MECHANICS OF A PARTICLE

PHY 111

Year: 2024

Lecturer: Dr. N.L. Lethole

Office No: 118 (LV 213)

 CHAPTER 1

Physical Quantities and Vectors

• Physical Quantities

• Dimensional Analysis

• Scalers and Vectors

 Vector Algebra (Addition)

 Scalar or Dot Product

 Vector or Cross Product

 Physical Quantities and Vectors
• Physics is an experimental science - Physicists observe the phenomena of
nature and try to find related patterns.

• The patterns are called physical theories → laws/principles when established.

• We go over some important preliminaries that we will need throughout.

– nature of physical theory,

– the use of idealised models to represent physical systems,

– the systems of units used to describe physical quantities.

• We will also study several aspects of scalars, vectors and vector algebra.

• Vectors will be needed throughout to describe and analyse physical quantities.

– velocity and force have direction as well as magnitude.

 Physical Quantities
• There are three fundamental physical quantities.

– mass (𝑚𝑚 = 𝑘𝑘g), length (𝐿𝐿 = 𝑚𝑚), and time (𝑡𝑡 = 𝑠𝑠).

• There are derived units for other physical quantities which are products and

quotients of the fundamental units.

– velocity (v = 𝑚𝑚/𝑠𝑠), acceleration (a = 𝑚𝑚/𝑠𝑠2), force (F = 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘. 𝑚𝑚/𝑠𝑠2), etc.

• Equations must be dimensionally consistent - two terms can be added only when

they have the same units.

• Once we have defined the fundamental units, it is easy to introduce larger and

smaller units for the same physical quantities.

1
• The other units are related to the fundamental units by multiples of 10 or .
10
 Physical Quantities
1
• One kilometer (1 km) is 1000 meters (1000 m), and one centimeter (1 cm), m.
100

1
• They are expressed in exponential notation: 1000 = 103, = 10-3 and so on.
1000

• The names of the additional units are derived by adding a prefix to the name of
the fundamental unit.

• For example, the prefix “kilo-” abbreviated k, always means a unit larger by a
factor of 1000; thus 1 km = 103 m: 1 kg = 103 g; 1 kW = 103 W.

• However, prefixes cannot be “double-up.”

– If you have measurements in petameters (1 Pm = 1015 m), it is not allowed to

talk about megagigameters, although 106 × 109 = 1015 .

– Refer to the study guide for more prefixes.

 Example
• Restate the mass 1.93 × 1013 kg to grams (g).

• Solution: Replacing the k in kilogram with a factor of 103, we find that,

1.93 × 1013 kg = 1.93 × 1013 × 103 g = 1.93 × 1016 g

 Dimensional Analysis
• The dimension of any physical quantity expresses its dependence on the base
quantities as a product/power of symbols representing the base quantities.

• Dimensions are not units; however from the units of a certain quantity, one can
obtain the dimensions.

• Length has a dimension L or L1, mass M or M1 and time T or T1.

• Dimensions obey the rules of algebra.

– Area is the product of two lengths (dimension L2 or length squared).

– Volume is the product of three lengths (dimension L3, or length cubed).

– Speed has dimension length over time (L/T or LT-1).

– Density has dimension (M/L3 or ML-3 or mass over length cubed).

• A quantity with a dimension of power is zero, is dimensionless or dimension 1.

– Anything raised to the zero power is one → dimensionless quantities pure

numbers.
 Dimensional Analysis
• Square brackets around the symbol are used to represent the dimensions.

– For radius r and height h, we write [r] = L and [h] = L to indicate that the
dimensions are of length.

– If A is the surface area and V volume, then [A] = L2 and [V] = L3.

– For mass m and density ρ, then [m] = M and [ρ] = ML-3.

• Any mathematical equation relating physical quantities must be dimensionally

consistent.

– Every term in an expression must have the same dimensions.

– The arguments of any of the standard mathematical functions such as

trigonometric functions, logarithms, or exponential functions that appear in
the equation must be dimensionless.

– These functions require pure numbers as inputs and give pure numbers as
outputs.
 Example
Suppose we need the formula for the area of a circle for some computation. Two
expressions may pop into our mind when we think of circles: 𝜋𝜋𝑟𝑟 2 and 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋. One
expression is the circumference of a circle of radius 𝑟𝑟 and the other is its area. But
which is which?

