2.

1 UNIT2

🔷 Short Notes: Routers, Bridges, Hubs & Switch-Based Routing

✅Router:A network layer (Layer 3) device that routes packets between different networks
using IP addresses.
✅Key Points: 👉 1Uses routing tables and algorithms. 👉 2Connects multiple networks
(LAN to WAN). 👉 3Supports dynamic/static routing. 👉 4Performs packet filtering,
NAT, firewalling. 👉 Example:Home router connects LAN to the Internet (ISP).
🔷Bridge :A data link layer (Layer 2) device that connects and filters traffic between two
LAN segments.
✅Key Points: 👉1Uses MAC addresses to forward frames. 👉2Divides a LAN into
collision domains. 3👉 Helps in reducing traffic by filtering.
✅Example:Ethernet bridge connecting two office floors.

🔷Hub:A physical layer (Layer 1) device that broadcasts incoming data to all ports.
✅KeyPoints: 👉1No routing or filtering capability. 👉 2Operates as multiport repeater.
👉3Cannot reduce traffic; causes collisions. 👉4Now largely obsolete.
✅Example: Small LAN with few users (rare use today).

🔷Switch-Based Routing  A Layer 2 or Layer 3 device that uses MAC or IP

addresses to intelligently forward data.
✅Key Points: 👉 1Layer 2 switch: uses MAC address table. 👉 2Layer 3 switch: does
routing + switching. 👉 3Supports VLAN, QoS, port-based filtering. 👉 4Reduces
collisions and improves bandwidth. 👉 5Efficient in LAN routing, data center networks.
✅Example:Layer 3 switch used in enterprise networks for VLAN intercommunication.

🔷Comparison Table
Address
Device Layer Key Function Best Use
Type
Network WAN routing, Internet
Router IP Address Route between networks
(L3) access
Data Link MAC Connect/filter LAN
Bridge Segmenting LANs
(L2) Address segments
Very small networks
Hub Physical (L1) None Broadcast to all devices
(obsolete)
Intelligent forwarding / LAN performance, VLANs,
Switch L2 / L3 MAC / IP
routing QoS

🔷Comparison to Link State Routing:

