through R2 and third through
R3 . Depending upon the values of R1 , R2 and R3 the appropriate
fraction of total current passes through them. These individual cur-
rents are shown as I1 , I2 and I3 . While the voltage across the two
ends of each resistances R1 , R2 and R3 is the same and equals the
supply voltage V .
Applying the Ohm’s Law to each resistance.
V = I1 R1 , V = I2 R2 , V = I3 R3
Therefore, I1 = RV1 , I2 = RV2 , I3 = RV3 .
V V V
I = I1 + I2 + I3 = + +
 R1  R2 R3
1 1 1
=V + +
R1 R2 R3
For overall circuit, if Ohm’s Law is applied,

V = IReq
V
∴I=
Req
where, Req Total or equivalent resistance of the circuit.
Comparing the two equations,
1 1 1 1
= + +
Req R1 R2 R3
where, R is the equivalent resistance of the parallel combination.
In general, if n resistances are connected in parallel,
1 1 1 1 1
= + + + ........ +
R R1 R2 R3 Rn
Conductance (G) :
It is known that, R1 = G (conductance), hence,

∴ G = G1 + G2 + G3 + ...... + Gn

Note : Now if n = 2, two resistances are in parallel, then

1.9. VOLTAGE DIVISION IN SERIES CIRCUITS OF RESISTORS 31

1 1 1
= +
R R1 R2
R1 R2
∴R=
R1 + R2
This formula is directly used for two resistances in parallel.

1.8.1 Characteristics of Parallel Circuits

1. The same potential difference gets across all the resistances in
parallel.
2. The total current gets divided into the number of paths equal
to the number of resistances in parallel. The total current is
always sum of all the individual currents.
I = I1 + I2 + I3 + ......... + In

3. The reciprocal of the equivalent resistance of a parallel circuit is

equal to the sum of the reciprocal of the individual resistances.
4. The equivalent resistance is the smallest of all the resistances.
i.e. R < R1 , R < R2 , R < R3 .........., R < Rn .
5. The equivalent conductance is the arithmetic addition of the
individual conductances.

1.9 Voltage Division in Series Circuits of Resis-

tors
Consider a series circuit of two resistors R1 and R2 connected to
source of V volts.

Figure 1.18:
32 CHAPTER 1. D.C. CIRCUITS

As two resistors are connected in series, the current flowing through

both the resistors is same, i.e. I. Then applying KVL, we get,
V = IR1 + IR2
V
∴I=
R1 + R2
Total voltage applied is equal to the sum of voltage drops VR1 and
VR2 across R1 and R2 respectively.
∴ VR1 = I · R1
 
V R1
∴ VR1 = · R1 = V
R1 + R2 R1 + R2
Similarly,
∴ VR2 = I · R2
 
V R2
∴ VR2 = · R2 = V
R1 + R2 R1 + R2
So this circuit is a voltage divider circuit.
Note : Voltage drop across any resistor, or combination of resistors
in a series circuit is equal to the ratio of that resistance value to the
total resistance, multiplied by the source voltage.

1.10 Current Division in Parallel Circuit of Re-

sistors
Consider a parallel circuit of two resistors R1 and R2 connected
across a source of V volts.

Figure 1.19:

Current through R1 is I1 and R2 is I2 , while total current drawn

from source is IT .
∴ IT = I1 + I2
1.11. SOURCE TRANSFORMATION 33

V V
But, I1 = , I2 =
R1 R2
i.e. V = I1 R1 = I2 R2  
R2
∴ I1 = I2
R1
Substituting the value of I1 in IT ,
     
R2 R2 R1 + R2
∴ IT = I2 + I2 = I2 + 1 = I2
R1 R1 R1
 
R1
∴ I2 = IT
R1 + R2
Now,
 
R1
I1 = IT − I2 = IT − IT
R1 + R2
 
R1 + R2 − R1
∴ I1 = IT
R1 + R2
 
R2
∴ I1 = IT
R1 + R2
Note : The current in any branch is equal to the ratio of opposite
branch resistance to the total resistance value, multiplied by the total
current in the circuit.

1.11 Source Transformation

Consider a practical voltage source shown in the figure 1.20 having
internal resistance Rse connected to the load having resistance RL .

Figure 1.20: Voltage Source and Current Source

Now we can replace voltage source by equivalent current source.

Note : The two sources are said to be equivalent, if they supply
equal load current to the load, with same load connected across its
terminals.
34 CHAPTER 1. D.C. CIRCUITS

The current delivered in above case by voltage source is,

V
I=
(Rse + RL )
It is to be replaced by a current source then load current must be
V
.
(Rse + RL )
Consider an equivalent current source shown in the figure 1.20.
The total current is I. Both the resistances will take current pro-
portional to their values.
From the current division in parallel circuit we can write,
Rsh
IL = I ×
(Rsh + RL )
V
Now this IL and Rse +RL must be same, so equating 1.11 and 1.11,

V I × Rsh
∴ =
Rse + RL Rsh + RL
Let internal resistance be, Rse = Rsh = R say, then

V = I × Rsh = I × R
V
∴I=
Rsh
V V
∴I= =
R Rse
Note :
1. If voltage source is converted to current source, then current
V
source I = with parallel internal resistance equal to Rse .
Rse
2. If current source is converted to voltage source, then votage
source V = IRsh with series internal resistance equal to Rsh .
The direction of current of equivalent current source is always
from -ve to +ve, interna to the source. While converting current
source to voltage source, polarities of voltage is always as +ve termi-
nal at top of arrow and -ve terminal at bottom of arrow, as direction
of current is from -ve to +ve, internal to the source. This ensures
that current flows from positive to negative terminal in the external
circuit.
1.12. COMBINATIONS OF SOURCES 35

Note the directions of transformed sources, shown in figures 1.21below:

Figure 1.21:

1.12 Combinations of sources

In a network consisting of many sources, series and parallel com-
binations of sources exist. If such combinations are replaced by
the equivalent source then the network simplification becomes much
more easy.

1.12.1 Voltage Sources in Series

If two voltage sources are in series then the equivalent is dependent
on the polarities of the two sources.
Consider the two sources as shown in the figure 1.22.

Figure 1.22:

Thus, if the polarities of the two sources are same then the equiv-
alent single source is the addition of the two sources with polarities
36 CHAPTER 1. D.C. CIRCUITS

same as that of the two sources.

Consider the two sources as shown in figure 1.23.

Figure 1.23:

Thus if the polarities of the two sources are different then the
equivalent single source is the difference between the two voltage
sources. The polarities of such source is same as that of the greater
of the two sources.
Note : The voltage sources to be connected in series must have
same current ratings though their voltage ratings may be same or
different.
This technique can be used to reduce the series combination of
more than two voltage sources connected in series.

1.12.2 Voltage Sources in Parallel

Consider the two voltage sources in parallel as shown in the figure
1.24.

Figure 1.24:

The equivalent single source has a value same as V1 and V2 .

It must be noted that at the terminals open circuit voltage pro-
vided by each source must be equal as the sources are in parallel.
Note : The voltage source to be connected in parallel must have
the same voltage ratings though their current ratings may be same
or different.
1.12. COMBINATIONS OF SOURCES 37

1.12.3 Current Sources in Series

Consider the two current sources in series as shown in the figure 1.25.

Figure 1.25:

The equivalent single source has a value same as I1 and I2 .

Note : The current through series circuit is always same hence it
must be noted that the current sources to be connected in series
must have same current rating through their voltage ratings may be
same or different.

1.12.4 Current Sources in Parallel

Consider the two current sources in parallel as shown in the figure

1.26.

Figure 1.26: Current Sources in Parallel

If the directions of the currents of the sources connected in parallel

are same then the equivalent singe source is the addition of the two
sources with direction same as that of the two sources.
Consider the two current sources with opposite directions con-
nected in parallel as shown in figure 1.27.
38 CHAPTER 1. D.C. CIRCUITS

Figure 1.27:

Thus if the directions of the two sources are different then the
equivalent singe source has a direction same as greater of the two
sources with a value equal to the difference between the two sources.
Note : The current sources to be connected in parallel must have
same voltage ratings though their current ratings may be same or
different.

1.13 Kirchhoff ’s Laws

In 1847, a German Physicist, Kirchhoff, formulated two fundamental
laws of electricity. These laws are of tremendous importance from
network simplification point of view.

1.13.1 Kirchhoff ’s Current Law (KCL)

Consider a junction point in a complex network as shown in figure
1.28.

Figure 1.28: Junction Point

At this junction point if I1 = 2 A, I2 = 4 A and I3 = 1 A, then to

determine I4 we write, total current entering is 2 + 4 = 6 A, while
total current leaving is 1 + I4 A. And hence, I4 = 5A.
Kirchhoff’s Current Law can be stated as -
”The total current flowing towards a junction point is equal to the
total current flowing away from that junction point”.
1.13. KIRCHHOFF’S LAWS 39

Another way to state the law is -

The algebraic sum of all the current meeting at a junction point is
always zero.
The word algebraic means considering the signs of various cur-
rents. X
I at junction point = 0
Sign Conventions :

Currents flowing towards a junction point are assumed to be pos-

itive while currents flowing away from a junction point assumed to
be negative.

Figure 1.29:

Refer to figure ??, currents I1 and I2 are positive , while I3 and

I4 are negative. Applying KCL,
X
I at junction O = 0
∴ I1 + I2 − I3 − I4 = 0
∴ I1 + I2 = I3 + I4

This law is very helpful in network simplification.

1.13.2 Kirchhoff ’s Voltage Law (KVL)

”In any network, the algebraic sum of the voltage drops across the
circuit elements of any closed path (or loop or mesh) is equal to the
algebraic sum of the e.m.f.s in the path”.
In other words, ”The algebraic sum of all the branch voltages,
around any closed path or closed loop is always zero.”
X
Around a closed path V =0

The law states that if one starts at a certain point of a closed

path and goes on tracing and noting all the potential changes (either
drops or rises), in any one particular direction, till the starting point
40 CHAPTER 1. D.C. CIRCUITS

is reached again, he must be at the same potential with which he

started tracing a closed path.
Sum of all the potential rises must be equal to sum of all the
potential drops while tracing any closed path of the circuit. The
total change in potential along a closed path is always zero.
This law is very useful in loop analysis of the network.

1.13.3 Sign Conventions to be followed while applying

KVL
When current flows through a resistance, the voltage drop occurs
across the resistance. The polarity of this voltage drop always de-
pends on direction of the current. The current always flows from
higher potential to lower potential.
In figure ??(a), current flowing from right to left, hence point B
is at higher potential than point A, as shown.
In the figure ??(b), current I is flowing from left to right hence
point A is at higher potential than point B, as shown.
Once all such polarities are marked in the given circuit, we can
apply KVL to any closed path in the circuit.
Now while tracing a closed path, if we go from -ve marked terminal
to +ve marked terminal, that voltage must be taken as positive. This
is called potential rise.
For example, if the branch AB is traced from A to B then the
drop across it must be considered as rise and must be taken as +IR
while writing the equations.
While tracing a closed path, if we go from +ve marked terminal
to -ve marked terminal, that voltage must be taken as negative. This
is called potential drop.
For example, in the figure ??(a) only, if the branch is traced from
B to A then it should be taken as negative, as −IR while writing
the equations.
Similarly in the figure ??(b), if branch is traced from A to B then
there is a voltage drop and term must be written negative as −IR
while writing the equation. If the branch is traced from B to A, it
becomes a rise in voltage and term must be written positive as +IR
while writing the equation.
Note :

1. Potential rise ie.e traveling from negative to positively marked

1.13. KIRCHHOFF’S LAWS 41

terminal must be considered as Positive.

2. Potential drop i.e. traveling from positive to negatively marked

terminal, must be considered as Negative.

3. While tracing a closed path, select any one direction clockwise

or anticlockwise. This selection is totally independent of the
directions of currents and voltages of various branches of that
closed path.

1.13.4 Steps to Apply Kirchhoff ’s Laws to Get Network

Equations
1. Draw the circuit diagram from the given information and insert
all the values of sources with appropriate polarities and all the
resistances.

2. Mark al the branch currents with some assumed directions using

KCL at various nodes and junction points. Kept the number
of unknown currents minimum as far as possible to limit the
mathematical calculations required to solve them later.
Assumed directions may be wrong, in such case answer of such
current will be mathematically negative which indicates the cor-
rect direction of the current. A particular current leaving a
particular source has some magnitude, then same magnitude of
current should enter that source after traveling through various
branches of the network.

3. Mark all the polarities of voltage drops and rises as per direc-
tions of the assumed branch currents flowing through various
branch resistances of the network. This is necessary for appli-
cation of KVL to various closed loops.

4. Apply KVL to different closed paths in the network and obtain

the corresponding equations. Each equation must contain some
element which is not considered in any previous equation.

5. Solve the simultaneous equations for the unknown currents.

From these currents unknown voltages and power consumption
in different resistances can be calculated.
42 CHAPTER 1. D.C. CIRCUITS

1.14 Delta/Star and Star/Delta Transformation

There are some networks in which the resistances are neither in series
nor in parallel. A familiar case is a three terminal network e.g. delta
network or star network. In such situations, it is not possible to
simplify the network by series and parallel circuit rules. However,
converting delta network into star and vice-versa often simplifies
the network and makes it possible to apply series parallel circuit
techniques.

1.14.1 Delta/Star Transformation

Consider three resistors RAB , RBC and RCA connected in delta to

three terminals A, B and C as shown in Fig. 1.30 (i). Let the
equivalent star-connected network have resistances RA , RB and RC .
Since the two arrangements are electrically equivalent, the resistance
between any two terminals of one network is equal to the resistance
between the corresponding terminals of the other network.

Figure 1.30: Delta-Star Network

Let us consider the terminals A and B of the two networks.

Resistance between A and B for star = Resistance between A and B for delta

RA + RB = RAB ||(RBC + RCA ) (1.2)

RAB (RBC + RCA )
∴ RA + RB = (1.3)
(RAB + RBC + RCA )
1.14. DELTA/STAR AND STAR/DELTA TRANSFORMATION 43

Similarly,
RBC (RCA + RAB )
RB + RC = (1.4)
(RAB + RBC + RCA )
RCA (RAB + RBC )
and RC + RA = (1.5)
(RAB + RBC + RCA )
Subtracting eq. (1.4) from eq. (1.3) and adding the result to eq.
(1.5), we have,
RAB RCA
RA = (1.6)
(RAB + RBC + RCA )
RBC RAB
Similarly RB = (1.7)
(RAB + RBC + RCA )
RCA RBC
and RC = (1.8)
(RAB + RBC + RCA )
In an easy way to remember, we can remember the equation as-
Product of two adjacent arms of4
Any arm of star connection =
Sum of arms of4
(1.9)
Thus to find the star resistance that connects to terminal A, divide
the product of the two delta resistors connected to A by the sum of
the delta resistors. Same is true for terminals B and C.

1.14.2 Star/Delta Transformation

Let us consider how to replace the star-connected network of Fig.
1.30(ii) by the equivalent delta-connected network of Fig. 1.30 (i).
Dividing eq. (1.6) by (1.7), we have,
RA RCA
= (1.10)
RB RBC
RA RBC
∴ RCA = (1.11)
RB
Dividing eq. (1.6) by (1.8), we have,
RA RAB
= (1.12)
RC RBC
RA RBC
∴ RAB = (1.13)
RC
44 CHAPTER 1. D.C. CIRCUITS

Figure 1.31: Star-Delta Conversion

Substituting the values of RCA and RAB in eq. (1.6), we have,

RB RC
RBC = RB + RC + (1.14)
RA
RC RA
Similarly RCA = RC + RA + (1.15)
RB
RA RB
and RAB = RA + RB + (1.16)
RC

i.e. Resistance between two terminals of delta = Sum of star re-

sistances connected to those terminals plus product of same two re-
sistances divided by the third star resistance
Note. Figs. 1.32 (i) to (iii) show three ways that a wye (Y)
arrangement might appear in a circuit. Because the wye-connected
components may appear in the equivalent form shown in Fig. 1.32
(ii), the arrangement is also called a tee (T) arrangement. Figs.
1.32 (iv) to (vi) show equivalent delta forms. Because the delta (4)
arrangement may appear in the equivalent form shown in Fig. 1.32
(vi), it is also called a pi (π) arrangement. The figures show only a
few of the ways the wye (Y) and delta (4) networks might be drawn
in a schematic diagram. Many equivalent forms can be drawn by
rotating these basic arrangements through various angles. Note that
each network has three terminals.
1.15. SUPERPOSITION THEOREM 45

Figure 1.32: Different forms of Star-connection and Delta Connections

1.15 Superposition Theorem

Superposition is a general principle that allows us to determine the
effect of several energy sources (voltage and current sources) acting
simultaneously in a circuit by considering the effect of each source
acting alone, and then combining (superposing) these effects. This
theorem as applied to d.c. circuits may be stated as under :
In a linear, bilateral d.c. network containing more than one en-
ergy source, the resultant potential difference across or current through
any element is equal to the algebraic sum of potential differences or
currents for that element produced by each source acting alone with
all other independent ideal voltage sources replaced by short circuits
and all other independent ideal current sources replaced by open cir-
cuits (non-ideal sources are replaced by their internal resistances).

1.15.1 Explanation of Superposition Theorem

Consider a network shown in figure 1.33 having the two voltage
sources V1 and V2 . Let us calculate the current in the branch A-
B of the network using superposition theorem.
 46 CHAPTER 1. D.C. CIRCUITS

Figure 1.33:

Step-1 According to the superposition theorem, consider each source

independently. Let source V1 volts is acting independently. At
this time other sources must be replaced by internal impedances.
But as the internal impedance of V2 is not given, the source V2
must be replaced by short circuit. Hence the circuit becomes as
shown in figure 1.34 (a).

Figure 1.34:

Using any of the network reduction techniques, obtain the cur-

rent through the the branch A-B.

Step-2 Now consider source V2 volts alone, with V1 replaced by a short

circuit, to obtain the current through branch A-B. The corre-
sponding circuit is shown in figure 1.34(b).
Obtain IAB due to V2 alone by using any of the network reduc-
tion techniques.

Step-3 According to the superposition theorem, the total current through

branch A-B is the sum of the currents through branch A-B pro-
duced by each source acting independently.

∴ Total IAB = IAB due to V1 + IAB due to V2

 1.16. THEVENIN’S THEOREM 47

1.15.2 Steps to Apply Superposition Theorem

Step-1 Select a single source acting alone. Short the other voltage
sources and open the current sources, if the internal resistances
are not known. If known, replace them by their internal resis-
tances.
Step-2 Find the current through or the voltage across the required
element due to the source under consideration, using a suitable
network simplification techniques.
Step-3 Repeat the above two steps for all remaining sources.
Step-4 Add the individual effects produced by individual sources, to
obtain the total current in or voltage across the element.

1.16 Thevenin’s Theorem

Fig. ?? (i) shows a network enclosed in a box with two terminals A
and B brought out. The network in the box may consist of any num-
ber of resistors and e.m.f. sources connected in any manner. But ac-
cording to Thevenin, the entire circuit behind terminals A and B can
be replaced by a single source of e.m.f. VT h (called Thevenin voltage)
in series with a single resistance RT h (called Thevenin resistance) as
shown in Fig. ?? (ii). The values of VT h and RT h are determined
as mentioned in Thevenin’s theorem. Once Thevenin’s equivalent
circuit is obtained [See Fig. ?? (ii)], then current I through any load
resistance RL connected across AB is given by ;
VT h
I=
RT h + RL

Figure 1.35:
48 CHAPTER 1. D.C. CIRCUITS

Thevenin’s theorem as applied to d.c. circuits is stated below

: Any linear, bilateral network having terminals A and B can be
replaced by a single source of e.m.f. VT h in series with a single re-
sistance RT h .

1. The e.m.f. VT h is the voltage obtained across terminals A and B

with load, if any removed i.e. it is open-circuited voltage between
terminals A and B .

2. The resistance RT h is the resistance of the network measured be-

tween terminals A and B with load removed and sources of e.m.f.
replaced by their internal resistances. Ideal voltage sources are
replaced with short circuits and ideal current sources are re-
placed with open circuits.

1.16.1 Explanation of Thevenin’s Theorem

Consider the circuit shown in Fig. 1.36 (i). As far as the circuit
behind terminals AB is concerned, it can be replaced by a single
source of e.m.f. VT h in series with a single resistance RT h as shown
in Fig. 1.37 (ii).

Figure 1.36:

1. Finding VT h :
The e.m.f. VT h is the voltage across terminals AB with load (i.e.
RL ) removed as shown in Fig. 1.36 (ii). With RL disconnected,
there is no current in R2 and VT h is the voltage appearing across
R3 .
V
VT h = Voltage acrossR3 = × R3
R1 + R3
1.16. THEVENIN’S THEOREM 49

Figure 1.37:

2. Finding RT h :

To find RT h , remove the load RL and replace the battery by

a short-circuit because its internal resistance is assumed zero.
Then resistance between terminals A and B is equal to RT h as
shown in Fig.1.37 (i). Obviously, at the terminals AB in Fig.
1.37 (i), R1 and R3 are in parallel and this parallel combination
is in series with R2 .
R1 R3
RT h = R2 +
R1 + R3
When load RL is connected between terminals A and B [See
Fig. 1.37 (ii)], then current in RL is given by ;
VT h
I=
RT h + RL

1.16.2 Procedure for Finding Thevenin Equivalent Cir-

cuit
1. Open the two terminals (i.e., remove any load) between which
you want to find Thevenin equivalent circuit.

2. Find the open-circuit voltage between the two open terminals.

It is called Thevenin voltage VT h .

3. Determine the resistance between the two open terminals with

all ideal voltage sources shorted and all ideal current sources
opened (a non-ideal source is replaced by its internal resistance).
It is called Thevenin resistance RT h .
50 CHAPTER 1. D.C. CIRCUITS

4. Connect VT h and RT h in series to produce Thevenin equivalent

circuit between the two terminals under consideration.

5. Place the load resistor removed in step (1) across the terminals
of the Thevenin equivalent circuit. The load current can now
be calculated using only Ohm’s law and it has the same value
as the load current in the original circuit.

1.16.3 Advantages of Thevenin’s Theorem

1. It reduces a complex circuit to a simple circuit viz. a single
source of e.m.f. VT h in series with a single resistance RT h .

2. It greatly simplifies the portion of the circuit of lesser interest

and enables us to view the action of the output part directly.

3. This theorem is particularly useful to find current in a particular

branch of a network as the resistance of that branch is varied
while all other resistances and sources remain constant.

4. Thevenin’s theorem can be applied in successive steps. Any two

points in a circuit can be chosen and all the components to one
side of these points can be reduced to Thevenin’s equivalent
circuit.

1.17 Norton’s Theorem

The Norton’s theorem can be stated as below -
”Any combination of linear bilateral circuit elements and active
sources, regardless of the connection or complexity, connected to a
given load RL , can be replaced by a simple two terminal network,
consisting of a single current source of IN amperes and a singe
impedance Req in parallel with it, across the two terminals of the
load RL . The IN is the short circuit current flowing through the
short circuited path, replaced instead of RL . It is also called Norton’s
current. The Req is the equivalent impedance of the given network as
viewed through the load terminals, with RL removed and all the ac-
tive sources are replaced by their internal impedances. If the terminal
impedances are unknown then the independent voltage sources must
be replaced by short circuit while the independent current sources
must be replaced by open circuit, while calculating Req ”.
1.17. NORTON’S THEOREM 51

1.17.1 Explanation of Norton’s Theorem

Consider the network shown in figure 1.38(a). The terminals A-B are
the load terminals where RL is connected. According to the Norton’s
theorem, the network can be replaced by a current source IN with
equivalent resistance Req parallel with it, across the load terminals,
as shown in figure 1.38(b).

Figure 1.38:

For obtaining the currents IN , short the load terminals AB as

shown in the figure 1.39. Then find current IN by using any of the
network simplification techniques. This is Norton’s current. While
to calculate Req use the same procedure used in Thevenin’s theorem.
For the convenience of Req is shown in the figure 1.40.

Figure 1.39:

Figure 1.40:
 52 CHAPTER 1. D.C. CIRCUITS

This theorem is called dual of the Thevenin’s theorem. This is

because, if the Thevenin’s equivalent voltage source is converted to
equivalent current source using source transformation, we get the
Norton’s equivalent. This is shown in figure 1.41.

Figure 1.41:

1.17.2 Steps to Apply Norton’s Theorem

Step-1 : Short the branch through which the current is to be calculated.
Step-2 : Obtain the current through this short circuited branch, using
any of the network simplification techniques. This current is
Norton’s current IN .
Step-3 : Calculate the equivalent resistance Req as viewed through the
terminals of interest, by removing the branch resistance and
making all the independent sources inactive.
Step-4 : Draw the Norton’s equivalent across the terminals of interest,
showing a current source IN with the resistance Req parallel
with it.
Step-5 : Reconnect the branch resistance. Let it be RL . Then using
current division in parallel circuit of two resistances, current
through the branch of interest can be obtained as,
Req
I = IN ×
Req + RL

1.18 Maximum Power Transfer theorem

Statement :
”In an active resistive network, maximum power transfer to the load
resistance takes place when the load resistance equals the equivalent
resistance of the network as viewed from the terminals of the load”.
1.18. MAXIMUM POWER TRANSFER THEOREM 53

1.18.1 Proof of Maximum Power Transfer Theorem

Consider a d.c. source of voltage V volts and having internal resis-
tances of r ohms connected to a variable load resistance RL as shown
in figure 1.42. The load current is IL and is given by,
V
IL =
r + RL

Figure 1.42:

The power consumed by the load resistance RL is given as –

 2
V
P = IL2 RL = RL
(r + RL )
If RL is changed, IL is also going to change and at a particular
value of RL , power transferred to the load is maximum. Let us cal-
culate the value of RL for which power transfer to load is maximum.
To satisfy maximum power transfer we can write,
dP
=0
dRL
 2
d V
∴ RL = 0
dRL (r + RL )
 
2 d RL
∴V =0
dRL (r + RL )2
d(RL ) d
∴ (r + RL )2 − RL (r + RL )2 = 0
dRL dRL
2
∴ (r + RL ) (1) − RL 2(r + RL ) = 0
∴ (r + RL − 2RL ) = 0
∴ RL = r
Thus when load resistance is equal to the internal resistance of
source then maximum power transfer takes place.
 54 CHAPTER 1. D.C. CIRCUITS

Now any complex network can be represented with a singe voltage

source of VT H volts with equivalent resistance Req in series with
it, using Thevenin’s theorem across the load terminals. Thus the
variable load resistance RL , in such case must be equal to Req to
have maximum power transfer to the load.

Figure 1.43:

The magnitude of maximum power transfer can be obtained by

substituting RL = Req in the expression of power.
 2
VT H
Pmax = RL
Req + RL
VT2H VT2H
∴ Pmax = × Req = watts
(2Req )2 4Req

1.18.2 Steps to Apply Maximum Power Transfer The-

orem
Step-1 : Calculate Thevenin’s voltage VT H or Norton’s current IN .
Step-2 : Calculate Req as viewed through the load terminals.
Step-3 : Draw Thevenin’s equivalent or Norton’s equivalent.
Step-4 : RL = Req gives the condition for maximum power transfer to
load.
Step-5 : And maximum power is given by-
VT2H
Pmax =
4Req
Chapter 2

A.C. Circuits

2.1 Some Important A.C. Terminology

An alternating voltage or current changes continuously in magnitude
and alternates in direction at regular intervals of time. It rises from
zero to maximum positive value, falls to zero, increases to a maxi-
mum in the reverse direction and falls back to zero again (See Fig.
2.1).

Figure 2.1: AC Waveform

1. Waveform : The shape of the curve obtained by plotting the

instantaneous values of voltage or current as ordinate against
time along X-axis is called its waveform or waveshape. Fig.
2.1 shows the waveform of an alternating voltage varying sinu-
soidally.

2. Instantaneous value : The value of an alternating quan-

tity at any instant is called instantaneous value. The instan-
taneous values of alternating voltage and current are repre-
sented by v and i respectively. As an example, the instanta-
neous values of voltage (See Fig. 2.1) at 0o , 90o and 270o are 0,
+Vm , −Vm respectively.

55
56 CHAPTER 2. A.C. CIRCUITS

3. Cycle : One complete set of positive and negative values of an

alternating quantity is known as a cycle. Fig. 2.1 shows one
cycle of an alternating voltage.
A cycle can also be defined in terms of angular measure. One
cycle corresponds to 360o electrical or 2π radians. The voltage
or current generated in a conductor will span 360o electrical (or
complete one cycle) when the conductor moves past successive
north and south poles.

4. Alternation : One-half cycle of an alternating quantity is

called an alternation. An alternation spans 180o electrical. Thus
in Fig. 2.1, the positive or negative half of alternating voltage
is the alternation. (v) Time period : The time taken in sec-
onds to complete one cycle of an alternating quantity is called
its time period. It is generally represented by T .

5. Frequency : The number of cycles that occur in one second

is called the frequency (f ) of the alternating quantity. It is
measured in cycles/sec (C/s) or Hertz (Hz). One Hertz is equal
to 1 C/s.
The frequency of power system is low; the most common being
50 C/s or 50 Hz. It means that alternating voltage or current
completes 50 cycles in one second. The 50 Hz frequency is the
most popular because it gives the best results when used for
operating both lights and machinery.

6. Amplitude : The maximum value (positive or negative) at-

tained by an alternating quantity is called its amplitude or peak
value. The amplitude of an alternating voltage or current is des-
ignated by Vm (or Em ) or Im .