Solution: We know the dimension of area is L2. Now, the dimension of the
expression 𝜋𝜋𝑟𝑟 2 is
𝜋𝜋𝑟𝑟 2 = 𝜋𝜋 . 𝑟𝑟 2 = 1. L2 = L2

Therefore, 𝜋𝜋𝑟𝑟 2 has the dimension of area.

Similarly, the dimension of the expression 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 is

2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 = 2 . 𝜋𝜋 . 𝑟𝑟 = 1.1. L = L

2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 has the dimension of length, which means it cannot possibly be an area.
 Example
• Consider the physical quantities 𝑠𝑠, v, 𝑎𝑎, and 𝑡𝑡 with dimensions 𝑠𝑠 = L, v = LT −1,
𝑎𝑎 = LT −2 and 𝑡𝑡 = T. Determine whether each of the following equations is
dimensionally consistent:

a) 𝑠𝑠 = v𝑡𝑡 + 0.5𝑎𝑎𝑡𝑡 2
b) 𝑠𝑠 = v𝑡𝑡 2 + 0.5𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎
c) v = sin 𝑎𝑎𝑡𝑡 2 ⁄𝑠𝑠

Solution:

(a) There are three terms, so we look at each in turn:

𝑠𝑠 = L
v𝑡𝑡 = v . 𝑡𝑡 = LT −1 . T = LT 0 = L
0.5𝑎𝑎𝑡𝑡 2 = 𝑎𝑎 . 𝑡𝑡 2
= LT −2 . T 2 = LT 0 = L

• All three terms have the same dimension - the equation is dimensionally
consistent.
 Example
(b) We only need to look at the dimensions of each of the three terms appearing in
the equation:
𝑠𝑠 = L
v𝑡𝑡 2 = v . 𝑡𝑡 2 = LT −2 . T 2 = LT
0.5𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = 𝑎𝑎 . 𝑡𝑡 = LT −2 . T = LT −1

• None of the three terms has the same dimension - dimensionally inconsistent.

(c) The equation has a trig function - check if the argument is dimensionless:

2
𝑎𝑎 . 𝑡𝑡 LT −2 . T 2 L
𝑎𝑎𝑡𝑡 2 ⁄𝑠𝑠 = = = =1
𝑠𝑠 L L

• The argument is dimensionless.

v = LT −1
sin 𝑎𝑎𝑡𝑡 2 ⁄𝑠𝑠 =1

• The equation is not dimensionally consistent.

 Scalers and Vectors
• Scalars are physical quantities that can be specified completely by single
number and the appropriate unit. E.g. time, distance, length, temperature, etc,

• vectors are physical quantities specified completely by giving a number of units

(magnitude) and a direction. E.g. displacement, velocity, force, torque, etc.

• Vector quantities are represented by a single letter, either in bold or with an

⃗
arrow/bar above. E.g. displacement (d or 𝑑𝑑).

• When handwriting, always write it with an arrow/bar on top.

 Scalers and Vectors
• Illustration of relations between vectors.

• ⃗ - a scalar quantity
The magnitude of a vector quantity is represented by (A=|𝐴𝐴|)
and always positive.
 Vector Algebra (Addition)
• Vectors can be added parallelogram and triangular laws of addition.

• If a particle undergoes a displacement 𝐴𝐴⃗ followed by a second displacement 𝐵𝐵.

• Displacement 𝐶𝐶⃗ is called the vector sum, or resultant, of displacements 𝐴𝐴⃗ and 𝐵𝐵.

𝐶𝐶⃗ = 𝐴𝐴⃗ + 𝐵𝐵 = 𝐵𝐵 + 𝐴𝐴⃗

 Vector Algebra (Addition)
• ⃗ 𝐵𝐵 and 𝐶𝐶⃗ are vectors and 𝑚𝑚 and 𝑛𝑛 are scalars, then
Laws of vector algebra. If 𝐴𝐴,

𝐴𝐴⃗ + 𝐵𝐵 = 𝐵𝐵 + 𝐴𝐴⃗ Commutative law.