Feature Distance Vector Link State
Info Shared With neighbors only With all routers
Complexity Low High
Convergence Speed Slow Fast
Memory/CPU Usage Less More
2.2🔷 Mobile Routing Routing mechanism that allows mobile nodes to
maintain connectivity while moving across networks. ✅Key Features: 👉
1Supports mobility across IP networks 👉2Ensures continuous session during
movement 3Uses Home Agent (HA) and Foreign Agent (FA) 👉 4Tunneling for
packet delivery to roaming devices 👉 5Based on Mobile IP (RFC 5944)
✅Components: 1Mobile Node (MN) 2Home Network 3Foreign Network
4Care-of Address (CoA)
✅Types: 👉 1Macro Mobility – movement across different networks 👉 2Micro
Mobility – movement within the same network
✅Applications: 👉 1Cellular networks 👉 2Mobile internet access 👉
3Vehicular ad hoc networks (VANETs)
🔷Link State Routing: routers have a complete view of the network Topology. Each
router constructs a map
✅Protocols Using Link State: 👉 1OSPF (Open Shortest Path First) 👉 2IS-IS
(Intermediate System to Intermediate System)
✅Working Steps:👉[Link] of Neighbors 👉 [Link] of Link Cost 👉 3.
Flooding of Link State Packets (LSPs): 👉 4. Topology Map Formation: 👉 5. Shortest
Path Calculation
✅Advantages: 👉 1Rapid convergence. 👉 2More accurate and loop-free routing
decisions. 👉 3Scalable for large and complex networks.
✅Disadvantages: 👉 1Higher memory and CPU usage. 👉 2More complex to
configure and manage..
🔷Distance Vector Routing Distance Vector Routing is a dynamic routing
protocol in which each router maintains a routing table that contains the best known distance
to each destination and the direction (vector) to reach it.
✅Key Concepts: 👉 1Routing Table:Contains destination, distance (metric), and next
hop. 👉 2Distance:Usually measured in number of hops. 👉 3Vector: Direction
(next-hop router) to reach the destination.
✅How It Works: 👉 1Routers periodically exchange routing tables with directly
connected neighbors. 👉 2Each router updates its own table based on information from
neighbors using the Bellman-Ford algorithm. 👉 3he process continues until all routers
have consistent routing tables.
✅Features: 👉 1Simple and easy to implement 👉 2Slow convergence 👉
3Prone to routing loops
✅Problems and Solutions: 👉 1Routing Loops→ May occur due to slow convergence.
👉 2Count-to-Infinity Problem→ A route may keep increasing its distance metric
indefinitely.
✅Solutions: 👉1Split Horizon 👉 2Route Poisoning 👉 3Hold-down Timers
✅Examples of Protocols: 👉 1RIP (Routing Information Protocol) 👉 2IGRP
(Interior Gateway Routing Protocol)
2.3🔷 Interconnecting Devices
1. Hub –Broadcasts to all devices; no filtering; Physical Layer.
2. Switch –Sends data to correct MAC address; faster than hub; Data Link Layer.
3. Router –Directs data between networks using IP; Network Layer.
4. Bridge –Joins two LANs; filters by MAC; Data Link Layer.
5. Gateway –Protocol converter; links dissimilar networks; All Layers.
6. Repeater –Boosts weak signals; extends range; Physical Layer.
7. Modem –Converts digital ↔ analog signals; used for internet via phone line.
8. Access Point (AP) –Connects wireless devices to wired LAN; part of Wi-Fi network.
9. Firewall –Controls traffic between networks; provides security; Network Layer or
Higher.
10. Network Interface Card (NIC) –Hardware to connect a computer to a network; has
MAC address.
11. Brouter –Combines bridge and router functions; routes some packets, bridges others.
12. Proxy Server –Acts as an intermediary for requests; improves security and
performance.
🔷 Static vs Dynamic Routing – Short Notes Table
Aspect Static Routing Dynamic Routing
Routes learned automatically via
Definition Manually configured routes
protocols
Auto via routing protocols (e.g., RIP,
Configuration Manual by network admin
OSPF)
No automatic adjustment to Automatically adapts to topology
Adaptability
changes changes
Higher CPU, memory & bandwidth
Overhead Low CPU & memory usage
usage
Less secure (open to route poisoning,
Security More secure (fixed paths)
etc.)
Use Case Small/stable networks Large/dynamic networks
Time-consuming for large
Maintenance Easier for large and complex networks
networks
Example
No protocol; manual entry RIP, OSPF, EIGRP, BGP
Protocols
2.4🔷HTTP Client-Server model
✅ HTTP (HyperText Transfer Protocol) is the foundation of data communication on the
World Wide Web. It is a stateless, application-layer protocol used for transmitting
hypermedia documents (like HTML).
✅ Protocol Type: Request-Response ✅ Port Number: 80 (HTTP), 443 (HTTPS)
✅ tateless: Each request is independent; server does not remember past requests.
✅ Secure Version: HTTPS uses SSL/TLS encryption.
HTTP Request Methods
Method Description 🔷Common HTTP Status Codes:
GET Retrieves data from the server. Code Meaning
200 OK (Request succeeded)
POST Sends data to the server (e.g., form data).
301 Moved Permanently
PUT Updates or replaces existing data. 400 Bad Request
DELETE Deletes specified data on the server. 401 Unauthorized
HEAD Same as GET but returns only headers. 403 Forbidden
404 Not Found
PATCH Partially updates existing data. 500 Internal Server Error
OPTIONS Describes the communication options.
✅ HTTP Message Format