2.2 Important Relations

1. Time period and frequency : Consider an alternating quan-
tity having a frequency of f C/s and time period T second.
Time taken to complete f cycles = 1 second (By definition)
Time taken to complete 1 cycle = 1/f second
But the time taken to complete one cycle is the time period T
2.3. VALUES OF ALTERNATING VOLTAGE AND CURRENT 57

(by definition).
1 1
T = or f =
f T
2. Angular velocity and frequency : The coil is rotating with
an angular velocity of ω rad/sec in a uniform magnetic field. In
one revolution of the coil, the angle turned is 2π radians and
the voltage wave completes 1 cycle. The time taken to complete
one cycle is the time period T of the alternating voltage.
Angle Turned 2π
∴ Anguar velocity, ω = =
Time Taken T
∴ ω = 2πf

3. Frequency and speed : Consider a coil rotating at a speed

of N r.p.m. in the field of P poles. As the coil moves past
successive north and south poles, one complete cycle is gener-
ated. Obviously, in one revolution of the coil, P/2 cycles will
be generated. Now,
frequency, f = Number of cycles/sec
= (No. of cycles/revolution) × (N [Link] revolutions/sec)
   
P N PN
= × =
2 60 120
PN
f=
120
For example, an a.c. generator having 10 poles and running at
600 r.p.m. will generate alternating voltage and current whose
frequency is :
PN 10 × 6000
f= = = 50 Hz
120 120

2.3 Values of Alternating Voltage and Current

1. Peak Value :
It is the maximum value attained by an alternating quantity.
The peak or maximum value of an alternating voltage or current
is represented by Vm or Im . However, peak value is not used to
specify the magnitude of alternating voltage or current. Instead,
we generally use r.m.s. values to specify alternating voltages
and currents.
58 CHAPTER 2. A.C. CIRCUITS

2. Average Value
The average value of a waveform is the average of all its val-
ues over a period of time. In performing such a computation,
we regard the area above the time axis as positive area and
area below the time axis as negative area. The algebraic signs
of the areas must be taken into account when computing the
total (net) area. The time interval over which the net area is
computed is the period T of the waveform.
Total Area under the curve for time T
Averge Value =
Time T
(a) In case of symmetrical waves (e.g. sinusoidal voltage or
current), the average value over one cycle is zero. It is
because positive half is exactly equal to the negative half so
that net area is zero. However, the average value of positive
or negative half is not zero. Hence in case of symmetrical
waves, average value means the average value of half-cycle
or one alternation.
Area of one Alternation
Average value of a symmetrical wave =
Base Length of one alternation

(b) In case of unsymmetrical waves (e.g. half-wave rectified

voltage etc.), the average value is taken over the full cycle.
Area over one cycle
Average value of unsymmetrical waves =
Baselengthof onecycle

The average value of a waveform is also called its d.c. value.

In fact, when a waveform is measured with a d.c. instrument
(d.c. ammeter or d.c. voltmeter), it is the average value of the
waveform that is indicated by the instrument.

3. Average Value of Sinusoidal Current

The average value of alternating current (or voltage) over one
cycle is zero. It is because the waveform is symmetrical about
time axis and positive area exactly cancels the negative area.
However, the average value over a half-cycle (positive or nega-
tive) is not zero. Therefore, average value of alternating current
(or voltage) means half-cycle average value unless stated other-
wise.
2.3. VALUES OF ALTERNATING VOLTAGE AND CURRENT 59

The half-cycle average value of a.c. is that value of steady

current (d.c.) which would send the same amount of charge
through a circuit for half the time period of a.c. as is sent by the
a.c. through the same circuit in the same time. It is represented
by Iav . This can be obtained by integrating the instantaneous
value of current over one half cycle (i.e. area over half-cycle)
and dividing the result by base length of half-cycle (= π).
The equation of an alternating current varying sinusoidally is
given by ;
i = Im sin θ

Figure 2.2:

Consider an elementary strip of thickness dθ in the first half-

cycle of current wave as shown in Fig. 2.2. Let i be the mid-
ordinate of this strip.
Area of strip = idθ
Z π
Area of half cycle = idθ
0
Z π
= Im sin θdθ
0
= Im [− cos θ]π0 = 2Im
Area of Half Cycle 2Im
∴ Average value, Iav = =
Base Length of Half Cycle π
∴ Iav = 0.637Im

Hence, the half-cycle average value of a.c. is 0·637 times the

peak value of a.c.
For positive half-cycle, Iav = +0.637Im
For negative half-cycle, Iav = −0.637Im
Clearly, average value of a.c. over a complete cycle is zero.
60 CHAPTER 2. A.C. CIRCUITS

4. R.M.S. Value or Effective Value :

The effective or r.m.s. value of an alternating current is that
steady current (d.c.) which when flowing through a given re-
sistance for a given time produces the same amount of heat as
produced by the alternating current when flowing through the
same resistance for the same time.
For example, when we say that the r.m.s. or effective value
of an alternating current is 5A, it means that the alternating
current will do work (or produce heat) at the same rate as 5A
direct current under similar conditions.
The following points may be noted :

(a) For symmetrical waves, the r.m.s. or effective value can be

found by considering half-cycle or full-cycle. It is because
second half is the negative of the first half and the r.m.s.
value depends upon the squares of the instantaneous val-
ues. However, for unsymmetrical waves, full-cycle should
be considered.
(b) The r.m.s. value of symmetrical wave can also be expressed
as :
s
Area of half-cycle of squared wave
R.M.S. Value =
Half-cycle base

(c) The r.m.s. or effective value of an alternating voltage can

similarly be expressed as :
r
v12 + v22 + v32 + ......... + vn2
vr.m.s. =
n

5. R.M.S. Value of Sinusoidal Current :

The equation of the alternating current varying sinusoidally is
given by ;
i = Im sin θ

Consider an elementary strip of thickness dθ in first half-cycle

of the squared current wave (shown dotted in Fig. ??). Let i2
be the mid-ordinate of this strip.
2.3. VALUES OF ALTERNATING VOLTAGE AND CURRENT 61

Figure 2.3: Sinusoidal Current

Area of Strip = i2 dθ

Z π
Area of half-cycle of the squared wave = i2 dθ
Z0 π
2
= Im sin2 θdθ
0 Z
π
2
= Im sin2 θdθ
0
2
πIm
=
s2
Area of half-cycle squared wave
∴ Irms =
Half-cycle base
r
2 /2
πIm
=
π
Im
=√
2
∴ Irms = 0.707Im

Similarly, it can be proved that for alternating voltage varying

sinusoidally, Vr.m.s. = 0.707Vm .

6. Form Factor or Peak Factor

There exists a definite relation among the peak value, average
value and r.m.s. value of an alternating quantity. The relation-
ship is expressed by two factors, namely ; form factor and peak
factor.
62 CHAPTER 2. A.C. CIRCUITS

(a) Form factor : The ratio of r.m.s. value to the average

value of an alternating quantity is known as form factor i.e.
R.M.S. Value
Form Factor =
Average Value
The value of form factor depends upon the waveform of the
alternating quantity. Its least value is 1 (e.g. for square
wave, rectangular wave) and may be as high as 5 for other
waveforms. The form factor for an alternating voltage or
current varying sinusoidally is 1.11. i.e.
For a sinusoidal voltage or current,
0.707 × Max. Value
Form Factor = = 1.11
0.637 × Max. value
The form factor gives a measure of the “peakiness” of the
waveform. The peakier the wave, the greater is its form
factor and vice-versa.
(b) Peak factor : The ratio of maximum value to the r.m.s.
value of an alternating quantity is known as peak factor i.e.
Max. Value
Peak Factor =
R.M.S. Value
The value of peak factor also depends upon the waveform
of the alternating quantity. For an alternating voltage or
current varying sinusoidally, its value is 1·414 i.e.
For a sinusoidal voltage or current,
Max. Value
Peak Factor = = 1.414
0.707 × Max. value
Note : Peak factor is also called crest factor or amplitude
factor.

2.4 Complex Waveform

Complex waves are those which depart from sinusoidal form i.e.,
they are non-sinusoidal.
A periodic non-sinusoidal wave of any form (complex wave-
form) can be considered to be made up of sinusoidal waveforms of
various frequencies and amplitudes.
2.4. COMPLEX WAVEFORM 63

The above statement is the basis of Fourier series. Accordingly,

a square waveform can be considered to be made up from a com-
bination of sinusoidal waveforms. Thus any non-sinusoidal quantity
i can be expressed as the sum of a number of sinusoidal quantities
i1 , i2 , i3 , .... The frequency of i1 will be the same as that of i and the
frequencies of i2 , i3 ... will be integral multiple (2, 3, 4, 5...n) of that
of i. In symbols,

i = i1 + i2 + i3 + ......
= im1 sin(ωt + φ1 ) + im2 sin(2ωt + φ2 ) + im3 sin(3ωt + φ3 ) + ....

If we add d.c. component I0 to equation above, it is known as

Fourier series.
The term that has the same frequency as i, namely im1 sin(ωt+φ1 )
is called fundamental component; im2 sin(2ωt + φ2 ), whose frequency
is twice that of i (or i1 ) is called the second harmonic component;
im3 sin(3ωt + φ3 ) is the third harmonic. The following points may be
noted :
1. The frequency f of the fundamental component is the lowest
and is equal to the frequency of the complex wave. The funda-
mental is also called first harmonic.
2. The frequency of second harmonic is 2f (twice that of funda-
mental) and the frequency of third harmonic is 3f (thrice that
of fundamental) and so on.
3. The components of frequencies f, 3f, 5f etc. are called odd
harmonics and components of frequencies 2f, 4f, 6f etc. are
called even harmonics.
4. It is not necessary for all the components to be present in an
equation for a complex wave.
For example, a sine wave has no harmonics; the only frequency
present is the fundamental.
5. The harmonics are integer multiples of the fundamental fre-
quency. The amplitude of each harmonic decreases as the fre-
quency increases.
6. Any periodic waveform can be produced by summing sine waves
that have proper frequency, amplitude and phase.
64 CHAPTER 2. A.C. CIRCUITS

2.4.1 R.M.S. Value of Complex Waveform

When a voltage has a complex waveform, the total average power is
the arithmetic sum of the average powers developed by the voltages
and the currents of like frequencies. Let us assume that the current
in a resistor R is given by ;

i = I0 + Im1 sin(ωt + φ1 ) + Im2 sin(2ωt + φ2 ) + Im3 sin(3ωt + φ3 )

The average power produced by the d.c. term is -

P0 = I02 R

The average power produced by the fundamental is -

 2 2
Im1 Im1
P1 = √ R= R
2 2
The average power produced by the second harmonic is -
2
I2

Im2
P2 = √ R = m2 R
2 2
The average power produced by the third harmonic is -
 2 2
Im3 Im3
P3 = √ R= R
2 2
The total power PT is the sum of these average values.
2 2 2
Im1 Im2 Im3
∴ PT = + I02 R
R+ R+ R
2 2 2
I2 I2 I2
 
∴ PT = I02 + m1 + m2 + m3 R
2 2 2
The total power must be the power that is developed by the r.m.s.
current Ir.m.s. .
R
PT = Ir.m.s.

2 2 2
 
2 2 Im1 Im2 Im3
∴ Ir.m.s. R = I0 + + + R
2 2 2
r
I2 I2 I2
∴ Ir.m.s. = I02 + m1 + m2 + m3
2 2 2
2.5. A.C. CIRCUIT CONTAINING RESISTANCE ONLY 65

If I1 , I2 and I3 are the r.m.s. values of the fundamental, the second

harmonic and the third harmonic respectively, then,
2
Im1 2 Im1
I1 = √ or I1 =
2 2
2 2
2 Im2 2 Im3
Similarly, I2 = and I3 =
2 2
q
∴ Irms = I02 + I12 + I22 + I32
The current Ir.m.s. is the root-mean square value of this complex
waveform. Similarly, the r.m.s. value Vr.m.s. of a complex voltage
wave is - q
∴ Vrms = V02 + V12 + V22 + V32
Hence, the r.m.s. value of a complex wave (current or voltage) is
equal to the square root of the sum of the squares of the r.m.s. values
of its individual components.

Active Power PT
Circuit Power Factor = =
Apperant Power Vrms Irms

2.5 A.C. Circuit Containing Resistance Only

Consider a simple circuit consisting of a pure resistance R ohms
connected across a voltage v = Vm sin ωt. The circuit is shown in
figure 2.4.

Figure 2.4: Pure Resistive Circuit

According to Ohm’s law, we can write the equation of current i

as -
v Vm sin ωt
i= =
R  R

Vm
∴i= sin(ωt)
R
66 CHAPTER 2. A.C. CIRCUITS

This is the equation giving the instantaneous value of the current.

Comparing this with the standard equation,

i = Im sin(ωt + φ)
Vm
∴ Im = and φ = 0
R
Vm
So, maximum value of alternating current i is Im = while,
R
as φ = 0, it indicates that it is in phase with the voltage applied.
There is no phase difference between the two. The current is going
to achieve its maximum (positive or negative) and zero whenever
voltage is going to achieve its maximum (positive or negative) and
zero values.
The waveforms of voltage and current and the corresponding pha-
sor diagram is shown in figure 2.5 (a) and (b).

Figure 2.5: A.C. through purely resistive circuit

Note : In purely resistive circuit the current and its voltage applied
are in phase with each other.

2.5.1 Power
The instantaneous power in a.c. circuits can be obtained by taking
the product of the instantaneous values of current and voltage.

P = v × i = Vm sin(ωt) × Im sin(ωt)
∴ P = Vm Im sin2 (ωt)
Vm Im
∴P = (1 − cos 2ωt)
2
Vm Im Vm Im
∴P = − cos(2ωt)
2 2
2.6. A.C. THROUGH PURE INDUCTANCE 67

From the above equation, it is clear that the instantaneous power

consists of two components -
 
Vm Im
1. constant power component .
2
 
Vm Im
2. Fluctuating component cos(2ωt) having frequency dou-
2
ble the frequency of the applied voltage.

Now, the average value of the fluctuating cosine component of

double frequency is zero, over one complete cycle. So average power
consumption over one cycle is equal to the constant power component
Vm Im
i.e. .
2

Vm Im Vm Im
Pav = =√ ·√
2 2 2
∴ Pav = Vrms × Irms watts

The figure 2.6 shows the waveforms of voltage, current and power.

Figure 2.6: V, I and P for purely resistive circuit

2.6 A.C. through Pure Inductance

Consider a simple circuit consisting of a pure inductance of L henries,

connected across a voltage given by the equation v = Vm sin ωt. The
circuit is shown in figure 2.7.
68 CHAPTER 2. A.C. CIRCUITS

Figure 2.7: Purely Inductive Circuit

Pure inductance has zero ohmic resistance. Its internal resistance

is zero. The coil has pure inductance of L henries (H).
When alternating current 0 i0 flows through inductance ’L0 , it sets
up an alternating magnetic field around the [Link] chang-
ing flux links the coil and due to self inductance , e.m.f. gets induced
in the coil. This e.m.f. opposes the applied voltage.
The self induced emf in the coil is given by,
di
Self induced emf, e = −L
dt
At all instants, applied voltage, V is equal and opposite to the self
induced e.m.f, e
 
di
∴ v = e = − −L
dt
di
∴v=L
dt
di
∴ Vm sin ωt = L
dt
Vm
∴ di = sin ωtdt
L

 
Vm − cos ωt
Z Z
Vm
i = di = sin ωtdt =
L L ω
Vm  π  π 
∴i=− sin − ωt cos ωt = sin − ωt
ωL 2 2
Vm  π
∴i= sin ωt −
ωL  2
π
∴ i = Im sin ωt −
2
2.6. A.C. THROUGH PURE INDUCTANCE 69

where,
Vm Vm
Im = =
ωL XL
where, XL = ωL = 2πf l Ω
The above equation clearly shows that the current is purely si-
nusoidal and having phase angle of − π2 radians i.e. −90o . This
means that the current lags voltage applied by 90o . The negative
sign indicates lagging nature of the current. If current is assumed
as reference, we can say that the voltage across inductance leads the
current passing though inductance by 90o .
Figure 2.8 shows the waveforms and the corresponding phasor
diagram.

Figure 2.8: A.C. through purely Inductive Circuit

2.6.1 Concept of Inductive Reactance

In purely inductive circuit,
Vm
Im =
XL
where, XL = ωL = 2πf L Ω
The term XL is called Inductive Reactance and is measured in ohms.
So, inductive reactance is defined as the opposition offered by
the inductance of a circuit to the flow of an alternating sinusoidal
current.
It is measured in ohms and it depends on the frequency of the
applied voltage.
The inductive reactance is directly proportional to the frequency
for constant L. i.e. XL ∝ f , for constant L. So graph of XL Vs f is
a straight line passing through the origin as shown in figure 2.9.
70 CHAPTER 2. A.C. CIRCUITS

Figure 2.9: VL Vs f

Note : If the frequency is zero, which is so for d.c. voltage, the

inductive reactance is zero. Therefore, it is said that the inductance
offers zero reactance for the d.c. or steady current.

2.6.2 Power
The expression for the instantaneous power can be obtained by tak-
ing the product of instantaneous voltage and current.
 π
P = v × i = Vm sin ωt × Im sin ωt −
2 π
= −Vm Im sin (ωt) cos(ωt) as sin ωt − = − cos ωt
2
Vm Im
∴P =− sin(2ωt)
2
Note : This power is a sine curve of frequency double than that of
applied voltage.
The average value of sine curve over a complete cycle is always
zero. Z 2π
Vm Im
Pav = − sin(2ωt)d(ωt) = 0
0 2
The figure 2.10 shows voltage, current and power waveforms.

Figure 2.10: Waveform of voltage, current and power

2.7. A.C. THROUGH PURE CAPACITANCE 71

It can be observed from it that when power curve is positive,

energy gets stored in the magnetic field established due to the in-
creasing current while during negative power curve, this power is
returned back to the supply.
The areas of positive loop and negative loop are exactly same and
hence, average power consumption is zero.
Note : Pure inductance never consumes power.

2.7 A.C. through Pure Capacitance

Consider a simple circuit consisting of a pure capacitor of C farads,
connected across a voltage given by the equation, v = Vm sin ωt. The
circuit is shown in the figure 2.11.

Figure 2.11: Purely Capacitive Circuit

The current i charges the capacitor C. The instantaneous charge

q on the plates of the capacitor is given by,
q = Cv
∴ q = CVm sin ωt
Now, current is rate of flow of charge.
dq d
∴i= = (CVm sin ωt)
dt dt
d
∴ i = CVm (sin ωt) = CVm ω cos ωt
dt
Vm  π
∴ i = 1
sin ωt +
ωC 
2
π 
∴ i = Im sin ωt +
2
Vm
where, Im =
XC
1 1
where, XC = = Ω
ωC 2πf C
72 CHAPTER 2. A.C. CIRCUITS

The above equation clearly shows that the current is purely sinu-
soidal and having phase angle of + π2 radians i.e. +90o .
This means current leads voltage appied by 90o . The positive
sign indicates leading nature of the current. If current is assumed
reference, we can say that voltage across capacitor lags the current
passing through the capacitor by 90o .
Figure 2.12 shows waveforms of voltage and current and the cor-
responding phasor diagram. The current waveform starts earlier by
90o in comparison with voltage waveform. When voltage is zero, the
current has positive maximum value.

Figure 2.12: A.C. through purely capacitive circuit

Note : In purely capacitive circuit, current leads voltage by 90o .

2.7.1 Concept of Capacitive Reactance

We have seen that, the current through capacitor in the standard
form is
Vm
Im = and
XC
1 1
XC = = Ω
ωC 2πf C
The term XC is called Capacitive Reactance and is measured in
ohms. So capacitive reactance is defined as the opposition offered
by the capacitance of a circuit to the flow of an alternating sinusoidal
current.
XC is measured in ohms and it depends on the frequency of the
applied voltage.
The capacitive reactance is inversely proportional to the frequency
2.8. [Link] SERIES R-C CIRCUIT 73

for constant C.
1
XC ∝ for constant C
f
The graph of XC Vs f is a rectangular hyperbola as shown in figure
??.

Figure 2.13: XC vs f

Note : If the frequency is zero, which is so for d.c. voltage, the

capacitive reactance is infinite. Therefore, it is said that the capaci-
tance offers open circuit to the d.c. or it blocks d.c.

2.7.2 Power
Instantaneous power is given by ;
π
P = vi = Vm sin ωt × Im sin(ωt + ) = Vm Im sin ωt cos ωt
2
Vm Im
∴P = sin(2ωt)
2
The average power can be calculated as –
Z 2π
1 Vm Im
Pav = sin(2ωt)d(ωt)
2π 0 2
∴ Pav = 0

Hence power absorbed in a pure capacitance is zero.

2.8 [Link] Series R-C Circuit

Fig. 2.14 shows a resistance of R ohms connected in series with a
capacitor of C farad.
74 CHAPTER 2. A.C. CIRCUITS

Figure 2.14: Series RC circuit

Let V = r.m.s. value of applied voltage

I = r.m.s. value of the circuit current
VR = IR........... where VR is in phase with I
VC = IXC ......... where VC lags I by 90o
Taking current as the reference phasor, the phasor diagram of
the circuit can be drawn as shown in Fig. ??. The voltage drop
VR (= IR) is in phase with current and is represented in magnitude
and direction by the phasor OA. The voltage drop VC (= IXC ) lags
behind the current by 90o and is represented in magnitude and di-
rection by the phasor AB. The applied voltage V is the phasor sum
of these two drops i.e.

Figure 2.15: Phasor diagram of series RC circuit

p
The quantity R2 + XC2 offers opposition to current flow and is
called impedance of the circuit.

V
q
I= where,Z = R2 + XC2
Z
2.9. [Link] SERIES R-L-C CIRCUIT 75

Figure 2.16:

1. Phase angle : It is clear from the phasor diagram that circuit

current I leads the applied voltage V by φo . This fact is also
illustrated in the wave diagram (See Fig. 2.16) and impedance
triangle (See Fig. 2.16) of the circuit. The value of the phase
angle can be determined as under :
VC IXC XC
tan φ = − =− =−
VR IR R
Since current is taken as the reference phasor, negative phase
angle implies that voltage lags behind the current. This is the
same thing as current leads the voltage.
If the applied voltage is v = Vm sin ωt, then equation for the
circuit current will be :
Vm
i = Im sin(ωt + φ) where, Im =
Z
2. Power : The equations for voltage and current are :
v = Vm sin ωt; i = Im sin(ωt + φ)

P = Power in R + Power in C
V
P = I 2 R + 0 = IR × I = IR ×
Z
R
∴P =VI × = V I cos φ
Z

2.9 [Link] Series R-L-C Circuit

This is a general series a.c. circuit. Fig. 2.17 shows R, L and C
connected in series across a supply voltage V (r.m.s.). The resulting
76 CHAPTER 2. A.C. CIRCUITS

circuit current is I (r.m.s.).

Voltage across R , VR = IR... VR is in phase with I
Voltage across L, VL = IXL ... where VL leads I by 90o
Voltage across C, VC = IXC ... where VC lags I by 90o

Figure 2.17: Series R-L-C circuit

As before, the phasor diagram is drawn taking current as the ref-

erence phasor. In the phasor diagram (See Fig. 2.17), OA represents
VR , AB represents VL and AC represents VC . It may be seen that
VL is in phase opposition to VC . It follows that the circuit can either
be effectively inductive or capacitive depending upon which voltage
drop (VL or VC ) is predominant. For the case considered, VL > VC
so that net voltage drop across L-C combination is VL –VC and is
represented by AD. Therefore, the applied voltage V is the phasor
sum of VR and VL –VC and is represented by OD.

q
V = VR2 + (VL − VC )2 = (IR)2 + (IXL − IXC )2
p
p
∴ V = I R2 + (XL − XC )2
V
∴I= p
R2 + (XL − XC )2
p
The quantity R2 + (XL − XC )2 offers opposition to current flow
and is called impedance of the circuit.

R R
Circuit Power Factor, cos φ = =p
Z R2 + (XL − XC )2
VL − VC XL − X C
also, tan φ = =
VR R
2.10. RESONANCE IN A.C. CIRCUITS 77

Since XL , XC and R are known, phase angle φ of the circuit can

be determined.

Power Consumed, P = V I cos φ = I 2 R

Three cases of R-L-C series circuit.

We have seen that the impedance of a R-L-C series circuit is given
by ; p
Z = R2 + (XL − XC )2

1. When XL –XC is positive (i.e. XL > XC ), phase angle φ is

positive and the circuit will be inductive. In other words, in
such a case, the circuit current I will lag behind the applied
voltage V by φ.

2. When XL –XC is negative (i.e. XC > XL ), phase angle φ is

negative and the circuit is capacitive. That is to say the circuit
current I leads the applied voltage V by φ .

3. When XL –XC is zero (i.e. XL = XC ), the circuit is purely

resistive. In other words, circuit current I and applied voltage
V will be in phase i.e. φ = 0o . The circuit will then have unity
power factor.

If the equation for the applied voltage is v = Vm sinωt, then equa-

tion for the circuit current will be :
Vm
i = Im sin(ωt ± φ) where, Im =
Z

2.10 Resonance in A.C. Circuits

An a.c. circuit containing reactive elements (L and C) is said to be
in resonance when the circuit power factor is unity.
Resonance means to be in step with. When applied voltage and
circuit current in an a.c. circuit are in step with (i.e. phase angle is
zero or p.f. is unity), the circuit is said to be in electrical resonance.
If this condition exists in a series a.c. circuit, it is called series
resonance. On the other hand, if this condition exists in a parallel
a.c. circuit, it is called parallel resonance. The frequency at which
resonance occurs is called resonant frequency (fr ).
78 CHAPTER 2. A.C. CIRCUITS

2.11 Resonance in Series A.C. Circuit (Series

Resonance)
A series R-L-C a.c. circuit is said to be in resonance when circuit
power factor is unity.
Consider a series R-L-C circuit connected to a.c. supply of V
volts (r.m.s.). The circuit impedance (Z) and circuit current (I) are
given by ;
p
Z = R2 + (XL − XC )2
V V
I= =p
Z R2 + (XL − XC )2
Resonance will occur in this circuit when circuit power factor is
unity. This will happen when XL = XC . Regardless of the values of
inductance (L) and capacitance (C), there is one frequency at which
these two reactances are equal because XL and XC are frequency
dependent. The frequency at which XL = XC (i.e. circuit power
factor becomes unity) is called resonant frequency fr .
The resonant frequency (fr ) for R – L – C series a.c. circuit is
defined as the frequency at which XL = XC .
At series resonance,

XL = XC
1
∴ 2πfr L =
2πfr C
1
∴ Resonant Frequency, fr = √
2π LC

2.11.1 Effects of series resonance

The key points concerning series resonance are :
1. XL = XC
1
2. fr = √
2π LC
3. Zr = minimum = R
V V
4. Circuit Current, Ir = = = Maximum
Zr R
5. Circuit Power Factor = 1
2.11. RESONANCE IN SERIES A.C. CIRCUIT (SERIES RESONANCE) 79

6. Power dissipated in the circuit is maximum.

7. Since at series resonance the current flowing in the circuit is

very large, the voltage drops across L and C are also very large.
In fact, these drops are much greater than the applied voltage.
However, voltage drop across L–C combination as a whole will
be zero because these drops are equal in magnitude but 180o
out of phase with each other.

2.11.2 Graphical Explanation

Fig. 2.18 shows the graphical explanation of series resonance. We

know that XL = 2πf L so that XL ∝ f . Therefore, graph between
XL and f is a straight line passing through the origin. Also XC =
1
2πf C so that XC ∝ 1/f . Therefore, graph between XC and f is a
hyperbola.
Starting at a very low frequency, XC is high and XL is low and the
circuit is predominantly capacitive. As the frequency is increased,
XC decreases and XL increases until a value is reached (point P)
where XL = XC . At this frequency (fr ), the two reactances cancel,
making the circuit purely resistive. This condition is series reso-
nance. As frequency is increased further (i.e. beyond fr ), XL be-
comes greater than XC and the circuit is predominantly inductive.
Note that at series resonance, the circuit impedance is minimum and
is equal to circuit resistance R.

Figure 2.18: Graph of Series Resonance

80 CHAPTER 2. A.C. CIRCUITS

2.11.3 Resonance Curve

The curve between current and frequency is known as resonance
curve. Fig.2.19shows the resonance curve of a typical R-L-C series
circuit. Note that current reaches its maximum value at the resonant
frequency (fr ), falling off rapidly on either side at that point. It is
because if the frequency is below fr , XC > XL and the net reactance
is no longer zero. If the frequency is above fr , then XL > XC and the
net reactance is again not zero. In both cases, the circuit impedance
will be more than the impedance Zr (= R)at resonance. The result
is that the magnitude of circuit current decreases rapidly as the
frequency changes from the resonant frequency. Note also the effect
of resistance in the circuit. The smaller the resistance, the greater
the current at resonance and sharper the curve. On the other hand,
the greater the resistance, the lower the resonant peak and flatter
the curve (See Fig. 2.19).

Figure 2.19: Resonance Curve

2.11.4 Q-Factor of Series Resonant Circuit

At series resonance, VL = Ir XL and VC = Ir XC
VL Ir XL XL
∴ = =
V Ir R R
VC Ir XC XC
and = =
V Ir R R

The ratio VL /V or VC /V at resonance is a measure of the quality

of a series resonant circuit. This is called the Q-factor (Q stands for
quality) of the circuit. It is also known as the voltage magnification
factor.
2.11. RESONANCE IN SERIES A.C. CIRCUIT (SERIES RESONANCE) 81

XL ωr L
Q- factor, Q = =
R R
XC 1
also Q- factor, Q = =
R ωr CR

Since the coil resistance is often the only resistance in a series res-
onant circuit, the Q is sometimes referred to as the Q-factor of the
coil. Therefore, we use the expression XL /R for Q in series resonant
circuit.
The Q-factor of a series resonant circuit can also be expressed in
terms of L and C. We know that,

1
fr = √
2π LC
1
∴ 2πfr = √
LC
1
∴ ωr = √
LC
Substituting ωr in the equation-

XL ωr L
Q- factor, Q = =
R R
√1 L
LC
∴ Q- factor, Q =
R
r
1 L
∴ Q- factor, Q =
R C
It is clear that the Q-factor of a series resonant circuit may be in-
creased either by reducing R or by increasing the L/C ratio.
The series resonant circuit is also called an acceptor circuit be-
cause such a circuit accepts currents at one particular frequency (i.e.,
fr ) but virtually rejects currents of other frequencies. Such circuits
are used in radio and television receivers.

2.11.5 Bandwidth of a Series Resonant Circuit

Consider the current versus frequency graph of a R-L-C series circuit
shown in Fig. ??.
82 CHAPTER 2. A.C. CIRCUITS

Figure 2.20:

It is clear from the graph that the current reaches maximum value
(= Ir ) at resonance. It is also clear that at frequencies close to
resonance, the current level is only a little below its maximum value.
Thus the resonant circuit is said to select a band (i.e., range) of
frequencies rather than just one frequency fr . We arbitrarily select
frequency f1 below fr and frequency f2 above fr such that at f1 and
f2 , the circuit current = 0.707Ir where Ir is the circuit current at
resonance as shown in Fig. ??. Then,
Bandwidth of the series resonant circuit is -

Bandwidth, BW = 4f = f2 –f1

Hence bandwidth of a series resonant circuit is the range of

frequencies for which the circuit current is equal to or greater than
70.7 % of the circuit current at resonance (i.e., Ir ).
Note that f1 and f2 are the limiting frequencies at which current
is exactly equal to 70.7 % of the maximum value. The frequency
f1 (i.e., on the lower side) is called the lower cut off frequency and
the frequency f2 (i.e., on the higher side) is called the upper cut
off frequency. The frequencies f1 and f2 are also called half-power
frequencies (or half-power points) or –3dB frequencies.