𝐴𝐴⃗ + 𝐵𝐵 + 𝐶𝐶⃗ = 𝐵𝐵 + 𝐴𝐴⃗ + 𝐶𝐶⃗ Associative law

𝑚𝑚𝐴𝐴⃗ = 𝐴𝐴𝑚𝑚
⃗ Commutative law

𝑚𝑚 𝑛𝑛𝐴𝐴⃗ = 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝐴𝐴⃗ Associative law

𝑚𝑚 + 𝑛𝑛 𝐴𝐴⃗ = 𝑚𝑚𝐴𝐴⃗ + 𝑛𝑛𝐴𝐴⃗ Distributive law

𝑚𝑚 𝐴𝐴⃗ + 𝐵𝐵 = 𝑚𝑚𝐴𝐴⃗ + 𝑚𝑚𝐵𝐵 Distributive law

 Unit Vectors
• A unit vector is a vector with a magnitude of unity (one), with no units.

• Its only purpose is to describe a direction in space.

• Unit vectors (𝑖𝑖 = 𝑗𝑗 = 𝑘𝑘 = 1) provide a convenient notation for many expressions

involving components of vectors.

• 𝚤𝚤⃗, 𝚥𝚥⃗, and 𝑘𝑘 are called rectangular unit vectors and are mutually perpendicular
having directions of the positive x; y and z axes.
 Unit Vectors
• Any vector in a 3-D space can be represented with an initial point at the origin 𝑂𝑂
of a rectangular system.

• The components of vector 𝑎𝑎⃗ are in the x, y, and z-directions.

– The components of vector 𝑎𝑎⃗ are 𝑎𝑎x , 𝑎𝑎y , 𝑎𝑎z

– The rectangular component vectors of vector are 𝑎𝑎x 𝚤𝚤⃗, 𝑎𝑎y 𝚥𝚥⃗, 𝑎𝑎z 𝑘𝑘.

𝑎𝑎⃗ = 𝑎𝑎x 𝚤𝚤⃗ + 𝑎𝑎y 𝚥𝚥⃗ + 𝑎𝑎z 𝑘𝑘

• The magnitude of vector 𝑎𝑎⃗ is:

𝑎𝑎 = 𝑎𝑎⃗ = 𝑎𝑎x2 + 𝑎𝑎𝑦𝑦2 + 𝑎𝑎𝑧𝑧2

 Example
• Given vectors 𝐴𝐴⃗ = 7⃗𝚤𝚤 + 5⃗𝚥𝚥 − 2𝑘𝑘 and 𝐵𝐵 = 3⃗𝚤𝚤 − 10⃗𝚥𝚥 + 6𝑘𝑘 , calculate their

sum 𝑅𝑅 .

Solution: the sum:

𝑅𝑅 = 𝐴𝐴⃗ + 𝐵𝐵 = 7⃗𝚤𝚤 + 5⃗𝚥𝚥 − 2𝑘𝑘 + 3⃗𝚤𝚤 − 10⃗𝚥𝚥 + 6𝑘𝑘

= 7 + 3 𝚤𝚤⃗ + 5 − 10 𝚥𝚥⃗ + −2 + 6 𝑘𝑘

= 10⃗𝚤𝚤 − 5⃗𝚥𝚥 + 4𝑘𝑘

 Scalar or Dot Product
• The scalar product of two vectors is defined as the product of the magnitudes of
the vectors and cosine of the angle 0 ≤ 𝜃𝜃 ≤ 𝜋𝜋 .
⃗ 𝐵𝐵 = 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 cos 𝜃𝜃
𝐴𝐴.