1. HTTP Request Format: 2. HTTP Response Format:

<Method> <URL> <HTTP Version> <HTTP Version> <Status Code> <Status
Headers Message>
(blank line) Headers
[Body – optional] (blank line)
[Body – optional]
Example: Example:
GET /[Link] HTTP/1.1 HTTP/1.1 200 OK
Host: [Link] Content-Type: text/html
User-Agent: Mozilla/5.0 Content-Length: 1256
<html> ... </html>
2.5🔷Routing Routing is the process of selecting a path for data packets in a network
to reach their destination from the source. It is done by routers using routing algorithms.
✅Types of Routing
Feature Adaptive Routing Non-Adaptive Routing
Also Known As Dynamic Routing Static Routing
Based on network conditions (e.g.
Route Update Predefined routes, fixed
traffic)
Response to No response to network
Yes, adapts to failures or congestion
Changes changes
Complexity High Low
Examples RIP, OSPF Flooding, Fixed Routing
One Adaptive Routing Protocol: RIP (Routing Information Protocol)
 Type: Distance Vector Protocol
 Metric: Hop count (max 15 hops)
 Updates: Every 30 seconds to neighbors
 Loop Prevention: Split horizon, route poisoning
 Use: Small networks
One Non-Adaptive Routing Protocol: Flooding
 Working: Packet is sent on all outgoing lines except the one it arrived on
 Advantage: Very reliable
 Disadvantage: Causes high traffic, not bandwidth-efficient
 Use: Emergency routing or military networks

🔷Router Security 👉 [Network Gateway Protection] 👉 [Unauthorized Access

Prevention] 👉 [Traffic Filtering]

✅ 1.1 Definition 👉 Router security involves implementing measures to protect routers

from [unauthorized access], [malicious attacks], and [data breaches].
✅ 2. Security Techniques ✅ 2.1 Strong Passwords
✅ 2.2 Access Control Lists (ACLs) 👉 Define rules to permit or deny traffic based on
[IP address], [protocol], or [port number].
✅ 2.3 Firewall Configuration 👉 Enable built-in [firewall] to monitor and filter
incoming/outgoing traffic. 👉 Block unnecessary services and ports.
✅ 2.4 Router Firmware Updates 👉 Regularly update firmware to fix [security
vulnerabilities].
✅ 2.5 Secure Management Access
👉 Disable remote access (Telnet/HTTP) if not needed.
👉 Use secure protocols like [SSH] and [HTTPS] for configuration.
✅ 2.6 Enable Encryption1
👉 Enable [WPA3] or [WPA2] encryption for wireless access.
👉 Avoid using [WEP], which is outdated and insecure.
✅ 2.7 Logging and Monitoring👉 Use network monitoring tools to detect unusual
activities.
2.6🔷1. Switch-Based Routing 👉 [Layer 3 Switching] 👉 [IP Routing] 👉
[High-Speed Performance]
✅ 1.1 Definition 👉 Switch-based routing refers to the use of [Layer 3 switches] that
combine the functionalities of both [routers] and [switches] to route data packets based on
[IP addresses] within a high-performance network.
✅ 2. Core Features
✅ 2.1 Layer 3 Capability
1 👉 Performs both [packet switching] and [IP routing].
2 👉 Supports routing protocols like [RIP], [OSPF], and [EIGRP].
✅ 2.2 Hardware-Based Routing
1 👉 Uses [ASIC chips] (Application Specific Integrated Circuits) for processing.
2 👉 Much faster than software-based routers due to reduced CPU usage.
✅ 2.3 VLAN Interconnection
1 👉 Routes traffic between different [VLANs] internally without external routers.
2 👉 Supports [Inter-VLAN Routing], improving efficiency and reducing bottlenecks.
✅ 2.4 Built-In Routing Table
1 👉 Maintains IP-based [routing tables] like traditional routers.
2 👉 Uses [dynamic] or [static routing] to determine the best path.
✅ 2.5 Network Segmentation
1 👉 Helps in segmenting networks logically while still enabling communication.
2 👉 Improves network security and traffic management.
✅ 3. Advantages 👉 3.1 Speed & Performance 👉 3.2 Space & Cost Efficiency
👉 3.3 Enhanced Management
✅ 4. Common Use Cases 👉 [Enterprise Networks] 👉 [Data Centers] 👉 [Campus
Networks]
4.1 👉 Interconnecting VLANs within large LANs.
4.2 👉 Providing faster routing in high-speed backbone networks.
4.3 👉 Replacing traditional routers in environments requiring high [bandwidth efficiency].
✅ 5. Comparison with Traditional Routers
5.1 👉 Routing Performance: Layer 3 switches are [faster] due to hardware-based routing.
5.2 👉 Protocol Support: Routers support more [WAN protocols] and features like [NAT],
[VPN].
5.3 👉 Flexibility: Routers are better suited for [inter-network] communication (e.g.,
different ISPs).