1. The frequencies f1 and f2 are called half-power frequencies .

At series resonance, the circuit current is maximum (= Ir ) and
circuit impedance is R. Also power delivered at resonance is
maximum (Pmax ) and is given by ;

Pmax = Ir2 R

At f1 or f2 , circuit current = 0.707 Ir so that power delivered

2.11. RESONANCE IN SERIES A.C. CIRCUIT (SERIES RESONANCE) 83

at f1 or f2 is -
2 Ir2 R P max
Pf 1 or Pf 2 = (0.707Ir ) R = =
2 2
Hence frequencies f1 and f2 may also be defined as those fre-
quencies at which the power delivered to the circuit is half the
power delivered at resonance.
2. The frequencies f1 and f2 are also called – 3dB frequencies.
Power delivered at resonance = P max
Pmax
Power delivered atf1 orf2 =
2
∴ Change in power level from resonance to f1 or f2
Pmax
= 10 log10 = 10 log10 2
Pmax /2
= 3dB below reference = −3dB

Hence frequencies f1 and f2 can also be defined as those frequen-

cies at which the power is 3 dB below the power at resonance.
Other names for f1 and f2 are critical frequencies and band
frequencies.

Important points about f1 and f2 :

At f1 and f2 ,
Ir
1. Circuit current is √ where Ir = current at resonance.
2
√ √
2. Circuit impedance is 2R or 2Zr .
Pmax
3. P1 = P2 =
2
4. Circuit phase angle is φ = ±45o .

2.11.6 Expression for Half Power Frequencies

In R-L-C series circuit, the current is maximum at resonance and its
value is Im (= Ir ) = V /R. The magnitude of circuit current at any
frequency is given by ;
V
I=q
R(2 XL − XC )2
84 CHAPTER 2. A.C. CIRCUITS

This equation can be rewritten as :

V
I=q
2
R 1 + XL −X
R
C

Im
∴I=q
2
1 + XL −X
R
C

Im
At half power points, I = √
2
Im Im
∴√ =q
2 1 + XL −XC

2
R

∴ At half power points,

XL − XC
=1
R
∴ XL − XC = R

But at fr , XL –XC = 0. Therefore, when the frequency increases

from fr to f2 , XL must increase by R/2and XC must decrease by
R/2.

R
∴ 2πf2 L − 2πfr L =
2
R
∴ f2 − fr =
4πL
R
∴ f2 = fr +
4πL
Similarly, when the frequency decreases from fr to f1 , XC must
increase by R/2 and XL must decrease by R/2.

R
∴ 2πfr L − 2πf1 L =
2
R
∴ fr − f1 =
4πL
R
∴ f1 = fr −
4πL
2.11. RESONANCE IN SERIES A.C. CIRCUIT (SERIES RESONANCE) 85

2.11.7 Expression for Bandwidth

We know that,
R
f2 = fr +
4πL
R
f1 = fr −
4πL
R
∴ f2 − f1 =
2πL
But f2 –f1 is the bandwidth (BW) of the series resonant circuit.
R
Bandwidth , BW =
2πL
It is clear that smaller the ratio R/L, the narrower will be the
bandwidth and vice-versa. We can also express the bandwidth of a
series resonant circuit in terms of the Q-factor of the series resonant
circuit.

Rfr
f2 − f1 =
2πfr L
2πfr L R 1
But, Q = so that =
R 2πfr L Q
fr
∴ f2 − f1 =
Q
fr
∴ Bandwidth BW = f2 − f1 =
Q
Clearly, the greater the value of Q, the narrower will be the band-
width. The circuit effectively rejects currents whose frequencies are
outside f2 –f1 . The ability of a resonant circuit to select one par-
ticular frequency and to discriminate against other frequencies is
termed as selectivity of the circuit. The circuits with the narrowest
bandwidths obviously have greatest selectivity. Note that series res-
onance is also called voltage resonance because at series resonance,
very large voltages are developed across L and C|Q times the applied
voltage.
86 CHAPTER 2. A.C. CIRCUITS
Chapter 3

Single Phase Transformer

3.1 Introduction
A Transformer changes the voltage level (or current level) on its input
winding to another value on its output winding using a magnetic
field. A transformer consists of two electrically isolated coils and
operates on Faraday’s principal of “mutual induction”, in which an
EMF is induced in the transformers secondary coil by the magnetic
flux generated by the voltages and currents flowing in the primary
coil winding.
Both the primary and secondary coil windings are wrapped around
a common soft iron core made of individual laminations to reduce
eddy current and power losses. The primary winding of the trans-
former is connected to the AC power source which must be sinusoidal
in nature, while the secondary winding supplies electrical power to
the load. Having said that, a transformer could be used in reverse
with the supply connected to the secondary winding provided the
voltage and current ratings are observed.
The ratio of the transformers primary and secondary windings
with respect to each other produces either a step-up voltage trans-
former or a step-down voltage transformer with the ratio between
the number of primary turns to the number of secondary turns be-
ing called the “turns ratio” or “transformer ratio”.
If this ratio is less than unity, n < 1 then NS is greater than
NP and the transformer is classed as a step-up transformer. If this
ratio is greater than unity, n > 1, that is NP is greater than NS ,
the transformer is classed as a step-down transformer. Note that
single phase step-down transformer can also be used as a step-up
transformer simply by reversing its connections and making the low

1
2 CHAPTER 3. SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMER

voltage winding its primary, and vice versa as long as the transformer
is operated within its original VA design rating.
If the turns ratio is equal to unity, that is n = 1, then both
the primary and secondary have the same number of coil turns so
therefore the voltages and currents will be the same for both the
primary and secondary windings.
This type of 1:1 transformer is classed as an isolation transformer
as both the primary and secondary windings of the transformer have
the same number of volts per turn. The efficiency of a transformer is
the ratio of the power it delivers to the load to the power it absorbs
from the supply. In an ideal transformer there are no losses so no
loss of power then PIN = POU T .

3.2 Working Principle of a Transformer

The basic principle on which the transformer works is Faraday’s Law
of Electromagnetic Induction or mutual induction between the two
coils. The working of the transformer is explained below. The trans-
former consists of two separate windings placed over the laminated
silicon steel core.
The winding to which AC supply is connected is called primary
winding and to which load is connected is called secondary winding
as shown in the figure below. It works on the alternating current
only because an alternating flux is required for mutual induction
between the two windings.

Figure 3.1: Simple Transformer

When the AC supply is given to the primary winding with a volt-

age of V1 , an alternating flux φ sets up in the core of the transformer,
which links with the secondary winding and as a result of it, an emf
3.3. TRANSFORMER ON DC SUPPLY 3

is induced in it called Mutually Induced emf. The direction of this

induced emf is opposite to the applied voltage V1 , this is because of
the Lenz’s law shown in the figure 3.2below :

Figure 3.2: Transformer Symbol

Physically, there is no electrical connection between the two wind-

ings, but they are magnetically connected. Therefore, the electrical
power is transferred from the primary circuit to the secondary cir-
cuit through mutual inductance. The induced emf in the primary
and secondary windings depends upon the rate of change of flux
linkage that is N dφ
dt .
dφ
dt is the change of flux and is same for both the primary and
secondary windings. The induced emf E1 in the primary winding
is proportional to the number of turns N1 of the primary windings
(E1 ∝ N 1). Similarly induced emf in the secondary winding is
proportional to the number of turns on the secondary side (E2 ∝
N 2).

3.3 Transformer on DC Supply

As discussed above, the transformer works on AC supply, and it
cannot work not DC supply. If the rated DC voltage is applied across
the primary winding, a constant magnitude flux will set up in the
core of the transformer and hence there will not be any self-induced
emf generation, as for the linkage of flux with the secondary winding
there must be an alternating flux required and not a constant flux.
According to Ohm’s Law :
DC Applied Voltage
Primary Current = (3.1)
Resistance of Primary Winding
The resistance of the primary winding is very low, and the primary
current is high. So this current is much higher than the rated full
4 CHAPTER 3. SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMER

load primary winding current. Hence, as a result, the amount of heat

produced will be greater and therefore, eddy current loss (I 2 R)loss
will be more. Because of this, the insulations of the primary windings
will get burnt, and the transformer will be damaged.

3.4 Turns Ratio

It is defined as the ratio of primary to secondary turns.
N1
Turns Ratio =
N2
If N2 > N1 the transformer is called Step-up transformer
If N2 < N1 the transformer is called Step-down transformer
If N1 = N2 , the transformer is called Isolation transformer.

3.5 Transformation Ratio

The transformation ratio is defined as the ratio of the secondary
voltage to the primary voltage. It is denoted by K.
E2 N2
Transformation Ratio = = ∵ E2 ∝ N2 andE1 ∝ N1
E1 N1
(3.2)

3.6 Ideal Transformer

Definition: The transformer which is free from all types of losses is
known as an ideal transformer. It is an imaginary transformer which
has no core loss, no ohmic resistance and no leakage flux.
The ideal transformer has the following important characteristic
:
1. The resistance of their primary and secondary winding becomes
zero.
2. The core of the ideal transformer has infinite permeability. The
infinite permeable means less magnetizing current requires for
magnetizing their core.
3. The leakage flux of the transformer becomes zero, i.e. the whole
of the flux induces in the core of the transformer links with their
primary and secondary winding.
3.6. IDEAL TRANSFORMER 5

4. The ideal transformer has 100 percent efficiency, i.e., the trans-
former is free from hysteresis and eddy current loss.
The above mention properties are not possible in the practical
transformer. In an ideal transformer, there is no power loss. There-
fore, the output power is equal to the input power.

E2 I2 cos φ = E1 I1 cos φ (3.3)

E2 I2 = E1 I1 (3.4)
E2 I1
∴ = (3.5)
E1 I2
Since El ∝ N2 and E1 ∝ N1 , also E1 is similar to V1 and E2 is
similar to V2 .
Therefore, transformation ratio will be given by the equation
shown below :
V2 E1 N2 I1
= = = (3.6)
V1 E1 N1 I2
The primary and the secondary currents are inversely proportional
to their respective turns.

3.6.1 Behaviour of Ideal Transformer

Consider the ideal transformer shown in the figure below. The volt-
age source V1is applied across the primary winding of the trans-
former. Their secondary winding is kept open. The N1 and N2 are
the numbers of turns of their primary and secondary winding.
The current Im is the magnetizing current flows through the pri-
mary winding of the transformer. The magnetizing current produces
the flux φm in the core of the transformer. As the permeability of
the core is infinite, the flux of the core link with both the primary
and secondary winding of the transformer.
The flux link with the primary winding induces the emf E1 be-
cause of self-induction. The direction of the induced emf is inversely
proportional to the applied voltage V1 . The emf E2 induces in the
secondary winding of the transformer because of mutual induction.

3.6.2 Phasor Diagram of Ideal Transformer

The phasor diagram of the ideal transformer is shown in the figure
below 3.4. As the coil of the primary transformer is purely inductive
6 CHAPTER 3. SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMER

Figure 3.3: Ideal Transformer

the magnetising current induces in the transformer lag 90o by the

input voltage V1 . The E1 and E2 are the emf induced in the primary
and secondary winding of the transformer. The direction of the
induces emf inversely proportional to the applied voltage.

Figure 3.4: Phasor Diagram of an Ideal Transformer

Note : The input energy of the transformer is equal to their output

energy. The power loss in the ideal transformer becomes zero.

3.7 EMF Equation of a Transformer

When a sinusoidal voltage is applied to the primary winding of a
transformer, alternating flux φm sets up in the iron core of the trans-
former. This sinusoidal flux links with both primary and secondary
winding. The function of flux is a sine function. The rate of change
of flux with respect to time is derived mathematically.
The derivation of EMF Equation of the transformer is shown
below. Let
3.7. EMF EQUATION OF A TRANSFORMER 7

• φm be the maximum value of flux in Weber

• f be the supply frequency in Hz

• N1 is the number of turns in the primary winding

• N2 is the number of turns in the secondary winding

• φ is the flux per turn in Weber

Figure 3.5: Flux Waveform

As shown in the above figure that the flux changes from +φm to
–φm in half a cycle of 2f1 seconds. By Faraday’s Law, Let E1 is the
emf induced in the primary winding.
dψ
E1 = − (3.7)
dt
where, ψ = N1 φ
dφ
∴ E1 = −N1 (3.8)
dt
Since φis due to AC supply φ = φm sin ωt
d
E1 = −N1 (φm sin ωt) (3.9)
dt
∴ E1 = −N1 ωφm cos ωt (3.10)
 π
∴ E1 = N1 ωφm sin ωt − (3.11)
2
So the induced emf lags flux by 90 degrees.
Maximum valve of emf

E1max = N1 ωφm
8 CHAPTER 3. SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMER

But, ω = 2πf
∴ E1max = 2πf N1 φm (3.12)
Root mean square RMS value is -
E1max
E1 = √ (3.13)
√ 2
∴ E1 = 2πf N1 φm (3.14)

Putting the value of π = 3.14 in the above equation, we will get

the value of E1 as -
E1 = 4.44f N1 φm (3.15)
Similarly,
√
E2 = 2πf N2 φm (3.16)
ORE2 = 4.44f N2 φm (3.17)

Taking the ratio of E2 and E1 , we get,

E2 4.44f N2 φm
= (3.18)
E1 4.44f N1 φm
E2 N2
∴ = =K (3.19)
E1 N1
The above equation is called the turn ratio where K is known as
transformation ratio. The above equations can also be written as
shown below using the relation (φm = Bm × Ai ) where Ai is the iron
area and Bm is the maximum value of flux density.

E1 = 4.44N1 f Bm Ai (3.20)
and E2 = 4.44N2 f Bm Ai (3.21)

For a sinusoidal wave -

RMS Value
= Form Factor = 1.11 (3.22)
Average Value

3.8 Magnetic Leakage flux

In a transformer it is observed that, all the flux linked with primary
winding does not get linked with secondary winding. A small part of
the flux completes its path through air rather than through the core
3.9. PRACTICAL TRANSFORMER WITH RESISTANCE AND LEAKAGE REACTANCE9

(as shown in the fig at right), and this small part of flux is called
as leakage flux or magnetic leakage in transformers. This leakage
flux does not link with both the windings, and hence it does not
contribute to transfer of energy from primary winding to secondary
winding. But, it produces self induced emf in each winding. Hence,
leakage flux produces an effect equivalent to an inductive coil in series
with each winding. And due to this there will be leakage reactance.

Figure 3.6: Magnetic Leakage Flux

(To minimize this leakage reactance, primary and secondary wind-

ings are not placed on separate legs, refer the diagram of core type
and shell type transformer from construction of transformer.)

3.9 Practical Transformer with Resistance and

Leakage Reactance

In the following figure 3.7, leakage reactance and resistance of the

primary winding as well as secondary winding are taken out, repre-
senting a practical transformer.
where,
R1 and R2 = resistance of primary and secondary winding respec-
tively
X1 and X2 = leakage reactance of primary and secondary winding
resp.
Z1 and Z2 = Primary impedance and secondary impedance resp.
10 CHAPTER 3. SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMER

Figure 3.7: Practical Transformer with Resistance And Leakage Reactance

Z1 = R1 + jX1
Z2 = R2 + jX2
The impedance in each winding lead to some voltage drop in each
winding. Considering this voltage drop the voltage equation of
transformer can be given as –
V1 = E1 + I1 (R1 + jX1 ) Primary Side
V2 = E2 − I2 (R2 + jX2 ) Secondary Side
where,
V1 = supply voltage of primary winding
V2 = terminal voltage of secondary winding
E1 and E2 = induced emf in primary and secondary winding respec-
tively.

3.10 Resistance and Reactance of the Trans-

former
The Resistance of the transformer is defined as the internal resistance
of both primary and secondary windings. In an actual transformer,
the primary and the secondary windings have some resistance repre-
sented by R1 and R2 and the reactances by X1 and X2 . Let K be the
transformation ratio. To make the calculations easy the resistances
and reactances can be transferred to either side that means either
all the primary terms are referred to the secondary side, or all the
secondary terms are referred to the primary side.
The resistive and the reactive drops in the primary and secondary
side are represented as follows :
3.11. TRANSFORMER ON NO LOAD CONDITION 11

• Resistive drop in the secondary side = I2 R2

• Reactive drop in the secondary side = I2 X2
• Resistive drop in the primary side = I1 R1
• Reactive drop in the primary side = I1 X1

3.10.1 Primary Side Referred to Secondary Side

Since the transformation ratio is K, primary resistive and reactive
drop as referred to secondary side will be K times, i.e., KI1 R1 and
KI1 X1 respectively. If I1 is substituted equal to KI2 then we have
primary resistive and reactive drop referred to secondary side equal
to K 2 I2 R1 and K 2 I2 X1 respectively.

Figure 3.8: Primary Side of transformer referred to secondary side

The Total resistive drop in a transformer -

k 2 I2 R1 + I2 R2 = I2 k 2 R1 + R2


(3.23)

Total reactive drop in a transformer -

k 2 I2 X1 + I2 X2 = I2 k 2 X1 + X2


(3.24)

The term (K 2 R1 + R2 ) and ()K 2 X1 + X2 ) represent the equivalent

resistance and reactance of the transformer referred to the secondary
side.

3.11 Transformer on No Load Condition

When the transformer is operating at no load, the secondary winding
is open circuited, which means there is no load on the secondary
side of the transformer and, therefore, current in the secondary will
12 CHAPTER 3. SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMER

be zero, while primary winding carries a small current I0 called no

load current which is 2 to 10 % of the rated current. This current is
responsible for supplying the iron losses (hysteresis and eddy current
losses) in the core and a very small amount of copper losses in the
primary winding. The angle of lag depends upon the losses in the
transformer. The power factor is very low and varies from 0.1 to
0.15.

Figure 3.9: Transformer is operating at no load

The no load current consists of two components :

1. Reactive or magnetizing component Im

(It is in quadrature with the applied voltage V1 . It produces
flux in the core and does not consume any power)

2. Active or power component Iw , also known as working

component
(It is in phase with the applied voltage V1. It supplies the iron
losses and a small amount of primary copper loss)

The following steps are given below to draw the phasor diagram :

• The function of the magnetizing component is to produce the

magnetizing flux, and thus, it will be in phase with the flux.

• Induced emf in the primary and the secondary winding lags the
flux φ by 90 degrees.

• The primary copper loss is neglected, and secondary current

losses are zero as I2 = 0. Therefore, the current I0 lags behind
the voltage vector V1 by an angle φ0 called no-load power factor
angle shown in the phasor diagram above.
3.12. TRANSFORMER ON LOAD CONDITION 13

• The applied voltage V1 is drawn equal and opposite to the in-

duced emf E1 because the difference between the two, at no
load, is negligible.

• Active component Iw is drawn in phase with the applied voltage

V1 .

• The phasor sum of magnetizing current Im and the working

current Iw gives the no load current I0 .

Figure 3.10: Phasor diagram when transformer is on No-Load

Working component, Iwp= Io cos φ0

No Load current, I0 = Iw2 + Im2

Magnetizing Component, Im = Io sin φ0

Iw
Power Factor, cos φ0 =
I0
No Load Power Input, P0 = V1 I0 cos φ0

3.12 Transformer on Load Condition

When the transformer is on loaded condition, the secondary of the
transformer is connected to load. The load can be resistive, inductive
or capacitive. The current I2 flows through the secondary winding of
the transformer. The magnitude of the secondary current depends
on the terminal voltage V2 and the load impedance. The phase angle
between the secondary current and voltage depends on the nature of
the load.
14 CHAPTER 3. SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMER

Operation of the Transformer on Load Condition

The Operation of the Transformer on Load Condition is explained
below :
• When secondary of the transformer is kept open, it draws the
no-load current from the main supply. The no-load current
induces the magneto motive force N0 I0 and this force set up
the flux φ in the core of the transformer. The circuit of the
transformer at no load condition is shown in the figure below.

Figure 3.11: Operation of the Transformer on Load Condition

• When the load is connected to the secondary of the transformer,

the I2 current flows through their secondary winding. The sec-
ondary current induces the magnetomotive force N2 I2 on the
secondary winding of the transformer. This force set up the
flux φ2 in the transformer core. The flux φ2 oppose the flux φ,
according to Lenz’s law
• As the flux φ2 opposes the flux φ, the resultant flux of the
transformer decreases and this flux reduces the induces EMF E1 .
Thus, the strength of the V1 is more than E1 and an additional
primary current I10 drawn from the main supply. The additional
current is used for restoring the original value of the flux in the
core of the transformer so that the V1 = E1 . The primary
current I10 is in phase opposition with the secondary current I2 .
Thus, it is called the primary counter balancing current.
• The additional current I10 induces the magnetomotive force N1 I10 .
And this force set up the flux φ01 . The direction of the flux is
3.12. TRANSFORMER ON LOAD CONDITION 15

Figure 3.12: Operation of the Transformer on Load Condition

same as that of the φ and it cancels the flux φ2 which induces

because of the MMF N2 I2 .
Now, N1 I10 = N2 I2  
N2
I10 = I2 = KI2 (3.25)
N1
Therefore,
• The phasor difference between V1 and I1 gives the power factor
angle φ1 of the primary side of the transformer.
• The power factor of the secondary side depends upon the type
of load connected to the transformer.
• If the load is inductive as shown in the above phasor diagram,
the power factor will be lagging, and if the load is capacitive,
the power factor will be [Link] total primary current I1 is
the vector sum of the current I0 and I10 . i.e

I1 = I0 + I10 (3.26)

3.12.1 Phasor Diagram of Transformer on Inductive

Load
The phasor diagram of the actual transformer when it is loaded
inductively is shown below in figure 3.13 :
Steps to draw the phasor diagram -
• Take flux φ a reference
16 CHAPTER 3. SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMER

Figure 3.13: Phasor Diagram of the Transformer on Inductive Load

• Induces emf E1 and E2 lags the flux by 90 degrees.

• The component of the applied voltage to the primary equal

and opposite to induced emf in the primary winding. E1 is
represented by V10 .

• Current I0 lags the voltage V10 by 90 degrees.

• The power factor of the load is lagging. Therefore current I2 is

drawn lagging E2 by an angle φ2 .

• The resistance and the leakage reactance of the windings result

in a voltage drop, and hence secondary terminal voltage V2 is
the phasor difference of E2 and voltage drop.

V2 = E2 − Voltge drops

I2 R2 is in phase with I2 and I2 X2 is in quadrature with I2 .

• The total current flowing in the primary winding is the phasor

sum of I10 and I0 .

• Primary applied voltage V1 is the phasor sum of V10 and the

voltage drop in the primary winding.
3.12. TRANSFORMER ON LOAD CONDITION 17

• Current I10 is drawn equal and opposite to the current I2

V1 = V10 + Voltge drop

I1 R1 is in phase with I1 and I1 XI is in quadrature with I1 .

• The phasor difference between V1 and I1 gives the power factor

angle φ1 of the primary side of the transformer.

• The power factor of the secondary side depends upon the type
of load connected to the transformer.

• If the load is inductive as shown in the above phasor diagram,

the power factor will be lagging, and if the load is capacitive,
the power factor will be leading. Where I1 R1 is the resistive
drop in the primary windings I2 X2 is the reactive drop in the
secondary winding

3.12.2 Phasor Diagram of Transformer on Capacitive

Load
The Transformer on Capacitive load (leading power factor load) is
shown below in the phasor diagram 3.14.

Figure 3.14: Phasor Diagram of the Transformer on Capacitive Load

Steps to draw the phasor diagram at capacitive load :

18 CHAPTER 3. SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMER

• Take flux φ a reference

• Induces emf E1 and E2 lags the flux by 90 degrees.

• The component of the applied voltage to the primary equal

and opposite to induced emf in the primary winding. E1 is
represented by V10 .

• Current I0 lags the voltage V10 by 90 degrees. The power factor

of the load is leading. Therefore current I2 is drawn leading E2

• The resistance and the leakage reactance of the windings result

in a voltage drop, and hence secondary terminal voltage V2 is
the phasor difference of E2 and voltage drop.

V2 = E2 − Voltage drops

I2 R2 is in phase with I2 and I2 X2 is in quadrature with I2 .

• Current I10 is drawn equal and opposite to the current I2

• The total current I1 flowing in the primary winding is the phasor

sum of I10 and I0 .

• Primary applied voltage V1 is the phasor sum of V10 and the

voltage drop in the primary winding.

V1 = V10 + Voltage drop

I1 R1 is in phase with I1 and I1 X1 is in quadrature with I1 .

• The phasor difference between V1 and I1 gives the power factor

angle φ1 of the primary side of the transformer.

• The power factor of the secondary side depends upon the type
of load connected to the transformer.

3.13 Equivalent Circuit of a Transformer

The equivalent circuit diagram of any device can be quite helpful in
predetermination of the behaviour of the device under the various
condition of operation. It is simply the circuit representation of the
equation describing the performance of the device.
3.13. EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF A TRANSFORMER 19

Figure 3.15: Equivalent circuit diagram of a transformer

The simplified equivalent circuit of a transformer is drawn by

representing all the parameters of the transformer either on the sec-
ondary side or on the primary side. The equivalent circuit diagram
of the transformer is shown below in figure 3.15
Let the equivalent circuit of a transformer having the transforma-
E2
tion ratio K = E 1
The induced emf E1 is equal to the primary applied voltage V1 less
primary voltage [Link] voltage causes current I0 no load current
in the primary winding of the transformer. The value of no-load
current is very small, and thus, it is neglected. Hence, I1 = I10 .
The no load current is further divided into two components called
magnetizing current (Im ) and working current (Iw ).
These two components of no-load current are due to the current
drawn by a noninductive resistance R0 and pure reactance X0 having
voltage E1 or (V1 – primary voltage drop).
The secondary current I2 is -
I10 I1 − I0
I2 = = (3.27)
K K
The terminal voltage V2 across the load is equal to the induced
emf E2 in the secondary winding less voltage drop in the secondary
winding.

3.13.1 Equivalent Circuit when all the Quantities are

referred to Primary side
In this case to draw the equivalent circuit of the transformer all the
quantities are to be referred to the primary as shown in the figure
20 CHAPTER 3. SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMER

3.16 below : The following are the values of resistance and reactance

Figure 3.16: Circuit Diagram of Transformer when all the Secondary Quantities
are Referred to Primary Side

given below :
Secondary resistance referred to primary side is given as -
R2
R20 =
K2
The equivalent resistance referred to primary side is given as -

Rep = R1 + R20

Secondary reactance referred to primary side is given as -

X2
X20 =
K2
The equivalent reactance referred to primary side is given as -

Xep = X1 + X20

3.13.2 Equivalent Circuit when all the Quantities are

referred to Secondary side
The equivalent circuit diagram of the transformer is shown below
when all the quantities are referred to the secondary side.
The following are the values of resistance and reactance given
below :
Primary resistance referred to secondary side is given as -

R10 = K 2 R1
3.14. VOLTAGE REGULATION OF A TRANSFORMER 21

Figure 3.17: Circuit Diagram of Transformer When All the Primary Quantities
are Referred to Secondary Side

The equivalent resistance referred to secondary side is given as -

Res = R2 + R10
Primary reactance referred to secondary side is given as -
X10 = K 2 X1
The equivalent reactance referred to secondary side is given as -
Xes = X2 + X10
No load current I0 is hardly 3 to 5 % of full load rated current, the
parallel branch consisting of resistance R0 and reactance X0 can be
omitted without introducing any appreciable error in the behavior
of the transformer under the loaded condition.
Further simplification of the equivalent circuit of the transformer
can be done by neglecting the parallel branch consisting R0 and X0 .
The simplified circuit diagram of the transformer is shown below in
figure 3.18

3.14 Voltage Regulation of a Transformer

Definition: The voltage regulation is defined as the change in the
magnitude of receiving and sending the voltage of the transformer.
The voltage regulation determines the ability of the transformer to
provide the constant voltage for variable loads.
When the transformer is loaded with continuous supply voltage,
the terminal voltage of the transformer varies. The variation of volt-
age depends on the load and its power factor. Mathematically, the
22 CHAPTER 3. SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMER

Figure 3.18: Simplified Equivalent Circuit Diagram of a Transformer

voltage regulation is represented as -

E2 − V 2
Voltage Regulation = (3.28)
E2
E2 − V 2
∴ % Voltage Regulation = × 100 (3.29)
E2
Where,
E2 – secondary terminal voltage at no load
V2 – secondary terminal voltage at full load
The voltage regulation by considering the primary terminal volt-
age of the transformer is expressed as,
V1 − E 1
% Voltage Regulation = × 100 (3.30)
V1
Let us understand the voltage regulation by taking an example
explained below :
If the secondary terminals of the transformer are open circuited or
no load is connected to the secondary terminals, the no-load cur-
rent flows through it. If the no current flows through the secondary
terminals of the transformer, the voltage drops across their resistive
and reactive load become zero. The voltage drop across the primary
side of the transformer is negligible.
If the transformer is fully loaded, i.e., the load is connected to
their secondary terminal, the voltage drops appear across it. The
value of the voltage regulation should always be less for the better
performance of transformer.
From the circuit diagram shown above, the following conclusions
are made.
• The primary voltage of the transformer is always greater than
the emf induces on the primary side. V1 > E1
3.14. VOLTAGE REGULATION OF A TRANSFORMER 23

Figure 3.19: Equivalent Circuit of transformer

• The secondary terminal voltage at no load is always greater

than the voltage at full load condition. E2 > V2 .By considering
the above circuit diagram, the following equations are drawn.
V1 = I1 R1 cos φ1 + I1 X1 sin φ1 + E1 (3.31)
E2 = I2 R2 cos φ2 + I2 X2 sin φ2 + V2 (3.32)

The approximate expression for the no-load secondary voltage for

the different types of load is -
For Inductive Load :

E2 = I2 R02 cos φ2 + I2 X02 sin φ2 + V2 (3.33)

∴ E2 − V2 = I2 R02 cos φ2 + I2 X02 sin φ2 (3.34)
E2 − V2 I2 R02 I2 X02
∴ × 100 = × 100 cos φ2 + × 100 sin φ2 (3.35)
E2 E2 E2
where,
I2 R02
× 100 is a percentage resistance drop.
E2
I2 X02
× 100 is a percentage reactance drop.
E2
For a Capacitive Load :

E2 = I2 R02 cos φ2 − I2 X02 sin φ2 + V2 (3.36)

∴ E2 − V2 = I2 R02 cos φ2 − I2 X02 sin φ2 (3.37)
E2 − V 2 I2 R02 I2 X02
∴ × 100 = × 100 cos φ2 − × 100 sin φ2 (3.38)
E2 E2 E2
24 CHAPTER 3. SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMER

3.15 All Day Efficiency of a Transformer

Definition: All day efficiency means the power consumed by the
transformer throughout the day. It is defined as the ratio of output
power to the input power in kWh or Wh of the transformer over 24
hours.
Mathematically, it is represented as -

OutputinkW h
All Day Efficiency, ηallday = (for 24 hrs) (3.39)
Input in kWh

All day efficiency of the transformer depends on their load cycle.