• Scalar product is commutative. From the relation we get that:

⃗ 𝐵𝐵
𝐴𝐴. ⃗ 𝐵𝐵
𝐴𝐴.
= cos 𝜃𝜃 or 𝜃𝜃 = cos −1
𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴

• 𝐴𝐴 = 𝐴𝐴2x + 𝐴𝐴2𝑦𝑦 + 𝐴𝐴𝑧𝑧2 and 𝐵𝐵 = 𝐵𝐵x2 + 𝐵𝐵𝑦𝑦2 + 𝐵𝐵𝑧𝑧2 . 𝜃𝜃 is the angle between 𝐴𝐴⃗ and 𝐵𝐵.
 Scalar or Dot Product
• In the Cartesian coordinate system, scalar products of the unit vectors is

𝚤𝚤⃗. 𝚥𝚥⃗ = 𝑖𝑖. 𝑗𝑗 cos 90° = 1.1 0 = 0

• Find

𝚤𝚤⃗. 𝑘𝑘

𝑘𝑘. 𝚥𝚥⃗

𝚥𝚥⃗. 𝚥𝚥⃗

𝑘𝑘. 𝑘𝑘

𝚤𝚤⃗. 𝚤𝚤⃗
 Example

• Consider two vectors 𝐴𝐴⃗ = 10 cm and 𝐵𝐵 = 20 cm with an angle 𝜃𝜃 = 75°

between them. Find their scalar product.

Solution:

A. 𝐵𝐵 = 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 cos 𝜃𝜃 = 10 × 20 cos 75° = 51.7

 Vector or Cross Product
• The vector product is defined as the product of the magnitudes of the vectors and
the sine of the angle 0 ≤ 𝜃𝜃 ≤ 𝜋𝜋 between them.

• Note that the order of the vectors is now relevant.

𝐴𝐴⃗ × 𝐵𝐵 = A. Bsin 𝜃𝜃 𝑛𝑛

• n is a unit vector ⊥ to the plane and into (rather than out of) the plane.

• The translation of a right-handed screw rotated from the first to the second vector
applies.
 Vector or Cross Product
• When we apply the definition of the cross product on the unit vectors we get

𝚤𝚤⃗ × 𝚥𝚥⃗ = 𝑖𝑖 × 𝑗𝑗 sin 𝜃𝜃 𝑘𝑘 = 1 × 1 sin 90° 𝑘𝑘� = 𝑘𝑘�

• Find

𝚥𝚥⃗ × 𝑘𝑘

𝑘𝑘 × 𝚤𝚤⃗

𝑘𝑘 × 𝚥𝚥⃗

𝚤𝚤⃗ × 𝑘𝑘

𝚥𝚥⃗ × 𝚤𝚤⃗
 Example
• Three dogs are pulling on a stick in different directions. The first dog pulls with

force 𝐹𝐹⃗1 = 10.0⃗𝚤𝚤 − 20.4⃗𝚥𝚥 + 2.0𝑘𝑘 , the second dog pulls with force 𝐹𝐹⃗2 = �−15.0⃗𝚤𝚤 −

6.2𝑘𝑘� , and the third dog pulls with force 𝐹𝐹⃗3 = 5.0⃗𝚤𝚤 + 12.5⃗𝚥𝚥 . Find the angle

between 𝐹𝐹⃗1 and 𝐹𝐹⃗2 .

• The component of 𝐹𝐹⃗1 = 10.0⃗𝚤𝚤 − 20.4⃗𝚥𝚥 + 2.0𝑘𝑘 is

2 2 2 2 2 2
𝐹𝐹1 = 𝐹𝐹1𝑥𝑥 + 𝐹𝐹1𝑦𝑦 + 𝐹𝐹1𝑧𝑧 = 10.0 + −20.4 + 2 = 22.8𝑁𝑁

• The component of 𝐹𝐹⃗2 = −15.0⃗𝚤𝚤 − 6.2𝑘𝑘 is

2 2 2 2
𝐹𝐹2 = 𝐹𝐹2𝑥𝑥 + 𝐹𝐹2𝑧𝑧 = −15.0 + −6.2 = 16.2N

• The scalar product between 𝐹𝐹1 and 𝐹𝐹2 is

𝐹𝐹1 . 𝐹𝐹2 = 10.0⃗𝚤𝚤 − 20.4⃗𝚥𝚥 + 2.0𝑘𝑘 . −15.0⃗𝚤𝚤 − 6.2𝑘𝑘 = −150 − 12.4𝑁𝑁 2 = −162.4𝑁𝑁 2

𝐹𝐹1 . 𝐹𝐹2 −162.4

or 𝜃𝜃 = cos−1 = cos−1 = 116.0°
𝐹𝐹1 𝐹𝐹2 [Link]