The load cycle of the transformer means the repetitions of load on
it for a specific period.
The ordinary or commercial efficiency of a transformer define as
the ratio of the output power to the input power.

Output Power Output Power

η= = (3.40)
Input Power Output Power + Losses
What is the need of All Day Efficiency?
Some transformer efficiency cannot be judged by simple commercial
efficiency as the load on certain transformer fluctuates throughout
the day. For example, the distribution transformers are energised for
24 hours, but they deliver very light loads for the major portion of
the day, and they do not supply rated or full load, and most of the
time the distribution transformer has 50 to 75 % load on it.
As we know, there are various losses in the transformer such as
iron and copper loss. The iron loss takes place in the core of the
transformer. Thus, the iron or core loss occurs for the whole day
in the distribution transformer. The second type of loss known as
copper loss takes place in the windings of the transformer also known
as the variable loss. It occurs only when the transformers are in
the loaded condition. Hence, the performance of such transformers
cannot be judged by the commercial or ordinary efficiency, but the
efficiency is calculated or judged by All Day Efficiency also known
as operational efficiency or energy efficiency which is computed by
energy consumed during 24 hours.
3.16. POLARITY TEST OF TRANSFORMER 25

3.16 Polarity Test of Transformer

Polarity means the direction of the induced voltages in the primary
and the secondary winding of the transformer. If the two transform-
ers are connected in parallel, then the polarity should be known for
the proper connection of the transformer. There are two types of
polarity one is Additive, and another is Subtractive.
Additive Polarity: In additive polarity the same terminals of the
primary and the secondary windings of the transformer are con-
nected.
Subtractive Polarity: In subtractive polarity different terminals
of the primary and secondary side of the transformer are connected.
Explanation with Connection Diagram:
Each of the terminals of the primary as well as the secondary winding
of a transformer is alternatively positive and negative with respect to
each other as shown in the figure below. Let A1 and A2 be the pos-
itive and negative terminal respectively of the transformer primary
and a1 , a2 are the positive and negative terminal of the secondary
side of the transformer.
If A1 is connected to a1 and A2 is connected to a2 that means
similar terminals of the transformer are connected, then the polarity
is said to be additive. If A1 is connected to a2 and A2 to a1, that
means the opposite terminals are connected to each other, and thus
the voltmeter will read the subtractive polarity.

Figure 3.20: Polarity test

It is essential to know the relative polarities at any instant of the

26 CHAPTER 3. SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMER

primary and the secondary terminals for making the correct connec-
tions if the transformers are to be connected in parallel or they are
used in a three phase circuit.
In the primary side, the terminals are marked as A1 and A2 and
from the secondary side the terminals are named as a1 and a2 . The
terminal A1 is connected to one end of the secondary winding, and
a voltmeter is connected between A2 and the other end of the sec-
ondary winding.
When the voltmeter reads the difference that is (V1 –V2 ), the trans-
former is said to be connected with opposite polarity know as Sub-
tractive polarity and when the voltmeter reads (V1 + V2 ), the trans-
former is said to have additive polarity.
Steps to Perform Polarity Test :
• Connect the circuit as shown in the above circuit diagram figure
and set the autotransformer to zero position.
• Switch on the single phase supply
• Records the values of the voltages as shown by the voltmeter
V1 , V2 and V3 .
• If the reading of the V3 shows the addition of the value of V1 and
V2 that is V2 = V1 + V2 the transformer is said to be connected
in additive polarity.
• If the reading of the V3 is the subtraction of the readings of V1
and V2 , then the transformer is said to be connected in subtrac-
tive or negative polarity.

3.17 Tests on Transformer

The open circuit and short circuit test are performed for determining
the parameter of the transformer like their efficiency, voltage regu-
lation, circuit constant etc. These tests are performed without the
actual loading and because of this reason the very less power is re-
quired for the test. The open circuit and the short circuit test gives
the very accurate result as compared to the full load test.

3.17.1 Open Circuit Test

The purpose of the open circuit test is to determine the no-load cur-
rent and losses of the transformer because of which their no-load
3.17. TESTS ON TRANSFORMER 27

parameter are determined. This test is performed on the primary

winding of the transformer. The wattmeter, ammeter and the volt-
age are connected to their primary winding. The nominal rated
voltage is supplied to their primary winding with the help of the ac
source.

Figure 3.21: Circuit Diagram of Open Circuit Test on Transformer

The secondary winding of the transformer is kept open and the

voltmeter is connected to their terminal. This voltmeter measures
the secondary induced voltage. As the secondary of the transformer
is open the no-load current flows through the primary winding.
The value of no-load current is very small as compared to the full
rated current. The copper loss occurs only on the primary winding of
the transformer because the secondary winding is open. The reading
of the wattmeter only represents the core and iron losses. The core
loss of the transformer is same for all types of loads.
Calculation of open circuit test :
Let,
W0 – wattmeter reading
V1 – voltmeter reading
I0 – ammeter reading
Then the iron loss of the transformer Pi = W0 and

W0 = V1 I0 cos φ0 (3.41)

The no-load power factor is -

W0
cos φ0 = (3.42)
V1 I0
28 CHAPTER 3. SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMER

Working component Iw is -
W0
Iw = (3.43)
V1
Putting the value of W0 from , you will get the value of working
component as -
Iw = I0 cos φ0 (3.44)
Magnetizing component is -
q
Im = I02 − Iw2 (3.45)

Equivalent exciting resistance is -

V1
R0 = (3.46)
Iw
Equivalent exciting reactance is -
V1
X0 = (3.47)
Im
The iron losses measured by the open circuit test are used for
calculating the efficiency of the transformer.

3.17.2 Short Circuit Test

The short circuit test is performed for determining the below mention
parameter of the transformer.

• It determines the copper loss occur on the full load. The copper
loss is used for finding the efficiency of the transformer.

• The equivalent resistance, impedance, and leakage reactance are

known by the short circuit test. The short circuit test is per-
formed on the secondary or high voltage winding of the trans-
former. The measuring instrument like wattmeter, voltmeter
and ammeter are connected to the High voltage winding of the
transformer. Their primary winding is short circuited by the
help of thick strip or ammeter which is connected to their ter-
minal.

The low voltage source is connected across the secondary winding

because of which the full load current flows from both the secondary
3.17. TESTS ON TRANSFORMER 29

Figure 3.22: Circuit Diagram of Short Circuit Test on Transformer

and the primary winding of the transformer. The full load current is
measured by the ammeter connected across their secondary winding.
The circuit diagram of the short circuit test is shown below figure
3.22
The low voltage source is applied across the secondary winding
which is approximately 5 to 10% of the normal rated voltage. The
flux is set up in the core of the transformer. The magnitude of the
flux is small as compared to the normal flux.
The iron loss of the transformer depends on the flux. It is less
occur in the short circuit test because of the low value of flux. The
reading of the wattmeter only determines the copper loss occur on
their windings. The voltmeter measures the voltage applied to their
high voltage winding. The secondary current induces in the trans-
former because of the applied voltage.
Calculation of Short Circuit Test
Let,
Wc – Wattmeter reading
V2sc – voltmeter reading
I2sc – ammeter reading
Then the full load copper loss of the transformer is given by -
 2
I2f l
Pc = (3.48)
I2sc

and,
2
I2sc Res = Wc (3.49)
30 CHAPTER 3. SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMER

Equivalent resistance referred to secondary side is -

Wc
Res = 2
(3.50)
Iesc
Equivalent impedance referred to the secondary side is given by -
V2sc
Zes = (3.51)
I2sc
The Equivalent reactance referred to the secondary side is given by
– p
Xes = (Zes )2 − (Res )2 (3.52)
The voltage regulation of the transformer can be determined at any
load and power factor after knowing the values of Zes and Res .
In the short circuit test the wattmeter record, the total losses in-
cluding core loss but the value of core loss are very small as compared
to copper loss so, the core loss can be neglected.

3.18 Parallel Operation of Transformer

Sometimes, it becomes necessary to connect more than one trans-
former’s in parallel, for example, for supplying excess load of the
rating of existing transformer. If two or more transformers are con-
nected to a same supply on the primary side and to a same load on
the secondary side, then it is called as parallel operation of trans-
formers.

3.18.1 Necessity of Parallel Operation of Transformers

Why parallel operation of transformers is needed?

1. Increased Load: When load is increased and it exceeds the

capacity of existing transformer, another transformer may be
connected in parallel with the existing transformer to supply
the increased load.

2. Non-availability of large transformer: If a large trans-

former is not available which can meet the total requirement
of load, two or more small transformers can be connected in
parallel to increase the capacity.
3.18. PARALLEL OPERATION OF TRANSFORMER 31

3. Increased reliability: If multiple transformers are running in

parallel, and a fault occurs in one transformer, then the other
parallel transformers still continue to serve the load. And the
faulty transformer can be taken out for the maintenance.

4. Transportation is easier for small transformers: If instal-

lation site is located far away, then transportation of smaller
units is easier and may be economical.

3.18.2 Conditions for parallel operation of Transform-

ers
There are various conditions that must fulfill for the successful op-
eration of transformers as follows.

• The line voltage ratio of two transformers must be equal.

• The per unit impedance of each transformer should be equal and

they should have same ratio of equivalent leakage reactance to
the equal resistance(X/R).

• The transformers should have same secondary winding polarity.

• The Transformers should have same phase sequence (Three phase

transformer)

• The transformers should have the zero relative phase replace-

ment between the secondary line voltages.(Three phase trans-
formers)

1. The line voltage ratios of the two transformers must be

equal
This condition is used to avoid the inequality EMF induction at
the two secondary windings. If the two transformers connected
in parallel have slightly different voltage ratios, then due the
inequality of induced emfs in the secondary voltages, a circulat-
ing current will flow in a loop format in the secondary windings.
This current is greater than the no load current and will be quite
high due to less leakage impedance during load. When the sec-
ondary windings are loaded, this circulating current will tend to
unequal loading on two transformers and one transformer may
be over loaded and another may be less loaded.
32 CHAPTER 3. SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMER

2. Equal per unit leakage impedance

If the ratings or line voltages are equal their per unit leakage
impedance’s should be equal in order to have equal load sharing
of the both transformers. If the ratings are unequal then the
transformer which has less rating will draw more current and it
leads to unequal load sharing. It may also lead to mismatch in
line voltages due to voltage drops. In other words, for unequal
ratings, the numerical values of their impedance’s should be in
inverse proportional to their ratings to have current in them in
line with their ratings.
A difference in the ratio of the reactance value to the resis-
tance value of the impedance results in different phase angles
of the currents carried by the two parallel transformers. Due
to this phase angle difference between voltage and current, one
transformer may be working on high power factor and another
transformer may be working on lower factor. Hence real power
sharing is not proportional between the two transformers.
3. The transformers should have same secondary winding
polarity
The transformers should be properly connected with regards to
their polarity. If they are connected with in correct polarities
then the two emf’s induced in the secondary winding which are
in parallel, will act together and produce a short circuit between
the two of them. Total loss of power supply and high damage
to the transformers.
4. The Transformers should have same phase sequence
In case of three winding transformers in-addition to the above
conditions the phase sequence of line voltages of the both trans-
formers must be identical for parallel operation. If the phase
sequence is not correct in every voltage cycle each pair of phases
will get shorted.
5. The transformers should have zero relative phase dis-
placement between the secondary line voltages
This condition indicates that the two secondary line voltages
should have zero phase displacement which avoids Un-intended
short circuit between the phases of two windings.
Chapter 4

Three Phase Transformer

4.1 Introduction

Three phase transformers are more economical for supplying large

loads and large power distribution. Even though most of the uti-
lization equipments are connected by the single phase transformers,
these are not preferred for large power distribution in the aspect of
economy.
The three phase power is used in almost all fields of electrical
power system such as power generation, transmission and distribu-
tion sectors, also all the industrial sectors are supplied or connected
with three phase system. Therefore, to step-up (or increase) or step-
down (or decrease) the voltages in the three phase systems, three
phase transformers are used. As compared with the single phase
transformer, there are numerous advantages with 3 phase trans-
former such as smaller and lighter to construct for the same power
handling capacity, better operating characteristics, etc.
Three phase transformers are used to step-up or step-down the
high voltages in various stages of power transmission system. The
power generated at various generating stations is in three phase na-
ture and the voltages are in the range of 13.2KV or 22KV. In order
to reduce the power loss to the distribution end, the power is trans-
mitted at somewhat higher voltages like 132 or 400KV. Hence, for
transmission of the power at higher voltages, three phase step-up
transformer is used to increase the voltage. Also at the end of the
transmission or distribution, these high voltages are step-down to
levels of 6600, 400, 230 volts, etc. For this, a three phase step down
transformer is used. A three phase transformer can be built in two
ways; a bank of three single phase transformers or single unit of three

33
34 CHAPTER 4. THREE PHASE TRANSFORMER

Figure 4.1: Three Phase Transformer

phase transformer.
The former one is built by suitably connecting three single phase
transformers having same ratings and operating characteristics. In
this case if the fault occurs in any one of the transformers, the system
still retained at reduced capacity by other two transformers with
open delta connection. Hence, continuity of the supply is maintained
by this type of connection. These are used in mines because easier
to transport individual single phase transformers.

Figure 4.2: Three phase transformer

Instead of using three single phase transformers, a three phase

bank can be constructed with a single three phase transformer con-
sisting of six windings on a common multi-legged core. Due to this
single unit, weight as well as the cost is reduced as compared to three
units of the same rating and also windings, the amount of iron in
4.2. CONSTRUCTION OF THREE PHASE TRANSFORMERS 35

the core and insulation materials are saved. Space required to install
a single unit is less compared with three unit bank. But the only
disadvantage with single unit three phase transformer is if the fault
occurs in any one of the phase, then entire unit must be removed
from the service.

4.2 Construction of Three Phase Transformers

A three phase transformer can be constructed by using common
magnetic core for both primary and secondary windings. As we
discussed in the case of single phase transformers, construction can
be core type or shell type. So for a bank of three phase core type
transformer, three core type single phase transformers are combined.
Similarly, a bank of three phase shell type transformer is get by
properly combining three shell type single phase transformers. In a
shell type transformer, EI laminated core surrounds the coils whereas
in core type coil surrounds the core.

4.2.1 Core Type Construction

In core type three phase transformer, core is made up of three limbs
or legs and two yokes. The magnetic path is formed between these
yokes and limbs. On each limb both primary and secondary windings
are wounded concentrically. Circular cylindrical coils are used as the
windings for this type of transformer. The primary and secondary
windings of one phase are wounded on one leg. Under balanced
condition, the magnetic flux in each phase of the leg adds up to
zero. Therefore, under normal conditions, no return leg is needed.
But in case of unbalanced loads, high circulating current flows and
hence it may be best to use three single phase transformers.

4.2.2 Shell Type Construction

In shell type, three phases are more independent because each phase
has independent magnetic circuit compared with core type trans-
former. The construction is similar to the single phase shell type
transformer built on top of another. The magnetic circuits of this
type of transformer are in parallel. Due to this, the saturation ef-
fects in common magnetic paths are neglected. However, shell type
constructed transformers are rarely used in practice.
36 CHAPTER 4. THREE PHASE TRANSFORMER

Figure 4.3: Core Type transformer

Figure 4.4: Shell Type Transformer

4.3 Working of Three Phase Transformers

Consider the below figure in which the primary of the transformer is
connected in star fashion on the cores. For simplicity, only primary
winding is shown in the figure which is connected across the three
phase AC supply. The three cores are arranged at an angle of 120
degrees to each other. The empty leg of each core is combined in
such that they form center leg as shown in figure 4.5.
When the primary is excited with the three phase supply source,
the currents IR, IY and IB are starts flowing through individual
phase windings. These currents produce the magnetic fluxes φR , φY
and φB in the respective cores. Since the center leg is common for all
the cores, the sum of all three fluxes are carried by it. In three phase
system, at any instant the vector sum of all the currents is zero.
4.4. THREE PHASE TRANSFORMER CONNECTIONS 37

Figure 4.5: Working of Three Phase Transformer

In turn, at the instant the sum of all the fluxes is same. Hence,
the center leg doesn’t carry any flux at any instant. So even if the
center leg is removed it makes no difference in other conditions of
the transformer.
Likewise, in three phase system where any two conductors acts
as return for the current in third conductor, any two legs acts as a
return path of the flux for the third leg if the center leg is removed in
case of three phase transformer. Therefore, while designing the three
phase transformer, this principle is used. These fluxes induce the
secondary EMFs in respective phase such that they maintain their
phase angle between them. These EMFs drives the currents in the
secondary and hence to the load. Depends on the type of connection
used and number of turns on each phase, the voltage induced will be
varied for obtaining step-up or step-down of voltages.

4.4 Three Phase Transformer Connections

Three phase transformer connections in three phase system, the three
phases can be connected in either star or delta configuration. In case
you are not familiar with those configurations, study the following
image which explains star and delta configuration. In any of these
configurations, there will be a phase difference of 120o between any
two phases.
Windings of a three phase transformer can be connected in var-
38 CHAPTER 4. THREE PHASE TRANSFORMER

Figure 4.6: Three Phase Transformer Connections

ious configurations as (i) star-star, (ii) delta-delta, (iii) star-delta,

(iv) delta-star, (v) open delta and (vi) Scott connection. These con-
figurations are explained below.

1. Star-Star (Y-Y)
• Star-star connection is generally used for small, high-voltage
transformers. Because of star connection, number of re-
quired turns/phase
√ is reduced (as phase voltage in star
connection is 1/ 3 times of line voltage only). Thus, the
amount of insulation required is also reduced.
• The ratio of line voltages on the primary side and the sec-
ondary side is equal to the transformation ratio of the trans-
formers.
• Line voltages on both sides are in phase with each other.
• This connection can be used only if the connected load is
balanced.
2. Delta-Delta (4 − 4)
• This connection is generally used for large, low-voltage trans-
formers. Number of required phase/turns is relatively greater
than that for star-star connection.
• The ratio of line voltages on the primary and the secondary
side is equal to the transformation ratio of the transformers.
• This connection can be used even for unbalanced loading.
4.5. OPEN DELTA CONNECTION 39

• Another advantage of this type of connection is that even

if one transformer is disabled, system can continue to op-
erate in open delta connection but with reduced available
capacity.
3. Star-Delta OR Wye-Delta (Y − 4)
• The primary winding is star (Y) connected with grounded
neutral and the secondary winding is delta connected.
• This connection is mainly used in step down transformer at
the substation end of the transmission line.
√
• The ratio of secondary to primary line voltage is 1/ 3 times
the transformation ratio.
• There is 30o shift between the primary and secondary line
voltages.
4. Delta-Star OR Delta-Wye (4 − Y )
• The primary winding is connected in delta and the sec-
ondary winding is connected in star with neutral grounded.
Thus it can be used to provide 3-phase 4-wire service.
• This type of connection is mainly used in step-up trans-
former at the beginning of transmission line.
√
• The ratio of secodary to primary line voltage is 3 times
the transformation ratio.
• There is 30o shift between the primary and secondary line
voltages.

Above transformer connection configurations are shown in the fol-

lowing figure 4.7.

4.5 Open Delta Connection

In three phase systems, the use of transformers with three wind-
ings (or legs) per side is common. These three windings are often
connected in delta or star, resulting in common transformer configu-
rations such as delta-delta or delta-star. An open delta transformer
is a special arrangement which uses only two windings.
The illustration in figure 4.8 shows how an open delta transformer
is connected. On both the primary and secondary there are only two
40 CHAPTER 4. THREE PHASE TRANSFORMER

Figure 4.7: Three phase transformer connections

windings. Even in this configuration, it is still possible to transform

a three phase voltage.
Open delta transforms are not the commonly used. Typically they
would be used for small loads where cost is important. Alternatively,
they could be used as an emergency measure, should one winding
only of a transformer fail. Sometimes you may hear an open delta
transformer referred to as a V-connection transformer.
Power Delivered :
Sometimes the power delivered by an open delta transformer is com-
pared to that of an equivalent three winding transformer. Typically
figures like having 57.7% of the capacity of an equivalent three wind-
ing transformer or 87 % of two transformers (same winding size) are
quoted. While you can think of the transformer in this manner, it
is more fruitful not to consider comparisons but to the necessary
4.5. OPEN DELTA CONNECTION 41

Figure 4.8: Open Delta Transformer

calculations on the open delta transformer.

Figure 4.9: Open Delta Connection

Consider the illustration, showing the output from both a close

delta and open delta
√ transformer. Note, that in the delta connection
to line current is 3 times the phase current, whereas in the open
delta, they are the same. The transformer output power (in VA)
is for a balanced transformer system for the closed delta connection
(using phase current), this give:

V A = 3VL Iph (4.1)

42 CHAPTER 4. THREE PHASE TRANSFORMER

And for the open delta connection:

p
V A = 3 VL Iph (4.2)
Taking the ratio of open delta to closed delta power, gives:
V A = 0.577 or 57.7% (4.3)
Open delta transformers are three phase devices, with only two
windings on each of the primary and secondary sides. While cheaper
than a conventional three winding transformer, the open delta will
only deliver 57.7% of the power of a conventional transformer (not
two thirds, 66.7% as may be expected). There is limited adoption
of open delta transformers, although they can be useful in certain
situations.
Applications of Open-Delta configurations:
1. Widely used for small 3-phase loads.
2. Used in applications where the current load is less, and may
increase in future.
3. There is no relative shift in output, so can be used for unbal-
anced loads and where harmonics are involved.

4.6 Scott Connection of Transformer

Definition: The Scott-T Connection is the method of connecting two
single phase transformer to perform the 3-phase to 2-phase conver-
sion and vice-versa. The two transformers are connected electrically
but not magnetically. One of the transformers is called the main
transformer, and the other is called the auxiliary or teaser trans-
former.
The figure 4.10below shows the Scott-T transformer connection.
The main transformer is centre tapped at D and is connected to the
line B and C of the 3-phase side. It has primary BC and secondary
a1 a2 . The teaser transformer is connected to the line terminal A and
the centre tapping D. It has primary AD and the secondary b1 b2
The identical, interchangeable transformers are used for Scott-T
connection in which each transformer has a primary winding of Tp
turns and is provided with tapping at 0.289Tp , 0.5Tp and0.866Tp .
Phasor Diagram of Scott Connection Transformer
The line voltages of the 3-phase system VAB , VBC , and VCA which
4.6. SCOTT CONNECTION OF TRANSFORMER 43

Figure 4.10: Scott Connection of transformer

are balanced are shown in the figure 4.11 below. The same voltage
is shown as a closed equilateral triangle. The figure below shows the
primary windings of the main and the teaser transformer.

|VAB | = |VBC | = |VCA | = VL

Figure 4.11: Phasor Diagram of Scott Connection Transformer

The D divides the primary BC of the main transformers into two

halves and hence the number of turns in portion BD = the number
of turns in portion DC = Tp /[Link] voltage VBD and VDC are equal,
and they are in phase with VBC .
1 1
VBD = VDC = VBC = VL ∠0o
2 2
44 CHAPTER 4. THREE PHASE TRANSFORMER

The voltage between A and D is -

√ !
1 3 1
VAD = VL − +j + VL
2 2 2
√ !
3
VAD = VL j = 0.866VL ∠90o
2

√ The teaser transformer has the primary voltage rating that is

3/2 or 0.866 of the voltage ratings of the main transformer. Voltage
VAD is applied to the primary of the teaser transformer and therefore
the secondary of the voltage V2t of the teaser transformer will lead
the secondary terminal voltage V2m of the main transformer by 90o
as shown in the figure 4.12 below. Then,

Figure 4.12: secondary Phasor diagram

Vs1 Ts
=
VAD TAD
√
Ts Ts 3Vt
V2t = VAD = √ ×
TAD 3 2
2 Tp
Ts
VL = v2m
Tp
For keeping the voltage per turn same in the primary of the main
transformer and the primary of the teaser transformer, the number
of
√ turns in the primary of the teaser transformer should be equal to
3/2Tp .
Thus, the secondaries of both transformers should have equal volt-
age [Link] V2t and V2m are equal in magnitude and 90o apart
in time; they result in the balanced 2-phase system.
Applications of Scott Connection:
The following are the applications of the Scott-T connection.
4.7. AUTOTRANSFORMER 45

1. The Scott-T connection is used in an electric furnace installation

where it is desired to operate two single-phase together and draw
the balanced load from the three-phase supply.
2. It is used to supply the single phase loads such as electric train
which are so scheduled as to keep the load on the three phase
system as nearly as possible.
3. The Scott-T connection is used to link a 3-phase system with a
two–phase system with the flow of power in either direction.
The Scott-T connection permits conversions of a 3-phase system
to a two-phase system and vice versa. But since 2-phase generators
are not available, the converters from two phases to three phases are
not used in practice.

4.7 Autotransformer
A Transformer, in which a part of the winding is common to both
the Primary and Secondary circuit, is called an Auto Transformer. It
shall be noted that in Two Winding Transformer, Primary and Sec-
ondary windings are electrically isolated but in Auto Transformer,
the two windings are not electrically isolated.

4.7.1 Why do we need to go for Auto Transformer?

We have some advantages of auto-transformer over normal two wind-
ing transformers.
1. Autotransformers usually smaller in size, because one winding
is eliminated.
2. As size is small cost also low(so cheap in cost)
3. As the winding is same so leakage reactance will be less.
4. Increased kVA rating.

4.7.2 Principle of Operation of Autotransformer

The principle of operation of the transformer is the same as the one
of the common transformer, and then the relation between input
and output voltages and input and output currents and the ratio
of number of turns between the primary and the secondary winding
46 CHAPTER 4. THREE PHASE TRANSFORMER

is the same. The currents of the primary and secondary windings

are flowing on the opposite directions, so the total current flowing
through the common part of the winding is equal to the difference
between the current on the low-voltage winding and the current on
the high-voltage winding. A simplified diagram of a Step-down Auto
Transformer is shown in figure 4.13 below.

Figure 4.13: Auto-Transformer

As shown in the figure above, N1 and N2 are the number of turns

between winding AB and AC respectively. If a voltage V1is applied
across AB, an exciting current will start flowing through the full
winding. Therefore, voltage per turn in winding AB is V1 /N1 and
hence voltage across CB is (V1 /N1 )N2 . As the load current is I2 and
the current taken from the source is I1 , neglecting losses

Input Power = Output Power (4.4)

∴ V1 I1 cos φ1 = V2 I2 cos φ2 (4.5)
Assuming internal impedance drop and losses to be negligible, power
factor for primary and secondary will be almost same.
cos φ1 = cos φ2
Therefore from equation 5.2,
V1 I1 = V2 I2 (4.6)
V2 I1 N2
∴ = = =K (4.7)
V1 I2 N1
4.7. AUTOTRANSFORMER 47

In our case of Step down Auto Transformer, k ¡ 1 .

Again, since the direction of flow of load current is in the opposite
to the current flowing in the Primary because of Lenze’s Law, hence
the current flowing in winding BC = (I2 − I1 ).

ICB = (I2 − I1 )

Primary MMF = IAC (N1 − N2 ) (4.8)

∴ Primary MMF = I1 (N1 − N2 ) (4.9)
∴ Primary MMF = N1 I1 –N2 I1 (4.10)
N1 I2
But N2 = I1 So, N1 I1 = N2 I2 Therefore,

Primary MMF = N2 I2 − N2 I1 (4.11)

∴ Primary MMF = (I2 − I1 )N2 (4.12)
∴ Primary MMF = ICB N2 = Secondary MMF (4.13)

Thus we see that in Auto Transformer, Transformer action take

place between winding AC and BC. Thus VA of winding AC will be
transferred to winding BC by Transformer action. Therefore,

Transformed VA = VAB IAB (4.14)

Transformed VA = (V1 − V2 )I1 (4.15)

Now, total VA input = V1 I1 Therefore,

Transformed VA (V1 − V2 )I1
= (4.16)
Input VA V1 I1
V2
=1− (4.17)
V1
=1−K (4.18)

Thus we see that out of total input VA, only a part of it is trans-
formed by Transformer action and remaining is therefore transferred
by conduction. So

Conducted VA = Total Input–Transformed VA (4.19)

= V1 I1 − (V1 − V2 )I1 (4.20)
= V2 I1 (4.21)
48 CHAPTER 4. THREE PHASE TRANSFORMER

so,
Conducted VA V2 I1
= (4.22)
Input VA V1 I1
V2
= K (4.23)
V1
Thus in an Auto Transformer, a part of input power is delivered to
the load by Transformer action while the remaining is by conduction
method. Power transfer because of conduction method is possible in
Auto Transformer because a part of winding is common to both the
primary as well as secondary circuit.

4.7.3 Equivalent Circuit of Autotransformer

Figure 4.14: Auto transformer on load

As mentioned earlier the magnetizing current can be neglected,

for simplicity. Writing the Kirchoff’s equation to the primary and
secondary, we have

V1 = E1 + I1 (r1 + jxl1 ) − (I2 − I1 )(r2 + jxl2 ) (4.24)

Note that the resistance r1 and leakage reactance xl1 refer to that
part of the winding where only the primary current flows. Similarly
on the load side, we have,

E2 = V2 + (I2 − I1 )(r2 + jxl2 ) (4.25)

The voltage ratio V1 : V2 = E1 : E2 = T1 : T2 = a where T1 is the

total turns of the primary. Then E1 = aE2 and I2 = aI1
4.7. AUTOTRANSFORMER 49

The magnetization branch can now be hung across the mains for
completeness. The above equivalent circuit can now be compared
with the approximate equivalent circuit of a two winding case Re =
r1 +a2r2 and Xe = xl1 +a2xl2 . Thus in the case of an auto transformer
total value of the short circuit impedance is lower and so also the
percentage resistance and reactance. Thus the full load regulation is
lower. Having a smaller value of short circuit impedance is sometimes
considered to be a disadvantage. That is because the short circuit
currents become very large in those cases. The efficiency is higher
in auto transformers compared to their two winding counter part
at the same load. The phasor diagram of operation for the auto
transformer drawing a load current at a lagging power factor angle
of θ2 is shown in Fig. 4.16. The magnetizing current is omitted here
again for simplicity.

Figure 4.15: Equivalent Circuit

From the foregoing study it is seen that there are several advan-
tages in going in for the autotransformer type of arrangement. The
voltage/current transformation and impedance conversion aspects
of a two winding transformer are retained but with lesser material
(and hence lesser weight) used. The losses are reduced increasing
the efficiency. Reactance is reduced resulting in better regulation
characteristics. All these benefits are enhanced as the voltage ra-
tio approaches unity. The price that is required to be paid is loss
of electrical isolation and a larger short circuit current (and larger
short circuit forces on the winding).
50 CHAPTER 4. THREE PHASE TRANSFORMER

Figure 4.16: Phasor Diagram

4.7.4 Advantages of Autotransformer

1. Less costly

2. Better regulation

3. Low losses as compared to ordinary two winding transformer of

the same rating.

4.7.5 Disadvantages of Autotransformer

There are various advantages of the auto transformer, but then also
one major disadvantage, why auto transformer is not widely used, is
that

1. The secondary winding is not insulated from the primary wind-

ing.
If an auto transformer is used to supply low voltage from a
high voltage and there is a break in the secondary winding,
the full primary voltage comes across the secondary terminal
which is dangerous to the operator and the equipment. So the
auto transformer should not be used to for interconnecting high
voltage and low voltage system.

2. Used only in the limited places where a slight variation of the

output voltage from input voltage is required.
4.8. TAP CHANGING TRANSFORMER 51

4.7.6 Applications of Autotransformer

1. It is used as a starter to give upto 50 to 60% of full voltage to
the stator of a squirrel cage induction motor during starting.
2. It is used to give a small boost to a distribution cable, to correct
the voltage drop.
3. It is also used as a voltage regulator
4. Used in power transmission and distribution system and also in
the audio system and railways.

4.8 Tap Changing Transformer

The change of voltage is affected by changing the numbers of turns
of the transformer provided with taps. For sufficiently close control
of voltage, taps are usually provided on the high voltage windings of
the transformer. There are two types of tap-changing transformers.
1. Off-load tap changing transformer
2. On-load tap changing transformer

4.8.1 Off-load tap-changing transformer

In this method, the transformer is disconnected from the main supply
when the tap setting is to be changed. The tap setting is usually
done manually. The off load tap changing transformer is shown in
the figure 4.17 below

Figure 4.17: Off-load tap-changing transformer

52 CHAPTER 4. THREE PHASE TRANSFORMER

4.8.2 On-load tap-changing transformer

Figure 4.18: On Load Tap Changing using reactor

In order that the supply may not be interrupted, on-load tap

changing transformer is used. Such a transformer is known as a
tap-changing under load transformer. While tapping, two essential
conditions are to be fulfilled.
• The load circuit should not be broken to avoid arcing and pre-
vent the damage of contacts.
• No parts of the windings should be short–circuited while ad-
justing the tap.
The tap changing employing a center tapped reactor R show in
the figure above. Here S is the diverter switch, and 1, 2, 3 are
selector switch. The transformer is in operation with switches 1 and
S closed. To change to tap 2, switch S is opened, and 2 is closed.
Switch 1 is then opened, and S closed to complete the tap change.
It is to be noted that the diverter switch operates on load, and no
current flows in the selector switches during tap changing.
It is to be noted that the diverter switch operates on load, and no
current flows in the selector switches during tap changing. During
the tap change, only half of the reactance which limits the current
is connected in the circuit.
Chapter 5

THREE PHASE INDUCTION

MOTOR

5.1 Introduction
Like any electric motor, a 3-phase induction motor has a stator and
a rotor. The stator carries a 3-phase winding (called stator wind-
ing) while the rotor carries a short-circuited winding (called rotor
winding). Only the stator winding is fed from 3-phase supply. The
rotor winding derives its voltage and power from the externally en-
ergized stator winding through electromagnetic induction and hence
the name. The induction motor may be considered to be a trans-
former with a rotating secondary and it can, therefore, be described
as a “transformertype” a.c. machine in which electrical energy is
converted into mechanical energy.
Advantages :

1. It has simple and rugged construction.

2. It is relatively cheap.

3. It requires little maintenance.

4. It has high efficiency and reasonably good power factor.

5. It has self starting torque.

Disadvantages :

1. It is essentially a constant speed motor and its speed cannot be

changed easily.

2. Its starting torque is inferior to d.c. shunt motor.

53
54 CHAPTER 5. THREE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

5.2 Construction
A 3-phase induction motor has two main parts (i) stator and (ii)
rotor. The rotor is separated from the stator by a small air-gap
which ranges from 0.4 mm to 4 mm, depending on the power of the
motor.

5.2.1 Stator
It consists of a steel frame which encloses a hollow, cylindrical core
made up of thin laminations of silicon steel to reduce hysteresis and
eddy current losses. A number of evenly spaced slots are provided on
the inner periphery of the laminations [See Fig. 5.1]. The insulated
connected to form a balanced 3-phase star or delta connected circuit.
The 3-phase stator winding is wound for a definite number of poles
as per requirement of speed. Greater the number of poles, lesser
is the speed of the motor and vice-versa. When 3-phase supply
is given to the stator winding, a rotating magnetic field (See Sec.
8.3) of constant magnitude is produced. This rotating field induces
currents in the rotor by electromagnetic induction.

Figure 5.1: Stator

5.2.2 Rotor
The rotor, mounted on a shaft, is a hollow laminated core having
slots on its outer periphery. The winding placed in these slots (called
rotor winding) may be one of the following two types:
1. Squirrel cage type
2. Wound type
5.2. CONSTRUCTION 55

Squirrel cage rotor

It consists of a laminated cylindrical core having parallel slots on
its outer periphery. One copper or aluminum bar is placed in each
slot. All these bars are joined at each end by metal rings called
end rings [See Fig. 5.2]. This forms a permanently short-circuited
winding which is indestructible. The entire construction (bars and
end rings) resembles a squirrel cage and hence the name. The rotor
is not connected electrically to the supply but has current induced
in it by transformer action from the stator.

Figure 5.2: Squirrel Cage Rotor

Those induction motors which employ squirrel cage rotor are

called squirrel cage induction motors. Most of 3-phase induction
motors use squirrel cage rotor as it has a remarkably simple and ro-
bust construction enabling it to operate in the most adverse circum-
stances. However, it suffers from the disadvantage of a low starting
torque. It is because the rotor bars are permanently short-circuited
and it is not possible to add any external resistance to the rotor
circuit to have a large starting torque.
Wound Rotor
It consists of a laminated cylindrical core and carries a 3- phase
winding, similar to the one on the stator [See Fig. (5.3)]. The
rotor winding is uniformly distributed in the slots and is usually
star-connected. The open ends of the rotor winding are brought
out and joined to three insulated slip rings mounted on the rotor
shaft with one brush resting on each slip ring. The three brushes
are connected to a 3-phase star-connected rheostat as shown in Fig.
5.4. At starting, the external resistances are included in the rotor
circuit to give a large starting torque. These resistances are gradually
reduced to zero as the motor runs up to speed.
56 CHAPTER 5. THREE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

Figure 5.3: Wound Rotor

The external resistances are used during starting period only.

When the motor attains normal speed, the three brushes are short-
circuited so that the wound rotor runs like a squirrel cage rotor.

Figure 5.4: Three brushes connected to a 3-phase star-connected rheostat

5.3 Rotating Magnetic Field Due to 3-Phase

Currents

When a 3-phase winding is energized from a 3-phase supply, a ro-

tating magnetic field is produced. This field is such that its poles do
no remain in a fixed position on the stator but go on shifting their
positions around the stator. For this reason, it is called a rotating
Held. It can be shown that magnitude of this rotating field is con-
stant and is equal to 1.5 φm where φm is the maximum flux due to
any phase.
5.3. ROTATING MAGNETIC FIELD DUE TO 3-PHASE CURRENTS 57

Figure 5.5:

To see how rotating field is produced, consider a 2-pole, 3i-phase

winding as shown in Fig. (5.6 (i)). The three phases X, Y and Z
are energized from a 3-phase source and currents in these phases are
indicated as Ix , Iy and Iz [See Fig. (5.6 (ii))]. Referring to Fig. (5.6
(ii)), the fluxes produced by these currents are given by:

φx = φm sin ωt
φy = φm sin(ωt − 120o )
φz = φm sin(ωt − 240o )

Here φm is the maximum flux due to any phase. Fig. (5.5) shows
the phasor diagram of the three fluxes. We shall now prove that
this 3-phase supply produces a rotating field of constant magnitude
equal to 1.5 φm .

1. At instant 1 [See Fig. (5.6 (ii)) and Fig. (5.6 (iii))], the current
in phase X is zero and currents in phases Y and Z are equal
and opposite. The currents are flowing outward in the top con-
ductors and inward in the bottom conductors. This establishes
a resultant flux towards right. The magnitude of the resultant
flux is constant and is equal to 1.5 φm as proved under:
At instant 1, ωt = 0o . Therefore, the three fluxes are given by;

φx = 0
√
3
φy = φm sin(−120o ) = − φm
√2
3
φz = φm sin(−240o ) = φm
2
58 CHAPTER 5. THREE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

Figure 5.6:

Figure 5.7:

The phasor sum of −φy and φz is the resultant flux φr [See Fig.
(5.7)]. It is clear that:
√ √ √
3 60o 3 3
Resultant Flux,φr = 2× φm cos = 2× φm = 1.5φm
2 2 2 2
2. At instant 2, the current is maximum (negative) in φy phase Y
and 0.5 maximum (positive) in phases X and Y . The magnitude
5.3. ROTATING MAGNETIC FIELD DUE TO 3-PHASE CURRENTS 59

of resultant flux is 1.5φm as proved under:

At instant 2, ωt = 30o . Therefore, the three fluxes are given by;

φm
φx = φm sin(30o ) =
2
o
φy = φm sin(−90 ) = −φm
φm
φz = φm sin(−210o ) =
2

Figure 5.8:

The phasor sum of φx , −φy and φz is the resultant flux φr

Phasor sum of φx and φz ,

φm 120o φm
φ0r = 2 × cos =
2 2 2

Phasor sum of φ0r and −φy ,

φm
φr = + φm = 1.5φm
2

Note that resultant flux is displaced 30o clockwise from position

1.

3. At instant 3, current in phase Z is zero and the currents in

phases X and Y are equal and opposite (currents in phases X
and Y arc 0.866 × max. value). The magnitude of resultant
flux is 1.5 φm as proved under:
60 CHAPTER 5. THREE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

Figure 5.9:

At instant 3, ωt = 60o . Therefore, the three fluxes are given by;

√
3
φx = φm sin(60o ) = φm
2 √
3
φy = φm sin(−60o ) = − φm
2
o o
φz = φm sin(−180 ) = 0

The resultant flux φr is the phasor sum of φx and - φy (∵ φz = 0).

√
3 60o
φr = 2 × φm cos = 1.5φm
2 2
Note that resultant flux is displaced 60o clockwise from position
1.
4. At instant 4, the current in phase X is maximum (positive) and
the currents in phases V and Z are equal and negative (currents
in phases V and Z are 0.5 × max. value). This establishes a
resultant flux downward as shown under:

Figure 5.10:
5.3. ROTATING MAGNETIC FIELD DUE TO 3-PHASE CURRENTS 61

At instant 4, ωt = 90o . Therefore, the three fluxes are given by;

φx = φm sin(90o ) = φm
φm
φy = φm sin(−30o ) = −
2
φm
φz = φm sin(−150o ) = −
2
The phasor sum of φx , - φy and - φz is the resultant flux φr
Phasor sum of - φz and - φy ,
φm 120o φm
φ0r = 2 × cos =
2 2 2
Phasor sum of φ0r and φx ,
φm
φr = + φm = 1.5φm
2
Note that the resultant flux is downward i.e., it is displaced 90o
clockwise from position 1.
It follows from the above discussion that a 3-phase supply pro-
duces a rotating field of constant value (= 1.5 φm , where φm is the
maximum flux due to any phase).

5.3.1 Speed of Rotating Magnetic Field

The speed at which the rotating magnetic field revolves is called the
synchronous speed (Ns ). Referring to Fig. (5.6 (ii)), the time in-
stant 4 represents the completion of one-quarter cycle of alternating
current Ix from the time instant 1. During this one quarter cycle,
the field has rotated through 90o . At a time instant represented by
13 or one complete cycle of current Ix from the origin, the field has
completed one revolution. Therefore, for a 2-pole stator winding, the
field makes one revolution in one cycle of current. In a 4-pole stator
winding, it can be shown that the rotating field makes one revolution
in two cycles of current. In general, fur P poles, the rotating field
makes one revolution in P/2 cycles of current.
P
∴ Cycles of current = × revolutions of field
2
P
or Cycles of current per second = ×Revolutions of field per second
2
(5.1)
62 CHAPTER 5. THREE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

Since revolutions per second is equal to the revolutions per minute

(Ns) divided by 60 and the number of cycles per second is the fre-
quency f ,

P Ns Ns P
∴f = × =
2 60 120
120f
∴ Ns =
P

The speed of the rotating magnetic field is the same as the speed
of the alternator that is supplying power to the motor if the two
have the same number of poles. Hence the magnetic flux is said to
rotate at synchronous speed.

5.3.2 Direction of rotating magnetic field

The phase sequence of the three-phase voltage applied to the stator

winding in Fig. (5.6 (ii)) is X-Y-Z. If this sequence is changed to X-Z-
Y, it is observed that direction of rotation of the field is reversed i.e.,
the field rotates counterclockwise rather than clockwise. However,
the number of poles and the speed at which the magnetic field rotates
remain unchanged. Thus it is necessary only to change the phase
sequence in order to change the direction of rotation of the magnetic
field. For a three-phase supply, this can be done by interchanging
any two of the three lines. As we shall see, the rotor in a 3-phase
induction motor runs in the same direction as the rotating magnetic
field. Therefore, the direction of rotation of a 3-phase induction
motor can be reversed by interchanging any two of the three motor
supply lines.

5.4 Principle of Operation

Consider a portion of 3-phase induction motor as shown in Fig.

(5.11). The operation of the motor can be explained as under:
5.5. SLIP 63

Figure 5.11:

1. (i) When 3-phase stator winding is energized from a 3-phase

supply, a rotating magnetic field is set up which rotates round
the stator at synchronous speed Ns (= 120f /P ).
2. The rotating field passes through the air gap and cuts the rotor
conductors, which as yet, are stationary. Due to the relative
speed between the rotating flux and the stationary rotor, e.m.f.s
are induced in the rotor conductors. Since the rotor circuit is
short-circuited, currents start flowing in the rotor conductors.
3. The current-carrying rotor conductors are placed in the mag-
netic field produced by the stator. Consequently, mechanical
force acts on the rotor conductors. The sum of the mechanical
forces on all the rotor conductors produces a torque which tends
to move the rotor in the same direction as the rotating field.
4. The fact that rotor is urged to follow the stator field (i.e., rotor
moves in the direction of stator field) can be explained by Lenz’s
law. According to this law, the direction of rotor currents will
be such that they tend to oppose the cause producing them.
Now, the cause producing the rotor currents is the relative speed
between the rotating field and the stationary rotor conductors.
Hence to reduce this relative speed, the rotor starts running in
the same direction as that of stator field and tries to catch it.

5.5 Slip
We have seen above that rotor rapidly accelerates in the direction
of rotating field. In practice, the rotor can never reach the speed
64 CHAPTER 5. THREE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

of stator flux. If it did, there would be no relative speed between

the stator field and rotor conductors, no induced rotor currents and,
therefore, no torque to drive the rotor. The friction and windage
would immediately cause the rotor to slow down. Hence, the ro-
tor speed (N) is always less than the suitor field speed (Ns). This
difference in speed depends upon load on the motor.
The difference between the synchronous speed Ns of the rotating
stator field and the actual rotor speed N is called slip. It is usually
expressed as a percentage of synchronous speed i.e.,
Ns − N
Percentage Slip,s = × 100
Ns
• The quantity Ns − N is sometimes called slip speed.
• When the rotor is stationary (i.e., N = 0), slip, s = 1 or 100 %.
• In an induction motor, the change in slip from no-load to full-
load is hardly 0.1 % to 3 % so that it is essentially a constant-
speed motor.

5.6 Rotor Current Frequency

The frequency of a voltage or current induced due to the relative
speed between a vending and a magnetic field is given by the general
formula;
NP
Frequency =
120
where, N = Relative speed between magnetic field and the winding
and P = Number of poles
For a rotor speed N , the relative speed between the rotating flux
and the rotor is Ns − N . Consequently, the rotor current frequency
f 0 is given by;

(Ns − N )P
f0 =
120
sNs P Ns − N
∴ f0 = ∵s=
120 Ns
Ns P
∴ f 0 = sf ∵f =
120
i.e., Rotor current frequency = Fractional slip × Supply frequency
5.7. EFFECT OF SLIP ON ROTOR CIRCUIT 65

1. When the rotor is at standstill or stationary (i.e., s = 1), the fre-

quency of rotor current is the same as that of supply frequency
(f 0 = sf = 1 × f = f ).
2. As the rotor picks up speed, the relative speed between the
rotating flux and the rotor decreases. Consequently, the slip s
and hence rotor current frequency decreases.

5.7 Effect of Slip on Rotor Circuit

When the rotor is stationary, s = 1. Under these conditions, the
per phase rotor e.m.f. E2 has a frequency equal to that of supply
frequency f . At any slip s, the relative speed between stator field and
the rotor is decreased. Consequently, the rotor e.m.f. and frequency
are reduced proportionally to sEs and sf respectively. At the same
time, per phase rotor reactance X2 , being frequency dependent, is
reduced to sX2 .
Consider a 6-pole, 3-phase, 50 Hz induction motor. It has syn-
chronous speed N s = 120f /P = 120 × 50/6 = 1000 r.p.m. At
standsill, the relative speed between stator flux and rotor is 1000
r.p.m. and rotor e.m.f./phase = E2 (say). If the fullload speed of the
motor is 960 r.p.m., then,
1000 − 960
s= = 0.04
1000
1. The relative speed between stator flux and the rotor is now only
40 r.p.m. Consequently, rotor e.m.f./phase is reduced to:
40
E2 × = 0.04E2 or sE2
1000
2. The frequency is also reduced in the same ratio to:
40
50 × = 50 × 0.04 or sf
1000
3. The per phase rotor reactance X2 is likewise reduced to:
40
X2 × = 0.04X2 or sX2
1000
Thus at any slip s,
Rotor e.m.f./phase = sE2
Rotor reactance/phase = sX2
Rotor frequency = sf
where E2 , X2 and f are the corresponding values at standstill.
66 CHAPTER 5. THREE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

5.8 Rotor Current

Fig. (5.12) shows the circuit of a 3-phase induction motor at any
slip s. The rotor is assumed to be of wound type and star con-
nected. Note that rotor e.m.f./phase and rotor reactance/phase are
sE2 and sX2 respectively. The rotor resistance/phase is R2 and is
independent of frequency and, therefore, does not depend upon slip.
Likewise, stator winding values R1 and X1 do not depend upon slip.

Figure 5.12: Circuit of a 3-phase induction motor at any slip

Since the motor represents a balanced 3-phase load, we need con-

sider one phase only; the conditions in the other two phases being
similar.
At standstill. Fig. (5.13 (i)) shows one phase of the rotor circuit
at standstill.
E2 E2
Rotor current/phase,I2 = =p 2
Z2 R2 + X22

R2 R2
Rotor p.f. , cos φ2 = =p 2
Z2 R2 + X22

Figure 5.13: Phase of Rotor Circuit

5.9. ROTOR TORQUE 67

When running at slip s. Fig. (5.13 (ii)) shows one phase of the
rotor circuit when the motor is running at slip s.
sE2 sE2
Rotor current/phase,I20 = 0 =p 2
Z2 R2 + (sX2 )2
R2 R2
Rotor p.f. , cos φ02 = =
Z20
p
R22 + (sX2 )2

5.9 Rotor Torque

The torque T developed by the rotor is directly proportional to:
1. rotor current
2. rotor e.m.f.
3. power factor of the rotor circuit

T ∝ E2 I2 cos φ2
T = kE2 I2 cos φ2
where,
I2 = rotor current at standstill
E2 = rotor e.m.f. at standstill
cos φ2 = rotor p.f. at standstill

5.10 Starting Torque

Let, E2 = rotor e.m.f. per phase at standstill
X2 = rotor reactance per phase at standstill
R2 = rotor resistance per phase

q
Rotor Impedance/phase, Z2 = R22 + X22 ...at standstill

E2 E2
Rotor Current/phase,I2 = =p 2 ...at standstill
Z2 R2 + X22

R2 R2
Rotor p.f., cos φ2 = =p 2 ...at standstill
Z2 R2 + X22
68 CHAPTER 5. THREE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

∴ Starting Torque,Ts = KE2 I2 cos φ2

E2 R
= KE2 × p 2 × p 2
R2 + X22 R22 + X22
KE22 R2
= 2
R2 + X22
Generally, the stator supply voltage V is constant so that flux per
pole φ set up by the stator is also fixed. This in turn means that
e.m.f. E2 induced in the rotor will be constant.

K1 R2 K1 R2
∴ Ts = =
R22 + X22 Z2
where K1 is another constant.
It is clear that the magnitude of starting torque would depend
upon the relative values of R2 and X2 i.e., rotor resistance/phase
and standstill rotor reactance/phase.
3
It can be shown that K = 2πN s
.

3 E22 R2
∴ Ts = ×
2πNs R22 + X22

5.11 Condition for Maximum Starting Torque

It can be proved that starting torque will be maximum when rotor
resistance/phase is equal to standstill rotor reactance/phase.
K1 R2
Ts = (5.2)
R22 + X22
Differentiating eq. 5.2 w.r.t. R2 and equating the result to zero,
we get,  
dTs 1 R2 (2R2 )
= K1 − =0
dR2 R22 + X22 (R22 + X22 )2

or R22 + X22 = 2R22

or R2 = X2
Hence starting torque will be maximum when:
Rotor resistance/phase = Standstill rotor reactance/phase
5.12. EFFECT OF CHANGE OF POWER SUPPLY 69

Under the condition of maximum starting torque, φ2 = 45o and

rotor power factor is 0.707 lagging [See Fig. (5.14 (ii))].

Figure 5.14: Variation of Starting Torque with rotor resistance

Fig. (5.14 (i)) shows the variation of starting torque with rotor
resistance. As the rotor resistance is increased from a relatively low
value, the starting torque increases until it becomes maximum when
R2 = X2 . If the rotor resistance is increased beyond this optimum
value, the starting torque will decrease.

5.12 Effect of Change of Power Supply

KE22 R2
Ts =
R22 + X22
Since E2 ∝ Supply voltage V

K2 V 2 R2
∴ Ts =
R22 + X22
where K2 is another constant.

Ts ∝ V 2

Therefore, the starting torque is very sensitive to changes in the

value of supply voltage. For example, a drop of 10 % in supply
voltage will decrease the starting torque by about 20 %. This could
mean the motor failing to start if it cannot produce a torque greater
than the load torque plus friction torque.
70 CHAPTER 5. THREE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

5.13 Starting Torque of 3-phase Induction Mo-

tor
The rotor circuit of an induction motor has low resistance and high
inductance. At starting, the rotor frequency is equal to the stator
frequency (i.e., 50 Hz) so that rotor reactance is large compared with
rotor resistance. Therefore, rotor current lags the rotor e.m.f. by a
large angle, the power factor is low and consequently the starting
torque is small. When resistance is added to the rotor circuit, the
rotor power factor is improved which results in improved starting
torque. This, of course, increases the rotor impedance and, therefore,
decreases the value of rotor current but the effect of improved power
factor predominates and the starting torque is increased.

1. Squirrel-cage motors : Since the rotor bars are permanently

shortcircuited, it is not possible to add any external resistance
in the rotor circuit at starting. Consequently, the stalling torque
of such motors is low. Squirrel cage motors have starting torque
of 1.5 to 2 times the full-load value with starting current of 5
to 9 times the full-load current.

2. Wound Rotor Motors : The resistance of the rotor circuit of

such motors can be increased through the addition of external
resistance. By inserting the proper value of external resistance
(so that R2 = X2 ), maximum starting torque can be obtained.
As the motor accelerates, the external resistance is gradually cut
out until the rotor circuit is short-circuited on itself for running
conditions.

5.14 Motor Under Load

1. When we apply mechanical load to the shaft of the motor, it
will begin to slow down and the rotating flux will cut the rotor
conductors at a higher and higher rate. The induced voltage and
resulting current in rotor conductors will increase progressively,
producing greater and greater torque.

2. The motor and mechanical load will soon reach a state of equi-
librium when the motor torque is exactly equal to the load
torque. When this state is reached, the speed will cease to
5.14. MOTOR UNDER LOAD 71

drop any more and the motor will run at the new speed at a
constant rate.

3. The drop in speed of the induction motor on increased load is

small. It is because the rotor impedance is low and a small
decrease in speed produces a large rotor current. The increased
rotor current produces a higher torque to meet the increased
load on the motor. This is why induction motors are considered
to be constant-speed machines. However, because they never
actually turn at synchronous speed, they are sometimes called
asynchronous machines.
Note that change in load on the induction motor is met through
the adjustment of slip. When load on the motor increases, the
slip increases slightly (i.e., motor speed decreases slightly). This
results in greater relative speed between the rotating flux and
rotor conductors. Consequently, rotor current is increased, pro-
ducing a higher torque to meet the increased load. Reverse
happens should the load on the motor decrease.

4. With increasing load, the increased load currents I20 are in such
a direction so as to decrease the stator flux (Lenz’s law), thereby
decreasing the counter e.m.f. in the stator windings. The de-
creased counter e.m.f. allows motor stator current (I1 ) to in-
crease, thereby increasing the power input to the motor. It
may be noted that action of the induction motor in adjusting
its stator or primary current with changes of current in the ro-
tor or secondary is very much similar to the changes occurring
in transformer with changes in load.

Figure 5.15: 3-phase induction motor under load

72 CHAPTER 5. THREE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

5.15 Torque Under Running Conditions

Let the rotor at standstill have per phase induced e.m.f. E2 , reac-
tance X2 and resistance R2 . Then under running conditions at slip
s,

Rotor e.m.f./phase,E20 = sE2

Rotor reactance/phase,X20 = sX2
q
0
Rotor Impedance / phase, Z2 = R22 + (sX2 )2
E20 sE2
Rotor current/phase,I20 = =
Z20
p
R22 + (sX2 )2
R2
Rotor p.f., cos φ0m = p 2
R2 + (sX2 )2

Figure 5.16:

Running Torque,Tr ∝ E20 I20 cos φ02

∝ φI20 cos φ02
sE2 R2
∝φ× p 2 ×p 2
R2 + (sX2 )2 R2 + (sX22 )2
φsE2 R2
∝ 2
R2 + (sX2 )2
KφsE2 R2
= 2
R2 + (sX2 )2
K1 sE22 R2
= 2
R2 + (sX2 )2
5.16. MAXIMUM TORQUE UNDER RUNNING CONDITIONS 73

If the stator supply voltage V is constant, then stator flux and

hence E2 will be constant.

K2 sR2
∴ T2 =
R22 + (sX2 )2
where K2 is another constant.
It may be seen that running torque is:
1. directly proportional to slip i.e., if slip increases (i.e., motor
speed decreases), the torque will increase and vice-versa.
2. directly proportional to square of supply voltage (∵ E2 ∝ V ) .
3
It can be shown that value of K1 = 2πNs where Ns is in r.p.s.

3 sE22 R2 3 sE22 R2
∴ Tr = × = ×
2πNs R22 + (sX2 )2 2πNs R22 + (sX2 )2
At starting, s = 1 so that starting torque is
3 E22 R2
Ts = ×
2πNs R22 + X22

5.16 Maximum Torque under Running Condi-

tions
K2 sR2
Tr = (5.3)
R22 + s2 X22
In order to find the value of rotor resistance that gives maximum
torque under running conditions, differentiate exp. 5.3 w.r.t. s and
equate the result to zero i.e.,
 
dTr K2 R2 (R22 + s2 X22 ) − 2sX22 (sR2 )
= =0
ds (R22 + s2 X22 )2

or (R22 + s2 X22 ) − 2sX22 = 0

or R22 = s2 X22
or R2 = sX2

Thus for maximum torque (Tm) under running conditions :

Rotor resistance/phase = Fractional slip×Standstill rotor reactance/phase

74 CHAPTER 5. THREE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

Now,
sR2
T ∝
R22 + s2 X22
For maximum torque, R2 = sX2 . Putting R2 = sX2 in the above
expression, the maximum torque Tm is given by;
1
Tm ∝
2X2

Slip corresponding to maximum torque, s = R2 /X2 .

It can be shown that:
3 E2
Tm = × 2 N-m
2πNs 2X2
It is evident from the above equations that:

1. The value of rotor resistance does not alter the value of the
maximum torque but only the value of the slip at which it oc-
curs.

2. The maximum torque varies inversely as the standstill reac-

tance. Therefore, it should be kept as small as possible.

3. The maximum torque varies directly with the square of the

applied voltage.

4. To obtain maximum torque at starting (s = 1), the rotor resis-

tance must be made equal to rotor reactance at standstill.

5.17 Torque-Slip Characteristics

The motor torque under running conditions is given by;
K2 sR2
T =
R22+ s2 X22

If a curve is drawn between the torque and slip for a particu-

lar value of rotor resistance R2 , the graph thus obtained is called
torque-slip characteristic. Fig. (5.17) shows a family of torque-slip
characteristics for a slip-range from s = 0 to s = 1 for various values
of rotor resistance.
5.17. TORQUE-SLIP CHARACTERISTICS 75

Figure 5.17: Torque-Slip Characteristics

The following points may be noted carefully:

1. At s = 0, T = 0 so that torque-slip curve starts from the origin.
2. At normal speed, slip is small so that sX2 is negligible as com-
pared to R2 .
s
∴T ∝
R2
∴T ∝s ∵ ... as R2 is constant

Hence torque slip curve is a straight line from zero slip to a slip
that corresponds to full-load.
3. As slip increases beyond full-load slip, the torque increases and
becomes maximum at s = R2 /X2 . This maximum torque in an
induction motor is called pull-out torque or break-down torque.
Its value is at least twice the full-load value when the motor is
operated at rated voltage and frequency.
4. At lower slip, the induction motor is subjected to maximum
torque, the term s2 X22 s increases very rapidly so that R22 may
be neglected as compared to s2 X22 .
s
∴T ∝
s2 X22
1
∴T ∝ ∵ ... as X2 is constant
s
Thus the torque is now inversely proportional to slip. Hence
torque-slip curve is a rectangular hyperbola.
76 CHAPTER 5. THREE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

5. The maximum torque remains the same and is independent of

the value of rotor resistance. Therefore, the addition of resis-
tance to the rotor circuit does not change the value of maximum
torque but it only changes the value of slip at which maximum
torque occurs.

5.18 Comparison of Induction Motor and Trans-

former
An induction motor may be considered to be a transformer with a
rotating shortcircuited secondary. The stator winding corresponds
to transformer primary and rotor winding to transformer secondary.
However, the following differences between the two are worth noting:

1. Unlike a transformer, the magnetic circuit of a 3-phase induc-

tion motor has an air gap. Therefore, the magnetizing current
in a 3-phase induction motor is much larger than that of the
transformer. For example, in an induction motor, it may be as
high as 30-50 % of rated current whereas it is only 1- 5 % of
rated current in a transformer.

2. In an induction motor, there is an air gap and the stator and

rotor windings are distributed along the periphery of the air
gap rather than concentrated on a core as in a transformer.
Therefore, the leakage reactances of stator and rotor windings
are quite large compared to that of a transformer. (iii) In an
induction motor, the inputs to the stator and rotor are electri-
cal but the output from the rotor is mechanical. However, in
a transformer, input as well as output is electrical. (iv) The
main difference between the induction motor and transformer
lies in the fact that the rotor voltage and its frequency are both
proportional to slip s. If f is the stator frequency, E2 is the per
phase rotor e.m.f. at standstill and X2 is the standstill rotor
reactance/phase, then at any slip s, these values are:
Rotor e.m.f./phase, E20 = sE2
Rotor reactance/phase, X20 = sX2
Rotor frequency, f 0 = sf
5.19. SPEED REGULATION OF INDUCTION MOTORS 77

5.19 Speed Regulation of Induction Motors

Like any other electrical motor, the speed regulation of an induction
motor is given by:
N0 − NF.L.
% age speed Regulation = × 100
NF.L.
where,
N0 = no-load speed of the motor NF.L . = full-load speed of the motor
If the no-load speed of the motor is 800 r.p.m. and its fall-load
speed in 780 r.p.m., then change in speed is 800 - 780 = 20 r.p.m.
and percentage speed regulation = 20 × 100/780 = 2.56 %.
At no load, only a small torque is required to overcome the small
mechanical losses and hence motor slip is small i.e., about 1 %. When
the motor is fully loaded, the slip increases slightly i.e., motor speed
decreases slightly. It is because rotor impedance is low and a small
decrease in speed produces a large rotor current. The increased rotor
current produces a high torque to meet the full load on the motor.
For this reason, the change in speed of the motor from noload to
full-load is small i.e., the speed regulation of an induction motor
is low. The speed regulation of an induction motor is 3 % to 5
%. Although the motor speed does decrease slightly with increased
load, the speed regulation is low enough that the induction motor is
classed as a constant-speed motor.

5.20 Speed Control of 3-phase Induction Mo-

tors
120f
N = (1 − s)Ns = (1 − s) (5.4)
P
An inspection of eq. 5.4 reveals that the speed N of an induction
motor can be varied by changing (i) supply frequency f (ii) number
of poles P on the stator and (iii) slip s. The change of frequency is
generally not possible because the commercial supplies have constant
frequency. Therefore, the practical methods of speed control are
either to change the number of stator poles or the motor slip.

1. Squirrel cage motors :

The speed of a squirrel cage motor is changed by changing the
number of stator poles. Only two or four speeds are possible
78 CHAPTER 5. THREE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

by this method. Two-speed motor has one stator winding that

may be switched through suitable control equipment to provide
two speeds, one of which is half of the other. For instance,
the winding may be connected for either 4 or 8 poles, giving
synchronous speeds of 1500 and 750 r.p.m. Four-speed motors
are equipped with two separate stator windings each of which
provides two speeds. The disadvantages of this method are:

(a) It is not possible to obtain gradual continuous speed control.

(b) Because of the complications in the design and switching of
the interconnections of the stator winding, this method can
provide a maximum of four different synchronous speeds for
any one motor.

2. Wound Rotor Motors :

The speed of wound rotor motors is changed by changing the
motor slip. This can be achieved by;

(a) varying the stator line voltage

(b) varying the resistance of the rotor circuit
(c) inserting and varying a foreign voltage in the rotor circuit

5.21 Power Stages in an Induction Motor

The input electric power fed to the stator of the motor is converted
into mechanical power at the shaft of the motor. The various losses
during the energy conversion are:

1. Fixed Losses :

(a) Stator iron loss

(b) Friction and windage loss

The rotor iron loss is negligible because the frequency of rotor

currents under normal running condition is small.

2. Variable Losses :

(a) Stator copper loss

(b) Rotor copper loss
5.22. INDUCTION MOTOR TORQUE 79

Figure 5.18: Power Stages in an induction motor

The following points may be noted from the above diagram:

• Stator input, Pi = Stator output + Stator losses
Stator input, Pi = Stator output + Stator Iron loss + Stator
Cu loss
• Rotor input, Pr = Stator output
It is because stator output is entirely transferred to the rotor
through airgap by electromagnetic induction.
• Mechanical power available, Pm = Pr - Rotor Cu loss
This mechanical power available is the gross rotor output and
will produce a gross torque Tg .
• Mechanical power at shaft, Pout = Pm - Friction and windage
loss
Mechanical power available at the shaft produces a shaft torque
Tsh .
Clearly, Pm − Pout = Friction and windage loss

5.22 Induction Motor Torque

The mechanical power P available from any electric motor can be
expressed as:
2πN T
P = watts
60
where,
N = speed of the motor in r.p.m.
T = torque developed in N-m

60 P
∴T = N-m
2π N
80 CHAPTER 5. THREE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

If the gross output of the rotor of an induction motor is Pm and its

speed is N r.p.m., then gross torque T developed is given by:

Pm
Tg = 9.55 N-m
N
Similarly,
Pout
Tsh = 9.55 N-m
N
Note : Since windage and friction loss is small, Tg = Tsh . This
assumption hardly leads to any significant error.

5.23 Rotor Output

If Tg newton-metre is the gross torque developed and N r.p.m. is
the speed of the rotor, then,
2πN Tg
Gross Rotor Output = watts
60
If there were no copper losses in the rotor, the output would equal
rotor input and the rotor would run at synchronous speed Ns .
2πNs Tg
∴ Rotor input = watts
60
∴ Rotor Copper Loss = Rotor Input − Rotor Output
2πTg
∴= (Ns − N )
60
1.
Rotor Cu Loss Ns − N
= =s
RotorInput Ns
∴ Rotor Cu Loss = s × Rotor Input

2.

Gross Rotor Output, Pm = Rotor Input − Rotor Cu Loss

= Rotor Input − s × Rotor Input
∴ Pm = Rotor Input(1 − s)

3.
Gross Rotor Output N
=1−s=
Rotor Input Ns
5.24. EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF 3-PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR AT ANY SLIP81

4.
Rotor Cu Loss s
=
Gross RotorOutput 1 − s
It is clear that if the input power to rotor is Pr then sPr is lost
as rotor Cu loss and the remaining (1 − s)Pr is converted into
mechanical power. Consequently, induction motor operating at
high slip has poor efficiency.

Note:
Gross Rotor Output
=1−s
Rotor Input
If the stator losses as well as friction and windage losses arc neglected,
then,

Gross Rotor Output = Useful Output

Rotor Input = Stator Input
Useful Output
∴ = 1 − s = Efficiency
Stator Output
Hence the approximate efficiency of an induction motor is 1 − s.
Thus if the slip of an induction motor is 0.125, then its approximate
efficiency is = 1 - 0.125 = 0.875 or 87.5 %.

5.24 Equivalent Circuit of 3-Phase Induction Mo-

tor at Any Slip
In a 3-phase induction motor, the stator winding is connected to
3-phase supply and the rotor winding is short-circuited. The energy
is transferred magnetically from the stator winding to the short-
circuited, rotor winding. Therefore, an induction motor may be
considered to be a transformer with a rotating secondary (short-
circuited). The stator winding corresponds to transformer primary
and the rotor finding corresponds to transformer secondary. In view
of the similarity of the flux and voltage conditions to those in a
transformer, one can expect that the equivalent circuit of an induc-
tion motor will be similar to that of a transformer. Fig. (5.19)
shows the equivalent circuit (though not the only one) per phase
for an induction motor. Let us discuss the stator and rotor circuits
separately.
82 CHAPTER 5. THREE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

Figure 5.19: Equivalent Circuit Per Phase of Induction Motor

Stator circuit: In the stator, the events are very similar to those
in the transformer primal y. The applied voltage per phase to the
stator is V1 and R1 and X1 are the stator resistance and leakage
reactance per phase respectively. The applied voltage V1 produces a
magnetic flux which links the stator winding (i.e., primary) as well as
the rotor winding (i.e., secondary). As a result, self induced e.m.f.
E1 is induced in the stator winding and mutually induced e.m.f.
E20 (= sE2 = sKE1 where K is transformation ratio) is induced in
the rotor winding. The flow of stator current I1 causes voltage drops
in R1 and X1 .
∴ V1 = −E1 + I1 (R1 + jX1 ) ...phasor sum
When the motor is at no-load, the stator winding draws a cur-
rent I0 . It has two components viz., (i) which supplies the no-load
motor losses and (ii) magnetizing component Im which sets up mag-
netic flux in the core and the airgap. The parallel combination of
Rc and Xm , therefore, represents the no-load motor losses and the
production of magnetic flux respectively.
I0 = Iw + Im
Rotor circuit : Here R2 and X2 represent the rotor resistance
and standstill rotor reactance per phase respectively. At any slip
s, the rotor reactance will be sX2 The induced voltage/phase in
the rotor is E20 = sE2 = sKE1 . Since the rotor winding is short-
circuited, the whole of e.m.f. E20 is used up in circulating the rotor
current I20 .
∴ E20 = I20 (R2 + jsX2 )
The rotor current I20 is reflected as I2 ”(= KI20 ) in the stator. The
phasor sum of I2 ” and I0 gives the stator current I1 .
5.24. EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF 3-PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR AT ANY SLIP83

It is important to note that input to the primary and output

from the secondary of a transformer are electrical. However, in an
induction motor, the inputs to the stator and rotor are electrical but
the output from the rotor is mechanical. To facilitate calculations,
it is desirable and necessary to replace the mechanical load by an
equivalent electrical load. We then have the transformer equivalent
circuit of the induction motor.
It may be noted that even though the frequencies of stator and
rotor currents are different, yet the magnetic fields due to them rotate
at synchronous speed Ns . The stator currents produce a magnetic
flux which rotates at a speed Ns. At slip s, the speed of rotation of
the rotor field relative to the rotor surface in the direction of rotation
of the rotor is
120f 0 120sf
= = = sNs
P P
But the rotor is revolving at a speed of N relative to the stator core.
Therefore, the speed of rotor field relative to stator core
= sNs + N = (Ns − N ) + N = Ns
Thus no matter what the value of slip s, the stator and rotor
magnetic fields are synchronous with each other when seen by an
observer stationed in space. Consequently, the 3-phase induction
motor can be regarded as being equivalent to a transformer having an
air-gap separating the iron portions of the magnetic circuit carrying
the primary and secondary windings.
Fig. (5.20) shows the phasor diagram of induction motor.

Figure 5.20: Phasor Diagram of Induction Motor

84 CHAPTER 5. THREE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

5.25 Equivalent Circuit of the Rotor

Fig. (5.21 (i)) shows the equivalent circuit per phase of the rotor at
slip s. The rotor phase current is given by;
sE2
I20 = p 2
R2 + (sX2 )2
Mathematically, this value is unaltered by writing it as:
E2
I20 = p
(R2 /s)2 + (X2 )2
As shown in Fig. (8.25 (ii)), we now have a rotor circuit that has
a fixed reactance X2 connected in series with a variable resistance
R2 /s and supplied with constant voltage E2 . Note that Fig. (5.21
(ii)) transfers the variable to the resistance without altering power
or power factor conditions.

Figure 5.21:

The quantity R2 /sis greater than R2 since s is a fraction. There-

fore, R2 /s can be divided into a fixed part R2 and a variable part
(R2 /s − R2 ) i.e.,  
R2 1
= R2 + R2 −1
s s
1. The first part R2 is the rotor resistance/phase, and represents
the rotor Cu loss.
2. The second part R2 1s − 1 is a variable-resistance load. The

power delivered to this load represents the total mechanical

power developed in the rotor. Thus mechanical load on the
induction motor can
be replaced by a variable-resistance load
1
of value R2 s − 1 . This is
 
1
∴ RL = R2 −1
s
5.26. TRANSFORMER EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF INDUCTION MOTOR85

Fig. (5.21 (iii)) shows the equivalent rotor circuit along with load
resistance RL .

5.26 Transformer Equivalent Circuit of Induc-

tion Motor
Fig. (5.22) shows the equivalent circuit per phase of a 3-phase in-
duction motor. Note that mechanical load on the motor has been
replaced by an equivalent electrical resistance RL given by;
 
1
∴ RL = R2 −1
s

Note that circuit shown in Fig. (5.22) is similar to the equivalent

circuit of a transformer with secondary load equal to R2 given by eq.
(i). The rotor e.m.f. in the equivalent circuit now depends only on
the transformation ratio K(= E2 /E1 ).

Figure 5.22: Equivalent Circuit per phase of a 3-phase induction motor

Therefore; induction motor can be represented as an equivalent

transformer connected to a variable-resistance load RL given by eq.
(i). The power delivered to RL represents the total mechanical power
developed in the rotor. Since the equivalent circuit of Fig. (5.22) is
that of a transformer, the secondary (i.e., rotor) values can be trans-
ferred to primary (i.e., stator) through the appropriate use of trans-
formation ratio K. Recall that when shifting resistance/reactance
from secondary to primary, it should be divided by K2 whereas cur-
rent should be multiplied by K. The equivalent circuit of an induc-
tion motor referred to primary is shown in Fig. (5.23).
86 CHAPTER 5. THREE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

Figure 5.23: Equivalent circuit of induction motor as referred to primary side

Note that the element (i.e., R20 ) enclosed in the dotted box is
the equivalent electrical resistance related to the mechanical load on
the motor. The following points may be noted from the equivalent
circuit of the induction motor:

1. At no-load, the slip is practically zero and the load RL0 is infinite.
This condition resembles that in a transformer whose secondary
winding is open-circuited.

2. At standstill, the slip is unity and the load RL0 is zero. This con-
dition resembles that in a transformer whose secondary winding
is short-circuited.

3. When the motor is running under load, the value of RL0 will
depend upon the value of the slip s. This condition resembles
that in a transformer whose secondary is supplying variable and
purely resistive load.

4. The equivalent electrical resistance RL0 related to mechanical

load is slip or speed dependent. If the slip s increases, the load
RL0 decreases and the rotor current increases and motor will
develop more mechanical power. This is expected because the
slip of the motor increases with the increase of load on the motor
shaft.

5.27 Approximate Equivalent Circuit of Induc-

tion Motor
As in case of a transformer, the approximate equivalent circuit of an
induction motor is obtained by shifting the shunt branch (Rc −Xm )to
5.28. STARTING OF 3-PHASE INDUCTION MOTORS 87

the input terminals as shown in Fig. (5.24). This step has been taken
on the assumption that voltage drop in R1 and X1 is small and the
terminal voltage V1 does not appreciably differ from the induced
voltage E1 . Fig. (5.24) shows the approximate equivalent circuit per
phase of an induction motor where all values have been referred to
primary (i.e., stator).

Figure 5.24: Approximate Equivalent Circuit of 3-phase Induction Motor

The above approximate circuit of induction motor is not so readily

justified as with the transformer. This is due to the following reasons:
1. Unlike that of a power transformer, the magnetic circuit of the
induction motor has an air-gap. Therefore, the exciting current
of induction motor (30 to 40 % of full-load current) is much
higher than that of the power transformer. Consequently, the
exact equivalent circuit must be used for accurate results.
2. The relative values of X1 and X2 in an induction motor are
larger than the corresponding ones to be found in the trans-
former. This fact does not justify the use of approximate equiv-
alent circuit
3. In a transformer, the windings are concentrated whereas in an
induction motor, the windings are distributed. This affects the
transformation ratio.

5.28 Starting of 3-phase Induction Motors

The induction motor is fundamentally a transformer in which the
stator is the primary and the rotor is short-circuited secondary. At
starting, the voltage induced in the induction motor rotor is maxi-
mum (∵ s = 1). Since the rotor impedance is low, the rotor current
88 CHAPTER 5. THREE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

is excessively large. This large rotor current is reflected in the stator

because of transformer action. This results in high starting current
(4 to 10 times the full-load current) in the stator at low power factor
and consequently the value of starting torque is low. Because of the
short duration, this value of large current does not harm the motor if
the motor accelerates normally. However, this large starting current
will produce large line-voltage drop. This will adversely affect the
operation of other electrical equipment connected to the same lines.
Therefore, it is desirable and necessary to reduce the magnitude of
stator current at starting and several methods are available for this
purpose.

5.29 Methods of Starting of 3-phase Induction

Motors
The method to be employed in starting a given induction motor
depends upon the size of the motor and the type of the motor. The
common methods used to start induction motors are:

1. Direct-on-line starting

2. Stator resistance starting

3. Autotransformer starting

4. Star-delta starting

5. Rotor resistance starting

Methods (1) to (4) are applicable to both squirrel-cage and slip

ring motors. However, method (5) is applicable only to slip ring
motors. In practice, any one of the first four methods is used for
starting squirrel cage motors, depending upon, the size of the mo-
tor. But slip ring motors are invariably started by rotor resistance
starting.

5.30 Methods of Starting Squirrel-Cage Motors

Except direct-on-line starting, all other methods of starting squirrel-
cage motors employ reduced voltage across motor terminals at start-
ing.
5.30. METHODS OF STARTING SQUIRREL-CAGE MOTORS 89

5.30.1 Direct-on-line starting

This method of starting in just what the name implies—the motor is
started by connecting it directly to 3-phase supply. The impedance
of the motor at standstill is relatively low and when it is directly
connected to the supply system, the starting current will be high (4
to 10 times the full-load current) and at a low power factor. Con-
sequently, this method of starting is suitable for relatively small (up
to 7.5 kW) machines.
Relation between starling and F.L. torques :
We know that:
Rotor Input = 2πNs T = kT

But, Rotor Cu Loss = s × Rotor Input

∴ 3(I20 )2 R2 = s × KT
(I20 )2
or T ∝
s
(I1 )2
or T ∝ (∵ I20 ∝ I1 )
s
If Ist is the starting current, then starting torque (Tst ) is
T ∝2st (∵ at startings = 1)
If If is the full-load current and sf is the full-load slip, then,
If2
Tf ∝
sf
 2
Tst Ist
∴ = × sf
Tf If
When the motor is started direct-on-line, the starting current is
the short-circuit (blocked-rotor) current Isc .
 2
Tst Isc
∴ = × sf
Tf If
Suppose Isc = 5If and full-load slip sf = 0.04. Then,
 2  2
Tst Ist 5If
∴ = × sf = × 0.04 = 1
Tf If If
∴ Tst = Tf
90 CHAPTER 5. THREE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

Note that starting current is as large as five times the full-load

current but starting torque is just equal to the full-load torque.
Therefore, starting current is very high and the starting torque is
comparatively low. If this large starting current flows for a long
time, it may overheat the motor and damage the insulation.

5.30.2 Stator Resistance Starting

In this method, external resistances are connected in series with each

phase of stator winding during starting. This causes voltage drop
across the resistances so that voltage available across motor terminals
is reduced and hence the starting current. The starting resistances
are gradually cut out in steps (two or more steps) from the stator
circuit as the motor picks up speed. When the motor attains rated
speed, the resistances are completely cut out and full line voltage is
applied to the rotor.
This method suffers from two drawbacks. First, the reduced volt-
age applied to the motor during the starting period lowers the start-
ing torque and hence increases the accelerating time. Secondly, a lot
of power is wasted in the starting resistances.

Figure 5.25: Stator Resistance Starting

Relation between starting and F.L. torques:

Let V be the rated voltage/phase.
If the voltage is reduced by a fraction x by the insertion of resistors
5.30. METHODS OF STARTING SQUIRREL-CAGE MOTORS 91

in the line, then voltage applied to the motor per phase will be xV .
Ist = xIsc
 2
Tst Ist
Now, = × sf
Tf If
 2
Tst Isc
or, = x2 × sf
Tf If
Thus while the starting current reduces by a fraction x of the
rated-voltage starting current (Isc ), the starting torque is reduced
by a fraction x2 of that obtained by direct switching. The reduced
voltage applied to the motor during the starting period lowers the
starting current but at the same time increases the accelerating time
because of the reduced value of the starting torque. Therefore, this
method is used for starting small motors only.

5.30.3 Autotransformer Starting

This method also aims at connecting the induction motor to a re-
duced supply at starting and then connecting it to the full voltage
as the motor picks up sufficient speed. Fig. (5.26) shows the circuit
arrangement for autotransformer starting. The tapping on the au-
totransformer is so set that when it is in the circuit, 65 % to 80 %
of line voltage is applied to the motor.

Figure 5.26: Autotransformer starting

At the instant of starting, the change-over switch is thrown to

“start” position. This puts the autotransformer in the circuit and
thus reduced voltage is applied to the circuit. Consequently, start-
ing current is limited to safe value. When the motor attains about
92 CHAPTER 5. THREE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

80 % of normal speed, the changeover switch is thrown to “run”

position. This takes out the autotransformer from the circuit and
puts the motor to full line voltage. Autotransformer starting has
several advantages viz low power loss, low starting current and less
radiated heat. For large machines (over 25 H.P.), this method of
starting is often used. This method can be used for both star and
delta connected motors.
Relation between starting And F.L. torques :
Consider a star-connected squirrel-cage induction motor. If V is the
line√voltage, then voltage across motor phase on direct switching is
V / 3 and starting current is Ist = Isc . In case of autotransformer, if
a tapping of transformation ratio
√ K (a fraction) is used, then phase
voltage across motor is KV / 3 and Ist = KIsc .
Now,
 2  2  2
Tst Ist KIsc Isc
= × sf = × sf = K 2 × sf
Tf If If If
 2
Tst 2 Isc
∴ =K × sf
Tf If

Figure 5.27:

The current taken from the supply or by autotransformer is I1 =

KI2 = K 2 Isc . Note that motor current is K times, the supply line
current is K 2 times and the starting torque is K 2 times the value it
would have been on direct-on-line starting.

5.30.4 Star-delta starting

The stator winding of the motor is designed for delta operation and
is connected in star during the starting period. When the machine
5.30. METHODS OF STARTING SQUIRREL-CAGE MOTORS 93

is up to speed, the connections are changed to delta. The circuit

arrangement for star-delta starting is shown in Fig. (5.28).

Figure 5.28: Star-Delta Starting

The six leads of the stator windings are connected to the changeover
switch as shown. At the instant of starting, the changeover switch
is thrown to “Start” position which connects √ the stator windings in
star. Therefore, each stator phase gets V / 3 volts where V is the
line voltage. This reduces the starting current. When the motor
picks up speed, the changeover switch is thrown to “Run” position
which connects the stator windings in delta. Now each stator phase
gets full line voltage V. The disadvantages of this method are:

1. With
√ star-connection during starting, stator phase voltage is
1/ √3 times the line voltage. Consequently, starting torque is
(1/ 3)2 or 1/3 times the value it would have with 4-connection.
This is rather a large reduction in starting torque.

2. The reduction in voltage is fixed.

This method of starting is used for medium-size machines (upto

about 25 H.P.).
Relation between starting and F.L. torques :
In direct delta starting,
Starting current/phase, √ Isc = V /Zsc where V = line voltage
Starting line current = 3Isc In star starting, we have,
√
V/ 3 1
Starting Current/phase, Ist = = √ Isc
Zsc 3
94 CHAPTER 5. THREE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

Now,
 2 !2
Tst Ist I
= × sf = √ sc × sf
Tf If 3 × If
 2
Tst 1 Isc
∴ = × sf
Tf 3 If
where,
Isc = starting phase current (delta) If = F.L. phase current (delta)
Note that in star-delta starting, the starting line current is re-
duced to one-third as compared to starting with the winding delta
connected. Further, starting torque is reduced to one-third of that
obtainable by direct delta starting. This method is cheap but lim-
ited to applications where high starting torque is not necessary e.g.,
machine tools, pumps etc.

5.31 Starting of Slip Ring Motors

Slip-ring motors are invariably started by rotor resistance starting.
In this method, a variable star-connected rheostat is connected in
the rotor circuit through slip rings and full voltage is applied to the
stator winding as shown in Fig. (5.29).

Figure 5.29: Starting of Slip Ring Motors

1. At starting, the handle of rheostat is set in the OFF position

so that maximum resistance is placed in each phase of the rotor
circuit. This reduces the starting current and at the same time
starting torque is increased.
2. As the motor picks up speed, the handle of rheostat is grad-
ually moved in clockwise direction and cuts out the external
5.32. SLIP-RING MOTORS VERSUS SQUIRREL CAGE MOTORS 95

resistance in each phase of the rotor circuit. When the motor

attains normal speed, the change-over switch is in the ON posi-
tion and the whole external resistance is cut out from the rotor
circuit.

5.32 Slip-Ring Motors Versus Squirrel Cage Mo-

tors
The slip-ring induction motors have the following advantages over
the squirrel cage motors:
1. High starting torque with low starting current.
2. Smooth acceleration under heavy loads.
3. No abnormal heating during starting.
4. Good running characteristics after external rotor resistances are
cut out.
5. Adjustable speed.
The disadvantages of slip-ring motors are:
1. The initial and maintenance costs are greater than those of
squirrel cage motors.
2. The speed regulation is poor when run with resistance in the
rotor circuit

5.33 Induction Motor Rating

The nameplate of a 3-phase induction motor provides the following
information:
1. Horsepower
2. Line voltage
3. Line current
4. Speed
5. Frequency
6. Temperature rise
96 CHAPTER 5. THREE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

The horsepower rating is the mechanical output of the motor

when it is operated at rated line voltage, rated frequency and rated
speed. Under these conditions, the line current is that specified
on the nameplate and the temperature rise does not exceed that
specified.
The speed given on the nameplate is the actual speed of the mo-
tor at rated fullload; it is not the synchronous speed. Thus, the
nameplate speed of the induction motor might be 1710 r.p.m. It is
the rated full-load speed.
Chapter 6

Single Phase Induction Motors

6.1 Types of Single Phase Motors

Single-phase motors are generally built in the fractional-horsepower
range and may be classified into the following four basic types:
1. Single-phase induction motors
(a) split-phase type
(b) capacitor type
(c) shaded-pole type
2. A.C. series motor or universal motor
3. Repulsion motors
(a) Repulsion-start induction-run motor
(b) Repulsion-induction motor
4. Synchronous motors
(a) Reluctance motor
(b) Hysteresis motor

6.2 Single Phase Induction Motors

A single phase induction motor is very similar to a 3-phase squirrel
cage induction motor. It has (i) a squirrel-cage rotor identical to a
3-phase motor and (ii) a single-phase winding on the stator.
Unlike a 3-phase induction motor, a single-phase induction motor
is not selfstarting but requires some starting means. The single-
phase stator winding produces a magnetic field that pulsates in

97
98 CHAPTER 6. SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTORS

strength in a sinusoidal manner. The field polarity reverses after

each half cycle but the field does not rotate. Consequently, the al-
ternating flux cannot produce rotation in a stationary squirrel-cage
rotor. However, if the rotor of a single-phase motor is rotated in one
direction by some mechanical means, it will continue to run in the di-
rection of rotation. As a matter of fact, the rotor quickly accelerates
until it reaches a speed slightly below the synchronous speed. Once
the motor is running at this speed, it will continue to rotate even
though single-phase current is flowing through the stator winding.
This method of starting is generally not convenient for large motors.
Nor can it be employed fur a motor located at some inaccessible
spot.

Figure 6.1: Single Phase Induction Motor having squirrel cage rotor

Fig. (6.1) shows single-phase induction motor having a squirrel

cage rotor and a single phase distributed stator winding. Such a
motor inherently docs not develop any starting torque and, therefore,
will not start to rotate if the stator winding is connected to single-
phase a.c. supply. However, if the rotor is started by auxiliary
means, the motor will quickly attain me final speed. This strange
behaviour of single-phase induction motor can be explained on the
basis of double-field revolving theory.

6.3 Making Single Phase Motors Self Starting

The single-phase induction motor is not self starting and it is unde-
sirable to resort to mechanical spinning of the shaft or pulling a belt
to start it. To make a single-phase induction motor self-starting,
we should somehow produce a revolving stator magnetic field. This
may be achieved by converting a single-phase supply into two-phase
6.4. SPLIT-PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR 99

supply through the use of an additional winding. When the motor

attains sufficient speed, the starting means (i.e., additional winding)
may be removed depending upon the type of the motor. As a mat-
ter of fact, single-phase induction motors are classified and named
according to the method employed to make them self-starting.

Figure 6.2:

1. Split-phase motors-started by two phase motor action through

the use of an auxiliary or starting winding.

2. Capacitor motors-started by two-phase motor action through

the use of an auxiliary winding and a capacitor.

3. Shaded-pole motors-started by the motion of the magnetic field

produced by means of a shading coil around a portion of the
pole structure.

6.4 Split-Phase Induction Motor

The stator of a split-phase induction motor is provided with an aux-
iliary or starting winding S in addition to the main or running wind-
ing M . The starting winding is located 90o electrical from the main
winding [See Fig. (6.3 (i))] and operates only during the brief period
when the motor starts up. The two windings are so resigned that
the starting winding S has a high resistance and relatively small re-
actance while the main winding M has relatively low resistance and
large reactance as shown in the schematic connections in Fig. (6.3
(ii)). Consequently, the currents flowing in the two windings have
reasonable phase difference c (25o to 30o as shown in the phasor
diagram in Fig. (6.3 (iii)).
100 CHAPTER 6. SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTORS

Figure 6.3: Split Phase Induction Motor

Operation :
1. When the two stator windings are energized from a single-phase
supply, the main winding carries current Im while the starting
winding carries current Is . (ii) Since main winding is made
highly inductive while the starting winding highly resistive, the
currents Im and Is have a reasonable phase angle a (25o to 30o )
between them as shown in Fig. (6.3 (iii)). Consequently, a weak
revolving field approximating to that of a 2-phase machine is
produced which starts the motor. The starting torque is given
by;
Ts = kIm Is sin α
where k is a constant whose magnitude depends upon the design
of the motor.
2. When the motor reaches about 75 % of synchronous speed, the
centrifugal switch opens the circuit of the starting winding. The
motor then operates as a single-phase induction motor and con-
tinues to accelerate till it reaches the normal speed. The normal
speed of the motor is below the synchronous speed and depends
upon the load on the motor.
Characteristics :
1. The staring torque is 15 to 2 times the full-load torque mid (lie
starting current is 6 to 8 times the full-load current.
2. Due to their low cost, split-phase induction motors are most
popular single phase motors in the market.
6.5. CAPACITOR-START MOTOR 101

3. Since the starting winding is made of fine wire, the current

density is high and the winding heats up quickly. If the starting
period exceeds 5 seconds, the winding may burn out unless the
motor is protected by built-in-thermal relay. This motor is,
therefore, suitable where starting periods are not frequent.
4. An important characteristic of these motors is that they are
essentially constant-speed motors. The speed variation is 2-5 %
from no-load to fullload.
5. These motors are suitable where a moderate starting torque is
required and where starting periods are infrequent e.g., to drive:

(a) Fans
(b) Washing Machines
(c) Oil Burners
(d) Small Machine Tools etc.

The power rating of such motors generally lies between 60 W and

250 W.

6.5 Capacitor-Start Motor

The capacitor-start motor is identical to a split-phase motor except
that the starting winding has as many turns as the main winding.
Moreover, a capacitor C is connected in series with the starting
winding as shown in Fig. (6.4 (i)).

Figure 6.4: Capacitor Start Motor

The value of capacitor is so chosen that Is leads Im by about

80o (i.e., α ≈ 80o ) which is considerably greater than 25o found in
102 CHAPTER 6. SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTORS

split-phase motor [See Fig. (6.4(ii))]. Consequently, starting torque

(Ts = kIm Is sin α) is much more than that of a split-phase motor
Again, the starting winding is opened by the centrifugal switch when
the motor attains about 75 % of synchronous speed. The motor
then operates as a single-phase induction motor and continues to
accelerate till it reaches the normal speed.
Characteristics :

1. Although starting characteristics of a capacitor-start motor are

better than those of a split-phase motor, both machines possess
the same running characteristics because the main windings are
identical.

2. The phase angle between the two currents is about 80o compared
to about 25o in a split-phase motor. Consequently, for the same
starting torque, the current in the starting winding is only about
half that in a split-phase motor. Therefore, the starting winding
of a capacitor start motor heats up less quickly and is well suited
to applications involving either frequent or prolonged starting
periods.

3. Capacitor-start motors are used where high starting torque is

required and where the starting period may be long e.g., to
drive:

(a) compressors
(b) large fans
(c) pumps
(d) high inertia loads

The power rating of such motors lies between 120 W and 7-5 kW.

6.6 Capacitor-Start Capacitor-Run Motor

This motor is identical to a capacitor-start motor except that start-
ing winding is not opened after starting so that both the windings
remain connected to the supply when running as well as at starting.
Two designs are generally used.
6.7. SHADED POLE MOTOR 103

Figure 6.5: Capacitor Start Capacitor Run Motor

1. In one design, a single capacitor C is used for both starting and

running as shown in Fig.(6.5 (i)). This design eliminates the
need of a centrifugal switch and at the same time improves the
power factor and efficiency of the motor.

2. In the other design, two capacitors C1 and C2 are used in the

starting winding as shown in Fig. (6.5 (ii)). The smaller capac-
itor C1 required for optimum running conditions is permanently
connected in series with the starting winding. The much larger
capacitor C2 is connected in parallel with C1 for optimum start-
ing and remains in the circuit during starting. The starting ca-
pacitor C1 is disconnected when the motor approaches about 75
% of synchronous speed. The motor then runs as a single-phase
induction motor.

Characteristics :

1. The starting winding and the capacitor can be designed for

perfect 2-phase operation at any load. The motor then produces
a constant torque and not a pulsating torque as in other single-
phase motors.

2. Because of constant torque, the motor is vibration free and can

be used in: (a) hospitals (b) studios and (c) other places where
silence is important.

6.7 Shaded Pole Motor

popular for ratings below 0.05 H.P. (≈ 40W ) because of its extremely
simple construction. It has salient poles on the stator excited by
104 CHAPTER 6. SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTORS

single-phase supply and a squirrel cage rotor as shown in Fig. (6.6).

A portion of each pole is surrounded by a short-circuited turn of
copper strip called shading coil.

Figure 6.6: Shaded Pole Motor

Operation :
The operation of the motor can be understood by referring to Fig.
(6.6) which shows one pole of the motor with a shading coil.

1. During the portion OA of the alternating-current cycle [See Fig.

(6.7)], the flux begins to increase and an e.m.f. is induced in the
shading coil. The resulting current in the shading coil will be in
such a direction (Lenz’s law) so as to oppose the change in flux.
Thus the flux in the shaded portion of the pole is weakened
while that in the unshaded portion is strengthened as shown in
Fig. (6.7 (ii)).

2. During the portion AB of the alternating-current cycle, the flux

has reached almost maximum value and is not changing. Con-
sequently, the flux distribution across the pole is uniform [See
Fig. (6.7 (iii))] since no current is flowing in the shading coil.
As the flux decreases (portion BC of the alternating current
cycle), current is induced in the shading coil so as to oppose
the decrease in current. Thus the flux in the shaded portion of
the pole is strengthened while that in the unshaded portion is
weakened as shown in Fig. (6.7 (iv)).
6.7. SHADED POLE MOTOR 105

Figure 6.7:

3. The effect of the shading coil is to cause the field flux to shift
across the pole face from the unshaded to the shaded portion.
This shifting flux is like a rotating weak field moving in the
direction from unshaded portion to the shaded portion of the
pole.
4. The rotor is of the squirrel-cage type and is under the influence
of this moving field. Consequently, a small starting torque is
developed. As soon as this torque starts to revolve the rotor,
additional torque is produced by single-phase induction-motor
action. The motor accelerates to a speed slightly below the
synchronous speed and runs as a single-phase induction motor.
Characteristics :
1. The salient features of this motor are extremely simple con-
struction and absence of centrifugal switch.
2. Since starting torque, efficiency and power factor are very low,
these motors are only suitable for low power applications e.g.,
to drive: (a) small fans (b) toys (c) hair driers (d) desk fans etc.
The power rating of such motors is upto about 30 W.
106 CHAPTER 6. SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTORS

6.8 A.C. Series Motor or Universal Motor

A d.c. series motor will rotate in the same direction regardless of

the polarity of the supply. One can expect that a d.c. series motor
would also operate on a single-phase supply. It is then called an a.c.
series motor. However, some changes must be made in a d.c. motor
that is to operate satisfactorily on a.c. supply. The changes effected
are:

1. The entire magnetic circuit is laminated in order to reduce the

eddy current loss. Hence an a.c. series motor requires a more
expensive construction than a d.c. series motor.

2. The series field winding uses as few turns as possible to reduce

the reactance of the field winding to a minimum. This reduces
the voltage drop across the field winding.

3. A high field flux is obtained by using a low-reluctance magnetic

circuit.

4. There is considerable sparking between the brushes and the

commutator when the motor is used on a.c. supply. It is be-
cause the alternating flux establishes high currents in the coils
short-circuited by the brushes. When the short-circuited coils
break contact from the commutator, excessive sparking is pro-
duced. This can be eliminated by using high-resistance leads to
connect the coils to the commutator segments.

Construction : The construction of en a.c. series motor is very

similar to a d.c. series motor except that above modifications are
incorporated [See Fig. (6.8)]. Such a motor can be operated either
on a.c. or d.c. supply and the resulting torque-speed curve is about
the same in each case. For this reason, it is sometimes called a
universal motor.
6.8. A.C. SERIES MOTOR OR UNIVERSAL MOTOR 107

Figure 6.8: A.C. Series Motor

Operation : When the motor is connected to an a.c. supply, the

same alternating current flows through the field and armature wind-
ings. The field winding produces an alternating flux φ that reacts
with the current flowing in the armature to produce a torque. Since
both armature current and flux reverse simultaneously, the torque
always acts in the same direction. It may be noted that no rotating
flux is produced in this type of machines; the principle of operation
is the same as that of a d.c. series motor.
Characteristics : The operating characteristics of an a.c. series
motor are similar to those of a d.c. series motor.

1. The speed increases to a high value with a decrease in load. In

very small series motors, the losses are usually large enough at
no load that limit the speed to a definite value (1500 - 15,000
r.p.m.).

2. The motor torque is high for large armature currents, thus giv-
ing a high starting torque.

3. At full-load, the power factor is about 90 %. However, at start-

ing or when carrying an overload, the power factor is lower.

Applications : The fractional horsepower a.c. series motors have

high-speed (and corresponding small size) and large starting torque.
They can, therefore, be used to drive:

1. High-speed Vacuum Cleaners

2. Sewing Machines
108 CHAPTER 6. SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTORS

3. Electric Shavers

4. Drills

5. Machine Tools etc.

6.9 Single Phase Repulsion Motor

A repulsion motor is similar to an a.c. series motor except that:

1. brushes are not connected to supply but are short-circuited [See

Fig. (6.9)]. Consequently, currents are induced in the armature
conductors by transformer action.

2. the field structure has non-salient pole construction.

By adjusting the position of short-circuited brushes on the com-

mutator, the starting torque can be developed in the motor.
Construction :

Figure 6.9: Single Phase Repulsion Motor

The field of stator winding is wound like the main winding of a

split-phase motor and is connected directly to a single-phase source.
The armature or rotor is similar to a d.c. motor armature with drum
type winding connected to a commutator (not shown in the figure).
However, the brushes are not connected to supply but are connected
to each other or short-circuited. Short-circuiting the brushes ef-
fectively makes the rotor into a type of squirrel cage. The major
difficulty with an ordinary single-phase induction motor is the low
starting torque. By using a commutator motor with brushes short-
circuited, it is possible to vary the starting torque by changing the
6.9. SINGLE PHASE REPULSION MOTOR 109

brush axis. It has also better power factor than the conventional
single-phase motor.
Principle of Operation :
The principle of operation is illustrated in Fig. (6.9) which shows a
two-pole repulsion motor with its two short-circuited brushes. The
two drawings of Fig. (6.9) represent a time at which the field current
is increasing in the direction shown so that the left-hand pole is N-
pole and the right-hand pole is S-pole at the instant shown.

1. In Fig. (6.9 (i)), the brush axis is parallel to the stator field.
When the stator winding is energized from single-phase supply,
e.m.f. is induced in the armature conductors (rotor) by induc-
tion. By Lenz’s law, the direction of the e.m.f. is such that the
magnetic effect of the resulting armature currents will oppose
the increase in flux. The direction of current in armature con-
ductors will be as shown in Fig. (6.9 (i)). With the brush axis in
the position shown in Fig. (6.9(i)), current will flow from brush
B to brush A where it enters the armature and flows back to
brush B through the two paths ACB and ADB. With brushes
set in this position, half of the armature conductors under the
N-pole carry current inward and half carry current outward.
The same is true under S-pole. Therefore, as much torque is
developed in one direction as in the other and the armature
remains stationary. The armature will also remain stationary
if the brush axis is perpendicular to the stator field axis. It is
because even then net torque is zero.
2. If the brush axis is at some angle other than 0o or 90o to the axis
of the stator field, a net torque is developed on the rotor and
the rotor accelerates to its final speed. Fig. (6.9 (ii)) represents
the motor at the same instant as that in Fig. (6.9 (i)) but
the brushes have been shifted clockwise through some angle
from the stator field axis. Now e.m.f. is still induced in the
direction indicated in Fig. (6.9 (i)) and current flows through
the two paths of the armature winding from brush A to brush B.
However, because of the new brush positions, the greater part of
the conductors under the N pole carry current in one direction
while the greater part of conductors under S-pole carry current
in the opposite direction. With brushes in the position shown
in Fig. (6.9 (ii), torque is developed in the clockwise direction
110 CHAPTER 6. SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTORS

and the rotor quickly attains the final speed.

Figure 6.10:

3. The direction of rotation of the rotor depends upon the direction

in which the brushes are shifted. If the brushes are shifted in
clockwise direction from the stator field axis, the net torque
acts in the clockwise direction and the rotor accelerates in the
clockwise direction. If the brushes are shifted in anti-clockwise
direction as in Fig. (6.10). the armature current under the pole
faces is reversed and the net torque is developed in the anti-
clockwise direction. Thus a repulsion motor may be made to
rotate in either direction depending upon the direction in which
the brushes are shifted.
4. The total armature torque in a repulsion motor can be shown
to be
T a ∝ sin 2α

where α = angle between brush axis and stator field axis.

For maximum torque, 2α = 90o or α = 45o Thus adjusting a
to 45o at starting, maximum torque can be obtained during the
starting period. However, a has to be adjusted to give a suitable
running speed.

Characteristics :
1. The repulsion motor has characteristics very similar to those of
an a.c. series motor i.e., it has a high starting torque and a high
speed at no load.
2. The speed which the repulsion motor develops for any given
load will depend upon the position of the brushes.
6.10. REPULSION-START INDUCTION-RUN MOTOR 111

3. In comparison with other single-phase motors, the repulsion

motor has a high starring torque and relatively low starting
current.

6.10 Repulsion-Start Induction-Run Motor

Sometimes the action of a repulsion motor is combined with that of
a single phase induction motor to produce repulsion-start induction-
run motor (also called repulsion-start motor). The machine is started
as a repulsion motor with a corresponding high starting torque. At
some predetermined speed, a centrifugal device short-circuits the
commutator so that the machine then operates as a single-phase
induction motor.
The repulsion-start induction-run motor has the same general
construction of a repulsion motor. The only difference is that in
addition to the basic repulsion motor construction, it is equipped
with a centrifugal device fitted on the armature shaft. When the
motor reaches 75 % of its full pinning speed, the centrifugal device
forces a short-circuiting ring to come in contact with the inner sur-
face of the commutator. This snort-circuits all the commutator bars.
The rotor then resembles squirrel-cage type and the motor runs as
a single-phase induction motor. At the same time, the centrifugal
device raises the brushes from the commutator which reduces the
wear of the brushes and commutator as well as makes the operation
quiet.
Characteristics :

1. The starting torque is 2.5 to 4.5 times the full-load torque and
the starting current is 3.75 times the full-load value.

2. Due to their high starting torque, repulsion-motors were used to

operate devices such as refrigerators, pumps, compressors etc.

However, they posed a serious problem of maintenance of brushes,

commutator arid the centrifugal device. Consequently, manufactur-
ers have stopped making them in view of the development of capac-
itor motors which are small in size, reliable and low-priced.
112 CHAPTER 6. SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTORS

6.11 Repulsion-Induction Motor

The repulsion-induction motor produces a high starting torque en-
tirely due to repulsion motor action. When running, it functions
through a combination of induction-motor and repulsion motor ac-
tion.
Construction : Fig. (6.113) shows the connections of a 4-pole
repulsion-induction motor for 230 V operation. It consists of a stator
and a rotor (or armature).

Figure 6.11: Repulsion Induction Motor

1. The stator carries a single distributed winding fed from single-

phase supply.
2. The rotor is provided with two independent windings placed
one inside the other. The inner winding is a squirrel-cage wind-
ing with rotor bars permanently short-circuited. Placed over
the squirrel cage winding is a repulsion commutator armature
winding. The repulsion winding is connected to a commutator
on which ride short-circuited brushes. There is no centrifugal
device and the repulsion winding functions at all times.

Operation :
1. When single-phase supply is given to the stator winding, the
repulsion winding (i.e., outer winding) is active. Consequently,
the motor starts as a repulsion motor with a corresponding high
starting torque.
2. As the motor speed increases, the current shifts from the outer
to inner winding due to the decreasing impedance of the inner
winding with increasing speed. Consequently, at running speed,
6.12. SINGLE-PHASE SYNCHRONOUS MOTORS 113

the squirrel cage winding carries the greater part of rotor cur-
rent. This shifting of repulsion motor action to induction-motor
action is thus achieved without any switching arrangement.

3. It may be seen that the motor starts as a repulsion motor. When

running, it functions through a combination of principle of in-
duction and repulsion; the former being predominant.

Characteristics :

1. The no-load speed of a repulsion-induction motor is somewhat

above the synchronous speed because of the effect of repulsion
winding. However, the speed at full-load is slightly less than
the synchronous speed as in an induction motor.

2. The speed regulation of the motor is about 6 %.

3. The starting torque is 2.25 to 3 times the full-load torque; the

lower value being for large motors. The starting current is 3 to
4 times the full-load current.

This type of motor is used for applications requiring a high start-

ing torque with essentially a constant running speed. The common
sizes are 0.25 to 5 H.P.

6.12 Single-Phase Synchronous Motors

Very small single-phase motors have been developed which run at
true synchronous speed. They do not require d.c. excitation for
the rotor. Because of these characteristics, they are called unexcited
single-phase synchronous motors.
The most commonly used types are:

1. Reluctance motors

2. Hysteresis motors

The efficiency and torque-developing ability of these motors is

low; The output of most of the commercial motors is only a few
watts.
114 CHAPTER 6. SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTORS

6.13 Reluctance Motor

It is a single-phase synchronous motor which does not require d.c.
excitation to the rotor. Its operation is based upon the following
principle:
Whenever a piece of ferromagnetic material is located in a magnetic
field; a force is exerted on the material, tending to align the mate-
rial so that reluctance of the magnetic path that passes through the
material is minimum.

Figure 6.12: Reluctance Motor

Construction : A reluctance motor (also called synchronous reluc-

tance motor) consists of:

1. a stator carrying a single-phase winding along with an auxiliary

winding to produce a synchronous-revolving magnetic field.

2. a squirrel-cage rotor having unsymmetrical magnetic construc-

tion. This is achieved by symmetrically removing some of the
teeth from the squirrel cage rotor to produce salient poles on
the rotor. As shown in Fig. (6.12 (i)), 4 salient poles have been
produced on the rotor. The salient poles created on the rotor
must be equal to the poles on the stator.

Operation :

1. (i) When single-phase stator having an auxiliary winding is en-

ergized, a synchronously-revolving field is produced. The motor
starts as a standard squirrel-cage induction motor and will ac-
celerate to near its synchronous speed.
6.14. HYSTERESIS MOTOR 115

2. As the rotor approaches synchronous speed, the rotating stator

flux will exert reluctance torque on the rotor poles tending to
align the salient-pole axis with the axis of the rotating field. The
rotor assumes a position where its salient poles lock with the
poles of the revolving field [See Fig. (6.12 (ii))]. Consequently,
the motor will continue to run at the speed of revolving flux
i.e., at the synchronous speed.
3. When we apply a mechanical load, the rotor poles fall slightly
behind the stator poles, while continuing to turn at synchronous
speed. As the load on the motor is increased, the mechanical
angle between the poles increases progressively. Nevertheless,
magnetic attraction keeps the rotor locked to the rotating flux.
If the load is increased beyond the amount under which the
reluctance torque can maintain synchronous speed, the rotor
drops out of step with the revolving field. The speed, then,
drops to some value at which the slip is sufficient to develop the
necessary torque to drive the load by induction-motor action.
Characteristics :
1. These motors have poor torque, power factor and efficiency.
2. These motors cannot accelerate high-inertia loads to synchronous
speed.
3. The pull-in and pull-out torques of such motors are weak.
Despite the above drawbacks, the reluctance motor is cheaper
than any other type of synchronous motor. They are widely used for
constant-speed applications such as timing devices, signaling devices
etc.

6.14 Hysteresis Motor

It is a single-phase motor whose operation depends upon the hys-
teresis effect i.e., magnetization produced in a ferromagnetic material
lags behind the magnetizing force.
Construction : It consists of:
1. a stator designed to produce a synchronously-revolving field
from a single-phase supply. This is accomplished by using permanent-
split capacitor type construction. Consequently, both the wind-
ings (i.e., starting as well as main winding) remain connected
116 CHAPTER 6. SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTORS

in the circuit during running operation as well as at starting.

The value of capacitance is so adjusted as to result in a flux
revolving at synchronous speed.
2. a rotor consisting of a smooth cylinder of magnetically hard
steel, without winding or teeth.
Operation :

Figure 6.13: Hysteresis Motor

1. When the stator is energized from a single-phase supply, a syn-

chronously revolving field (assumed in anti-clockwise direction)
is produced due to split-phase operation.
2. The revolving stator flux magnetizes the rotor. Due to hystere-
sis effect, the axis of magnetization of rotor will lag behind the
axis of stator field by hysteresis lag angle a as shown in Fig.
(6.13). Thus the rotor and stator poles are locked. If the rotor
is stationary, the starting torque produced is given by:
Ts ∝ φs φr sin α
where φs = stator flux, φr = rotor flux.
From now onwards, the rotor accelerates to synchronous speed
with a uniform torque.
3. After reaching synchronism, the motor continues to run at syn-
chronous speed and adjusts its torque angle so as to develop the
torque required by the load.
6.14. HYSTERESIS MOTOR 117

Characteristics :
1. A hysteresis motor can synchronize any load which it can accel-
erate, no matter how great the inertia. It is because the torque
is uniform from standstill to synchronous speed.
2. Since the rotor has no teeth or salient poles or winding, a hys-
teresis motor is inherently quiet and produces smooth rotation
of the load.
3. The rotor takes on the same number of poles as the stator field.
Thus by changing the number of stator poles through pole-
changing connections, we can get a set of synchronous speeds
for the motor.
Applications :
Due to their quiet operation and ability to drive high-inertia toads,
hysteresis motors are particularly well suited for driving
1. Electric Clocks
2. Timing Devices
3. Tape-Decks
4. from-tables and other precision Audio-Equipment.
118 CHAPTER 6. SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTORS
Chapter 7

ELECTRICAL
INSTALLATIONS

7.1 Wire and Cable

The use of Conductors and their insulation is regulated by Indian
Electricity (IE) regulation and Indian Standard (IS) Code Of Prac-
tice. Wires and cables are the most common forms of conductors.
They carry electric current through all types of circuits and systems.
A conductor is a wire or cable or any other form of mental, suitable
for carrying current from generating station the point where it is
used.

7.1.1 Difference between Wire and Cable

According to Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS), wire and cable can
be defined as follows :

1. Bare Conductors :They have no covering. The best example

is overhead transmission and distribution lines.

2. Wire: If bare conductors are provided with Insulation, then

it is known as a wire. The insulation separates the conductor
electrically from other conductors.

3. Cable: It consists of two or more conductors covered with suit-

able insulation and surrounded by a protecting cover. The nec-
essary requirements of a cable are that it should conduct elec-
tricity efficiently, cheaply, and safely. This should neither be so
small that it has a large internal voltage drop nor be too large
so that it costs too much. Its insulation should be such that it

119
120 CHAPTER 7. ELECTRICAL INSTALLATIONS

prevents leakage of current in unwanted direction to minimize

risk of fire and shock.
The cable essentially consists of three parts :
(a) Conductor or core- the metal wire, or strand of wires, car-
rying the current
(b) insulation of dielectric- a covering of insulating material to
avoid leakage of current from the conductor and
(c) protective covering for protection of insulation from me-
chanical damage
Basically, there is no difference between a cable and a wire. It
is a relative term. The term cable is used for all heavy section
insulated conductors, whereas a wire means a thin (i.e., smaller)
section insulated conductor used for carrying current from one point
to another point.

7.1.2 Classification of Wires and Cables

The wires/ cables used for domestic or industrial wiring are classified
into different groups as follows :
1. According to the conductor material used
(a) Copper conductor cables
(b) Aluminium conductor cable
2. According to number of cores
(a) Singles core cable (SCC)
(b) Double core or twin core cables (DCC)
(c) Three core cables
(d) four core cables
(e) Two core with earth continuity conductor cables
3. According to type of insulation
(a) Vulcanized Indian rubber (VIR) insulated wires/cables
(b) Tough rubber sheathed (TRS) or cable tyre sheathed (CTS)
cables
(c) Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) cables
7.1. WIRE AND CABLE 121

(d) Lead sheathed cables

(e) Weather proof cables
(f) Flexible cords and cables
(g) XLPE cables

4. According to the voltage at which they are manufactured

(a) Low tension (LT) cables – up to 1000V

(b) High tension (HT) cables – up to 11kV
(c) Super tension (ST) cables – from 22-33kV
(d) Extra high tension (EHT) cables – from 33-66kV
(e) Extra super voltage cables – beyond 132 kV

7.1.3 Specifications of Cables

Cables are specified by providing

1. Size of the cable in metric system (e.g., 19/2.24, 7/1.70, 7/2.24,

7/2.50 etc) giving the Number of strands used and diameter of
each strand, or giving the area of cross- section of conductor
used.

2. Type of conductor used in cables (copper or aluminium)

3. Number of cores that cable consists of e.g. single core, twin

core, three core, four core etc.

4. Voltage grade (240/415V or 650/1100V grade)

5. Type of cable with clear description regarding insulation, shield-

ing, armouring, bedding etc.

A few specifications of a cable are given below:

• 7/20, VIR, aluminium conductor, twin core,650/1100 grade. In

this case, the numerator 7 indicates the number of stands in
cable and denominator 20 represents the gauge number of each
strand. The cable has two cores made with Aluminium, With
VIR insulation and is used for 650/1100 voltage
122 CHAPTER 7. ELECTRICAL INSTALLATIONS

• 19/1.12, aluminium conductor, 3 21 core, 1100V, PVC cable,

PVC sheathed. In this case, the cable consists of 19 strands,
each strand has a diameter of 1.12mm. The conductor is made
with aluminium, insulation is made with PVC, is covered with
PVC sheathing, and is used for 1100V supply system.

7.2 Earthing or Grounding

The process of connecting the metallic frame (i.e., non- current car-
rying part) of electrical equipment or some electrical part of the sys-
tem (e.g., neutral point in a star-connected system, one conductor of
the secondary of a transformer, etc.) to the earth (i.e., soil) is called
grounding or Earthing. The potential of the earth is to be considered
zero for all practical purposes. Earthing is to connect any electri-
cal equipment to earth with a very low resistance wire, making it
to attain earth’s potential, This ensures safe discharge of electrical
energy due to failure of the insulation line coming in contact with
the casing, etc. Earthing brings the potential of the body of the
equipment to zero i.e., to the earth’s potential, thus protecting the
operating personnel against electrical shock.
The earth resistance is affected by the following factors :

1. Material properties of the earth, wire and the electrode

2. Temperature and moisture content of the soil

3. Depth of the pit

4. Quantity of the charcoal used

7.2.1 Necessity of Earthing

The requirement for provision of earthing can be listed as follows :

1. To protect the operating personnel from the danger of shock.

2. To maintain the line voltage constant, under unbalanced load

condition.

3. To avoid risk of fire due to earth leakage current through un-

wanted path.

4. Protection of the equipments.

7.2. EARTHING OR GROUNDING 123

5. Protection of large buildings and all machines fed from overhead

lines against lighting.

7.2.2 Methods of Earthing

The various methods of earthing in common use are :

1. Plate earthing

2. Pipe earthing

3. Rod earthing

4. Strip or wire earthing

Plate earthing

In this method either a copper plate of 60cm × 60cm × 3.18 or GI

plate of 60cm × 60cm × 6.35 is used for earthing. The plate is buried
into the ground not less than 3m from the ground level. The earth
plate is embedded in alternate layers of coal and salt for a thickness
of 15cm as shown in figure (7.1). In addition, water is poured for
keeping the earth’s electrode resistance value below a maximum of
5Ω. The earth wire is securely bolted to the earth plate.
A cement masonry chamber is built with a cast iron cover for easy
regular maintenance.

Figure 7.1: Plate Earthing

124 CHAPTER 7. ELECTRICAL INSTALLATIONS

Pipe Earthing

Earth electrode made of a GI (galvanized iron) pipe of 38mm in

diameter and length of 2m (depending on the current) with 12mm
holes on the surface is placed upright at a depth of 4.75cm in a
permanently wet ground. To keep the value of the earth resistance
at the desired level, the area (15 cm) surrounding the GI pipe is
filled with a mixture of salt and coal. The efficiency of the earthing
system is improved by pouring water through the funnel periodically.
The GI earth wires of sufficient cross-sectional area are run through
a 12.7mm diameter pipe (at 60cm below) from the 19mm diameter
pipe and secured tightly at the top as shown in figure 7.2.

Figure 7.2: Pipe Earthing

When compared to the plate earth system the pipe earth sys-
tem can carry larger leakage currents due to larger surface area is
in contact with the soil for given electrode size. This system also
enables easy maintenance as the earth wire connection is housed at
the ground levels.

Rod Earthing

It is the same method as pipe earthing, A copper rod of 12.5cm

(1/2 inch) diameter or 16mm (0.6in) diameter of galvanized steel or
hollow section 25mm (1 inch) of GI pipe of length above 2.5m (8.2
ft) are buried upright in the earth manually or with the help of a
pneumatic hammer. The length of embedded electrodes in the soil
reduces earth resistance to a desired value.
7.2. EARTHING OR GROUNDING 125

Figure 7.3: Rod Earthing

Strip or Wire Earthing

In this method of earthing strip electrodes of cross- section not less

than 25mm × 1.6mm(1in × 0.06in) is buried in a horizontal trenches
of a minimum depth of 0.5m. If copper with a cross-section of
25mm × 4mm(1in × 0.15in) is used and a dimension of 3.0 mm2
if it’s a galvanized iron or steel.
If at all round conductors are used, their cross-section area should
not be too small, say less than 6.0 mm2 if it’s a galvanized iron or
steel. The length of the conductor buried in the ground would give
a sufficient earth resistance and this length should not be less than
15m. The electrodes shall be as widely distributed as possible in
a single straight or circular trenches radiating from a point. This
type of earthing is used where the earth bed has a rocky soil and
excavation work is difficult.

7.2.3 Selection of Earthing

The type of earthing to be provided depends on many factors such

as type of soil, type of installation, etc. The following table helps in
selecting a type of earthing for a particular application.
126 CHAPTER 7. ELECTRICAL INSTALLATIONS

S.N. Type of Application

Earthing
1 Plate earth- Large installations such as transmission tow-
ing ers, all substations generating stations
2 Pipe earthing
1. For domestic installations such as heaters,
coolers, refrigerators, geysers, electric
iron, etc.
2. For 11kV/400V distribution transformers
3. For induction motors rating upto 100HP
4. For conduit pipe in a wall, all wall brack-
ets

3 Rod earthing In areas where the soil is loose or sandy

4 Strip of wire In rocky ares
earthing

7.2.4 Earth Resistance

The earth resistance should be kept as low as possible so that the
neutral of any electrical system, which is earthed, is maintained al-
most at the earth potential. The earth resistance for copper wire is
1 Ω and that of GI wire less than 3 Ω. The typical value of the earth
resistance at large power stations is 0.5 Ω , major substations is 1
Ω, small sub-stations is 2 Ω and in all other cases 5 Ω.
The resistance of the earth depends on the following factors :

1. Condition of soil.

2. Moisture content of soil.

3. Temperature of soil.

4. Depth of electrode at which it is embedded.

5. Size, material and spacing of earth electrode.

6. Quality and quantity of coal and salt in the earth pit.

7.3. FUSE 127

7.2.5 Difference Between Earth Wire and Neutral Wire

1. Neutral Wire :
(a) In a 3-phase 4-wire system, the fourth wire is a neutral wire.
(b) IT acts a return path for 3-phase currents when the load is
not balanced.
(c) IN domestic single phase AC circuit, the neutral wire acts
as return path for the line current.
2. Earth Wire :
(a) Earth wire is actually connected to the general mass of the
earth and metallic body of the equipment
(b) It is provided to transfer any leakage current from the metal-
lic body to the earth.

7.3 Fuse
The electrical equipment are designed to carry a particular rated
value of current under normal conditions. Under abnormal condi-
tions such as short circuits, overload, or any fault; the current rises
above this value, damaging the equipment and sometimes resulting
in fire hazard. Fuses come into operation under fault conditions.
A fuse is short piece of metal, inserted in the circuit, which melts
when excessive current flows through it and thus breaks the circuits.
Under normal operating conditions it designed to carry the full load
current. If the current increases beyond this designed value due to
any of the reasons mentioned above, the fuse melts, isolating the
power supply from the load.

7.3.1 Desirable Characteristics of Fuse Element

The material used foe fuse wires must have the following character-
istics:
1. Low melting point e.g., tin, lead.
2. High conductivity e.g., copper.
3. Free from deterioration due oxidation e.g., silver.
4. Low cost e.g., tin, copper.
128 CHAPTER 7. ELECTRICAL INSTALLATIONS

7.3.2 Materials
Material used are tin lead or silver having low melting points. Use
of copper or iron is dangerous, though tinned copper may be used.

7.3.3 Types of Fuses

Fuses are classified into following types -
1. Re-wireable or kit-Kat fuse and
2. High rupturing capacity (H.R.C) cartridge fuse

Re-wireable or Kit-Kat Fuse:

Re-wireable fuse is used where low values of fault current are to be

interrupted. These fuses are simple in construction, cheap and avail-
able up to a current rating of 200 [Link] are erratic in operation and
their performance deteriorates with time. An image of re-wireable
fuse is as shown in figure 7.4

Figure 7.4: Re-wireable or Kit-Kat fuse

High Rupturing Capacity (HRC) Cartridge Fuse :

Figure 7.5 shown an image of HRC cartridge fuse and figure 7.6
shown the essential parts of a typical HRC cartridge fuse. It consists
of a heat resisting ceramic body having metal end-caps to which a
silver current-carrying element is welded. The space within the body
surrounding the elements is completely packed with a filling powder.
The filling material my be chalk, plaster of Paris, quartz or marble
dust and acts as an arc quenching and cooling medium. Therefore,
it carries the normal current without overheating.
Under normal loading conditions, the fuse element is at a tem-
perature below its melting point. When a fault occurs, the current
7.4. CIRCUIT BREAKER 129

increases and the fuse element melts before the fault current reaches
its first peak. The heat produced in the process vaporizes the melted
silver element. The chemical reaction between the silver vapors and
the filling powder results in the formation of a high resistance sub-
stance which helps in quenching the arc.

Figure 7.5: HRC Cartridge Fuse

Figure 7.6: Cross section of HRC Cartridge Fuse

7.4 Circuit Breaker

Electrical circuits breaker is a switching device which can be operated
manually and automatically for the controlling and protection of
electrical power system, respectively. The modern power system
deals with a huge power network and huge numbers of associated
electrical equipments. During shirt circuits fault or any other type of
electrical fault, these equipments, as well as the power network, suffer
a high stress of fault current, which in turn damage the equipment
and networks permanently. For saving these equipment and the
power networks, the fault current should be cleared from the system
as quickly as possible. Again after the cleared, the system must come
to its normal working condition as soon is possible for supplying
reliable quality power to the receiving ends. The circuits breaker
130 CHAPTER 7. ELECTRICAL INSTALLATIONS

is the special device all the required switching operations during

current carrying condition.
A circuits breaker essentially consists of fixed and moving con-
tacts, called electrodes. Under normal operating conditions, these
contacts remain closed and will not open automatically until and
unless the system becomes faulty. The contacts can be opened man-
ually or by remote control whenever desired. When a fault occurs
in any part of the system, the trip coils of the breaker get energized
and the moving contacts are pulled apart by some mechanism, thus
opening the circuits.
The main types of circuits breakers are :
1. Miniature circuits breakers (MCB)
2. Earth leakage circuits breakers (ELCB) or Residual Current
Breaker (RCCB)
3. Air blast Circuits Breaker (ACB)
4. Molded Case Circuits Breakers (MCCB)
5. Vacuum Circuits Breaker (VCB)
6. SF6 Circuits Breaker

7.4.1 Miniature Circuit Breaker (MCB)

Minimum circuits breakers are electromechanical devices which pro-
tect an electrical circuits from over currents. Over currents in an
electrical circuits may results from short circuits overload, or faulty
design. An MCB is better alternative than fuse, since it does not re-
quire replacement once an overload is detected. An MCB functions
by interrupting the continuity of electrical flow through the circuits
once a fault is detected. In simple terms, MCB is a switch which
automatically turns off when the current flowing through it passes
the maximum allowable limit. Generally MCB is designed to protect
against over current and over temperature faults (over heating).
Working Principle :
There are two contact - one is fixed and the other is moveable. When
the current exceeds the predefined limit, a solenoid forces the move-
able contact to open (i.e., disconnect from the fixed contact) and
the MCB turns off, thereby stopping the current from flowing in the
circuits.
7.4. CIRCUIT BREAKER 131

Operation :
An image of MCB is shown in figure (7.7) and internal parts of an
MCB are shown in figure (7.8). It mainly consists of one bi- metallic
strip, one trip coil and one hand operated on-off lever. Electric cur-
rent carrying path of a MCB is as follows - first left hand side power
terminal-then bimetallic strip - then current coil - then moving con-
tact - then fixed contact and - lastly right hand side power terminal,
and all are arranged in series.

Figure 7.7: Miniature Circuit Breaker

Figure 7.8: Cross section of MCB

If circuits is overload for a long time, the bi -metallic strip be-

comes over heated and deformed. This deformation of bi-metallic
strip causes displacement of latch point. The moving contact of the
MCB is so arranged by means of spring, with this latch point, that
a little displacement of latch causes releases of spring and makes the
moving contact to move for opening the MCB. The current coil or
trip coil placed in such a manner that during SC faults, the MMF
of that coil causes its plunger to hit the same latch point and force
the latch to be displaced. Hence, the MCB will open in the same
132 CHAPTER 7. ELECTRICAL INSTALLATIONS

manner. Again when operating lever of the MCB is operated by

hand, that means when we make the MCB at off position manually,
the same latch point is displaced as a result moving contact sepa-
rated from fixed contact in same manner. So, whatever may be the
operating mechanism, i.e., may be due to deformation of bi-metallic
strip or may be due to increased MMF of trip coil or may be due
to manual operation - actually the same latch point is displaced and
the deformed spring is released, which is ultimately responsible for
movement of the moving contact. When the moving contacts is sep-
arated from fixed contact, there may be a high chance of arc. This
are then goes up thorough the arc runner and enters into arc splitters
and is finally quenched. When we switch on the MCB, we actually
reset the displaced operating latch to its previous on position and
make the MCB ready for another switch off or trip operation.
These are available in single pole, double pole, triple pole, and
four pole versions with neutral poles, if required. The normal current
ratings are available from 0.5-63 A with a sym-metrical short circuits
rupturing capacity of 3-10kA, at a voltage level of 230/440v. MCBs
are generally designed to trip within 2.5 millisecond when an over
current fault arises. In case of temperature rise or over heating it
may take 2 seconds to 2 min. For the MCB to trip.
Advantages :
1. MCBs are replacing the re-wireable switch i.e., fuse units for
low power domestic and industrial applications.
2. The disadvantages of fuses, like low SC interrupting capacity
(say 3kA), Etc. Are overcome with high SC breaking capacity of
10kA. iii. MCB is combination of all three functions in a wiring
system like switching, overload and short circuits protection.
Overload protection can be obtained by using bi-metallic strips
where as shorts circuits protection can be obtained by using
solenoid

7.4.2 Earth Leakage Circuits Breaker (ELCB)

None of the protection devices like MCB, MCCB, etc. Can protect
the human life against electric shocks or avoid fire due to leakage
current. The human resistance noticeably drops with an increase in
voltage. It also depends upon the duration of impressed voltage and
drops with increase in time. As per IS code, a contact potential of
7.4. CIRCUIT BREAKER 133

65V is within tolerable limit of human body for 10 seconds, where

as 250V can be withstood by human body for 100 milliseconds. The
actual effect of current thorough human body varies from person to
person with reference to magnitude and duration. The body resis-
tance at 10V is assessed to be 19 kΩ for 1 second and 8 kΩ for 15
min. At 240V, 3 to 3.6 kΩ for dry skin and 1-1.2 kΩ for wet skin.
An Earth Leakage Circuits Breakers (ELCB) is a device used to
directly detect currents leaking to earth from an installation and cut
the power. There are two types of ELCBs :

1. Voltage Earth Leakage Circuits Breaker (voltage -ELCB)

2. Current Earth Leakage Circuits Breaker ( Current -ELCB)

Voltage Earth Leakage Circuits Breaker (voltage -ELCB)

Voltage –ELCB is a voltage operated circuits breakers. The device

will function when the current passes thorough the ELCB. Voltage-
ELCB contains relay coil and one end of the coil is connected to
metallic load body and the other end is connected to ground wire
as shown in figure 7.9. If the voltage of the equipment body rises
(by touching phase to metal part or insulation failure of equipment),
which could cause the difference between earth and load body volt-
age and the danger of electric shock will occur. This voltage dif-
ference will produce an electric current from the load metallic body
and phase through the loop to the Earth. When voltage on the
equipment metallic body rises to danger level i.e., which exceed to
50V, the flowing current through relay loop could move the relay
contact by disconnecting the supply current avoid from any danger
electric shock. The ELCB detects fault currents from line to the
earth (ground) wire within the installation it protects. If sufficient
voltage appears across the ELCB’s sensing coil, it will switch off
the power, and remain off until manually reset. A voltage – sensing
ELCB does not sense fault current from line to any other earthed
body.
134 CHAPTER 7. ELECTRICAL INSTALLATIONS

Figure 7.9: Voltage earth leakage circuit breaker

Current Earth Leakage Circuits Breaker ( Current -ELCB)

Current –ELCB is a current operated circuits breaker which is a

commonly used ELCB. Current-ELCB consists of a 3- winding trans-
former, which has two primary windings and 1 secondary winding as
shown in figure (??). Neutral and line wires act as the two primary
windings. A wire wound coil is the secondary winding. The current
thorough the secondary winding is zero at the balanced condition.
In the balanced condition, the flux due to current through the phase
wire will be neutralized by the current through the neutral wire,
since the current which flows from the phase will be returned back
to the neutral. When a fault occurs, a small current will flow to the
ground also. This makes an unbalanced between line and neutral
currents and creates an unbalanced magnetic filed. This induces a
current through the secondary winding, which is connected to the
sensing circuits. This will sense the leakage and send a signal to the
tripping system and trips the contact.

Figure 7.10: Current- earth leakage circuit breaker

7.4. CIRCUIT BREAKER 135

7.4.3 Molded Case Circuits Breaker(MCCB)

Molded case circuits breakers are electromechanical devices which
protect a circuits from over current and short circuits. They provide
over current and short circuits protection for circuits ranging from
63 A up to 3000 A. Their primary function are to provide a means
to manually open a circuits and automatically open a circuits under
overload or short circuits conditions respectively. The over current,
in an electrical circuits, may result from short circuits, overload of
faulty design.
MCCB is an alternative to a fuse, since it does not require replace-
ment once an overload is detected. Unlike a fuse, an MCCB can be
easily reset after a fault and offer improved operational safety and
convenience without incurring operating cost.
Molded case circuits breakers generally have a -

1. Thermal element for over current and

2. Magnetic element for short circuits release which has to operate

faster.

The MCCBs are comprised of five major components such as

molded case or frame operating mechanism, arc extinguishers, con-
tacts and trip components as shown in figure (7.11).

Figure 7.11: Moulded Case Circuit Breaker

MCCB are manufactured such that the end user will not have
access to internal workings of the over-current protection device.
136 CHAPTER 7. ELECTRICAL INSTALLATIONS

Generally constructed of two pieces of heavy-duty electrically insu-

lated plastic, these halves are riveted together to form the whole.
Inside the plastic shell is series of thermal elements and a spring-
loaded trigger. When the thermal element gets too warm, from an
over current situation, the spring trips, which in turn will shut off
the electrical circuits.
Operating Mechanism : At its core, the protection mechanism
employed by MCCBs is based on the same physical principles used
by all type of thermal – magnetic circuits breakers.
Overload protection is accomplished by means of a thermal mech-
anism. MCCBs have a bimetallic contact that expands and contacts
in response to changes on temperature. Under normal operating
conditions, the contact allows electric current through the MCCB.
However as soon as the current exceeds the adjusted trip value, the
contact will start to heat and expend until the circuits the circuit
is interrupted. The thermal protection against overload is designed
with a time delay to allow short duration over current,which is a nor-
mal part of operation for many devices. However, any over current
conditions that last more than what is normally expected represent
an overload, and the MCCB is tripped to protect the equipment and
personnel.
On the other hand, fault protection is accomplished with elec-
tromagnetic induction, and the response is instant. Fault currents
should be interrupted immediately, no matter if their duration is
short or long. Whenever a fault occurs, the extremely high current
induces a magnetic field in a solenoid coil located inside the breaker
– this magnetic induction trips a contact and current it interrupted.
As a complement to the magnetic protection mechanism, MCCBs
have internal arc dissipation measure to facilitate interruption. As
with all types of circuits breakers, the MCCB includes a disconnec-
tion switch which is used to trip the breaker manually. It is used
whenever the electric supply must be disconnected to carry out field
work such as maintenance or equipment upgrades.
Applications :
Molded case circuits breakers can have very high current ratings,
which allows them to be used in heavy duty applications such as
main electric feeder protection, capacitor bank protection, generator
protection, welding applications, low current application that require
adjustable trip setting and motor protection.
7.5. SAFETY PRECAUTIONS IN HANDLING ELECTRICAL APPLIANCE137

7.5 Safety precautions in Handling Electrical Ap-

pliance
It is essentially important to take precautions when we are working
with electricity and using electrical appliances. Here, some of the
basic precautions are mentioned for safe usage of electrical appliance
:

1. Follow the manufacture’s instructions : Always read the

manufacture’s instructions carefully before using a new appli-
ance.

2. Replace or repair damaged power cords : Exposed wiring

is a danger that cannot be ignored. If you see the protective
coating on a wire is stripped away, be sure to replace it or cover
it with electrical tape as soon as possible.

3. Keep electrical equipment or outlets away from water :

Avoid water at all times when working with electricity. Never
touch or repairing any electrical equipment or circuits with wet
hands. It increases the conductivity of electrical current. Keep
all electrical appliance away from water such as sinks, bathtubs,
pools or overhead vents that may drip.

4. Use insulated tools while working : Always use appropriate

insulated rubber gloves, goggles, protective clothes and shoes
with insulated soles while working on any branch circuits or any
other electrical circuits. Use only tools and equipment with non-
conducting handles when working on electrical devices. Never
use metallic pencils or rulers or wear rings or metal watchbands
when working with electrical equipment as they cause a strong
electric shock.

5. Don’t overload your outlets : Every outlet in your home is

designed to deliver a certain amount of electricity; by plugging
too many devices into it at once, you could cause a small explo-
sion or a fire. If you have a lot of things to plug in, use a power
strip that can safely accommodate your needs.

6. Shut-off the power supply : Always make sure that the

power source should be shut-off before performing any work
138 CHAPTER 7. ELECTRICAL INSTALLATIONS

related to electricity. For example; inspecting, installing, main-

taining or repairing.

7. Avoid extension cords as much as possible : Running

extension cords through the house can trip up residence; this
can cause injury and damage to the wire or outlet if it cause
the cord to be ripped out of the wall. If you find yourself using
extension cords very often, consider having an electrician install
new outlets throughout your home.

8. When to repair : Everyone want to have the safe electrical

environment. Equipment producing “tingle” sound should be
disconnected and reported promptly for repair.

9. Avoid the usage of flammable liquids : Never use highly

flammable liquids near electrical equipment. Never touch an-
other person’s equipment or electrical control devices unless in-
structed to do so.

10. Use electric tester : Never try repairing energized equip-

ment. Always check that it is de-energized first by using a
tester. When an electric tester touches a live or hot wire, the
bulb inside the tester lights up showing that an electrical cur-
rent is flowing through the respective wire. Check all the wires,
the outer metallic covering of the service panel any other hang-
ing wires with an electrical tester before proceeding with your
work.

11. In case of electric shock : If an individual comes in contact

with a live electrical conductor, do not touch the equipment,
cord person. Disconnect the power source from the circuits
breaker or pull out the plug using a leather belt. By enclosing
all electric conductors and contacts can save people from getting
the electric shock. Use three-pin plugs, which have earth wire
connection which prevents electrical shock.

12. Display danger board : Danger board should be displayed

at the work place. We should not allow any unauthorized per-
son to enter in the working place and we should not put any
new equipment into the service without necessary testing by the
concern authority.
7.5. SAFETY PRECAUTIONS IN HANDLING ELECTRICAL APPLIANCE139

13. Usage of proper ladder : Never use an aluminium or steel

ladder if you are working on any receptacle at height in your
home. An electrical surge will ground you and the whole electric
current will pass through your body. Use a bamboo, wooden or
a fibreglass ladder instead.
14. Usage of circuits breaker or fuse : Always use a circuits
breaker or fuse with the appropriate current rating. Circuits
breakers and fuses are protection devices that automatically dis-
connect the live wire a condition of short circuits or over current
occurs. The selection of the appropriate fuse or circuit breaker
is essential. Normally for protection against short circuits a fuse
rated of 150 % of the normal circuit current is selected. In the
case of a circuit with 10 amperes of current, a 15 ampere fuse
will against direct short circuits a 9.5 amperes fuse will blow
out.
15. Use ceiling on live wire : Always put a cap on the hot/live
wire while working on an electric board or service panel as you
could end up short circuiting the bare ends of the live wire with
the neutral. The cap insulates the copper ends of the cable thus
preventing any kind of shock even if touched mistakenly.
16. Precaution during soldering : Always take care while sol-
dering your circuits boards. Wear goggles and keep yourself
away from the fumes. Keep the solder iron in its stand when
not in use; it can get extremely hot and can easily cause burns.
17. Things to remember : The circuits is bad, electricity appli-
ances are not working well, and lights are fluctuating. It means
you need an electrical inspection or repair. In this case, either
you’ll call an electrician or do it yourself. So if you are trying
to repair, always remember that your hands are well dry, you
have essential tools, rubber gloves & shoe are good, As all these
acts as an insulator. Do not wear loose clothing or tied near
electrical equipment.
18. Keep heaters away from bedclothes, clothing and curtains to
avoid risk fire. Be extra careful when using electrical appliances
attached to power outlets near kitchen or bathroom sinks, tubs,
swimming pools, and other wet areas. Don’t cover an electric
heater with clothing or other items.
140 CHAPTER 7. ELECTRICAL INSTALLATIONS

7.6 Battery
A battery is a devices which converts chemical energy into electri-
cal energy and is made up of a number of cells. Batteries consists
of two or more voltaic cell that are connected in series to provide
a steady DC voltage at the battery’s output terminals. The volt-
age is produced by a chemical reaction inside the cell. Electrodes
are immersed in an electrolyte, which forces the electric charge to
separate in the from of ions and free electrons. A battery’s voltage
output and current rating are determined by the elements used for
the electrodes, the size of the electrodes, and the type of electrolyte
used. Whether a battery may be recharged or not depends on the
cells used to make up the battery.
Batteries are classified into two types such as primary batteries
and secondary batteries.
1. Primary Batteries :
As the name indicates, these batteries are meats for single usage.
Once these batteries are used they cannot be recharged as the
devices are not easily reversible and active material may not
return to their original forms. Other name for these batteries
is disposable batteries. Some of the example for the disposable
batteries are the normal AA, AAA batteries which we use in
wall clocks, television remote, etc.
2. Secondary Batteries :
Secondary batteries are also known as rechargeable batteries.
These batteries can be used and charged simultaneously. A
secondary battery or storage battery can be recharged because
its chemical reaction is reversible. Rechargeable batteries are
(re) charged by applying electric current, which reverses the
chemical reactions that occur during discharge/use. Some of
the examples for rechargeable batteries are the batteries used
in mobile phones MP3 players, etc.

7.6.1 Types of Primary Cells / Batteries

There are several types of primary cells in use today, such as
1. Carbon- zinc dry cell
2. Alkaline cell
7.6. BATTERY 141

3. Zinc chloride cell

4. Mercury cell

5. Silver oxide cell

6. Lithium cell

Carbon- zinc dry cell

1. This is one the most popular primary cells (often used for type
AAA, AA, D)

2. The negative electrode is made of zinc

3. The positive electrode is made of carbon.

4. The output voltage of a single cell is about 1.5 V.

5. Performance of the cell is better with intermittent operation.

Alkaline cell

1. The alkaline cell is another popular type also used for type AA,
C, D, etc.

2. It has the same 1.5V output as carbon- zinc cells, but they are
longer -lasting.

3. It consists of a zinc anode and manganese dioxide cathode in

an alkaline electrolyte (potassium hydroxide )

4. It works with high efficiency even with continuous use, due to

low internal resistance.

Zinc chloride cell

1. This cell is also referred to as a “heavy-duty” type battery.

2. It is modified zinc-carbon cell.

3. It has little chance of liquid leakage because the cell consumes

water along with the chemically active materials. The cell is
usually dry at the end of its useful life.
142 CHAPTER 7. ELECTRICAL INSTALLATIONS

Mercury cell

1. This cell consists of a zinc anode, mercury compound cathode,

and potassium or sodium hydroxide electrolyte.
2. It is becoming obsolete due to the hazards associated with
proper disposal of mercury.

Silver oxide cell

1. This cell consists of a zinc anode, silver oxide cathode, and

potassium of sodium hydroxide electrolyte.
2. It is typically available as 1.5V, miniature button form.
3. Applications include hearing aids, cameras, and watches

Lithium cell

1. This cell offers high output voltage, long shelf life, low weight,
and small volume.
2. It comes in two forms of 3V output in widespread use:
(a) (a) Lithium-sulfur dioxide(LiSO2 ).
(b) Lithium- thionyl chloride.
3. LiSO2 type batteries contain methyl cyanide liquid solvent; if
its container is punctured
4. Safe disposal of these cells is critical.

7.6.2 Types of Secondary Cells/Batteries

There are several types of secondary cells in use today, such as
1. Lead-acid cell
2. Nickel cadmium (NiCd) cell
3. Lithium-ion battery
4. Nickel-metal- hydride (NiMH) cell
5. Nickel-iron (Edison) cell
6. Fuel cell
7. Solar cell
7.6. BATTERY 143

Lead-acid cell

1. This cell is a widely applied type of secondary cell, used ex-

tensively in automobiles inverters, backup power system, etc.
Requiring high values of load current.
2. Anode: Porous lead
3. Cathode: Lead-dioxide
4. Electrolyte: Sulfuric acid, 6 molar H2 SO4
5. The output is about 2.1 V per cell.
6. Cells are typically used in series combinations of 3 (6V battery)
or 6 (12V battery)

Nickel cadmium (NiCd) cell

1. This type of cell delivers high current.

2. It can be recharged many times.
3. Anode: Nickel hydroxide N i(OH)2 (d) Cathode: Cadmium hy-
droxide, Cd(OH) 2 (e) Electrolyte : Cadmium hydroxide, KOH
(f) Maintain a steady voltage of 1.2V per cell until completely
depleted (g) It can be stored for long periods of times. (h) Its
specific gravity does not charge with the state of charge. (I) Ap-
plications include portable power tools, alarm systems, portable
radio and TV equipment.

Lithium-ion battery

1. Li-based cells are most compact ways of storing electrical en-

ergy.
2. Lower in energy density than lithium metal, lithium-ion is safe.
3. Anode: Graphite
4. Cathode: Lithium manganese dioxide
5. Electrolyte : mixture of lithium salts
6. Energy density is twice of the standard nickel-cadmium.
7. No memory and no scheduled cycling is required to prolong
battery life.
144 CHAPTER 7. ELECTRICAL INSTALLATIONS

Nickel-metal- hydride (NiMH) cell

1. These cells are used in applications demanding long-running

battery performance (e.g., high-end portable electrical or elec-
tronic products like power tools).
2. They offer 40 % more capacity over a comparably-sized NiCb
cell.
3. They contain the same components as a NiCd cell, expect for
the negative electrode.
4. They are more expensive than NiCd cells, self-discharge more
rapidly, and cannot be cycled as frequently as NiCd cells.

Nickel-iron (Edison) cell

1. Anode: Nickel hydroxide, Ni(OH)2

2. Cathode: iron
3. Electrolyte: potassium hydroxide
4. The specific gravity of electrolyte remains unaffected during the
charging and discharging process.
5. They are now almost obsolete due to lead-acid batteries.
6. These are used in emergency lamps in hospitals and at places
where the rate of discharge and charge are rapid.

Fuel cell

1. A fuel cell is an electrochemical device that converts chemicals

(such as hydrogen and oxygen)into water and produces electric-
ity in the process.
2. As long as the reactants (H and O) are supplied to the fuel cell,
it will continually produce electricity and never go dead, unlike
conventional batteries.
3. Fuel cells are used extensively in the space program as sources
of DC power.
4. They are very efficient, capable of providing hundreds of kilo-
watts of power.
7.6. BATTERY 145

Solar cell

1. Solar cells convert the sun’s light energy into electric energy.

2. They are made of semiconductor materials.

3. They are arranged in modules that are assembled into a large

solar array to produce the required power.

4. An applied voltage higher than the voltage of one cell can be

obtained by connecting cells in series.

5. The total voltage available across the battery of cells is equal

to the sum of the individual values for each cell.

6. Parallel cells have the same voltage as one current capacity, To

provide a higher output voltage and more current capacity, cell
can be connected in series-parallel combinations.

7.6.3 Comparison of Primary and Secondary Cells

S.N. Primary Cell Secondary Cell

1 If discharged once cannot be If discharged once can be
charged again charged again
2 Light in weight Heavy in weight
3 Used for intermittent use Used for continuous rating
with low load current rating with high load current rat-
ing
4 Short life Long life
5 Low cost High Cost
6 Low efficiency High efficiency
7 Low power output High power output
8 Less maintenance More maintenance

7.6.4 Battery Characteristics

There are many characteristics that can help to identify a battery
that can help to identify a battery and we can distinguish the three
main ones as; chemistry, battery capacity and voltage. However,
if the battery is only a starter, it also delivers cold cranking amps
(CCA), which permits to offer high current at cold temperatures.
146 CHAPTER 7. ELECTRICAL INSTALLATIONS

1. Chemistry
The main battery chemistries are lead, nickel and lithium. They
all need a specific designated charger, this is why charging these
batteries on a different charger from their own might cause an
incorrect charge, despite it seeming to work at first. This hap-
pens because of the different regulatory requirement of each
chemistry.

2. Battery Capacity
Battery capacity is a measure (typically in Amp-hr) of the
charge stored by the battery, and is determined by the mass
of active material contained in the battery. The battery ca-
pacity represent the maximum amount of energy that can be
extracted from the battery under certain specified conditions.
However, the actual energy storage capabilities of the battery
can vary significantly from the “nominal” rated capacity, as the
battery capacity depends strongly on the age and past history of
the battery, the charging or discharging regimes of the battery
and the temperature.
The energy stored in a battery, called the battery capacity, is
measured in either watt-hours (Wh), kilowatthours (kWh), or
ampere-hours (Ahr). The most common measure of battery
capacity is Ah, defined as the number of hours for which a
battery can provide a current equal to the discharge rate at the
nominal voltage of the battery. The unit of Ah is commonly
used when working with battery systems as the battery voltage
will vary throughout the charging or discharging cycle.

3. Voltage
A battery feature a nominal voltage. Along with the amount
of cells connected in series, chemistry provides the open circuits
voltage (OCV), which is about 5-7 % higher on a fully charged
battery. It is important to check the correct nominal voltage of
a battery before connecting it.

4. Cold Cranking Amps (CCA)

Every starter battery is marked with cold cranking amps, also
abbreviated CCA. The number denotes the amount of amps
that the battery is able to provide at −18o C.
7.7. ENERGY CONSUMPTION CALCULATION 147

7.7 Energy Consumption Calculation

Energy and power are closely related. Electrical energy can be mea-
sured only when electrical power is known. So first we understand
the electrical power. Electrical power it the amount of electrical cur-
rent that results from a certain amount of voltage or we can say that
power is the rate which energy is delivered. It is measured in watts.
Mathematically it is written as
Power = Voltage × Current
The measurement of electrical energy is completely dependent on
power which is measured in watt, kilowatts, megawatts, gigawatts,
and time which is measured in an hour. Joule is the smallest unit of
energy. But for some bigger calculation, some better unit it required.
So, the unit used for electrical energy is watt - hour.
Electrical energy is the product of electrical power and time, and
it measured in joules. It is defined as “1 joule of energy is equal to
1 watt of power is consumed for 1 second”. i.e.,
Energy = Power × Time1 Joule = 1 watt × 1 second
Watts are the basic unit of power in which electrical power is mea-
sured or we can say that rate at which electrical current is being
used at a particular moment.
Watt-hour is the standard unit used for measurement of energy,
describing the amount of watts used over a time. It shows how fast
the power is consumed in the period of time.
Energy in watt hours = Power in watts × Time in hours
Kilowatt-hour is simply a bigger unit of energy when large appli-
ance drawn power in kilowatts. It can be described as one kilowatt
hour is the amount of energy drawn by the 1000 watts appliance
when used for an hour. Where, One kilowatt = 1000 watts,
Energy in kilowatt hours = Power in kilowatts × Time in hours
The electrical supply companies take electric energy charges from
their consumer per kilowatt hour unit basis.
This kilowatt hour is board of trade (BOT) unit.

Illustration for Energy Consumption :

148 CHAPTER 7. ELECTRICAL INSTALLATIONS

A consumer uses a 10 kW geezer, a 6 kW electric furnace and

five 100 W bulbs for 15 hours. How many units (kWh) of electrical
energy have been used?
Explanation : Given that
Load – 1 = 10 kW geezer
Load – 2 = 6 kW electric furnace
Load – 3 = 500 watt (five 100 watt bulbs)
Total load = 10kW + 6kW + 0.5kW = 16.5kW
Time taken = 155 hours

Energy consumed = Power in kW × Time in hours = 16.5 × 15 = 247.5kW h

For above electrical energy consumption, the tariff can be calcu-

lated as follows :
1 unit = 1kWh
So, the total energy consumption = 247.5 units
If the cost per unit is 2.5, then the total cost of energy consumption
= 247.5 × 2.5 = Rs. 618.75