FACULTY OF SCIENCE AND AGRICULTURE

Department of Physics

PHY 111

STUDY GUIDE

MECHANICS OF A PARTICLE

COMPILED BY: DR N.L. LETHOLE

2024

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Module Title MECHANICS OF A PARTICLE
Module Lecturer Dr NL LETHOLE
Office Address Livingstone Hall – LV 213 (118)
Email nlethole@[Link] Telephone 040 603 2639
No.
2nd Examiner Dr V Xuza
Open door Lecture Monday 11:40 – 13:20
Consultation Time policy, before Periods Wednesday 09:50 -10:35
16:30 Friday 08:00 – 08:45
Assessment Description Weighting
Method
Assignments, Tests Assignments 10%
and Practical Tests 70%
Practical 20%
Duly Performed 100%
Final mark Duly Performed 50%
Exam Mark 50%
Final Mark 100%
REFERENCE MATERIALS FOR THE MODULE
The recommended books are listed below:
• University physics, Volume 1, Samuel J. LING, Jeff SANNY, William MOEBS,
2016
• University physics with modern physics, 13th ed., Hugh D. YOUNG, Roger A.
FREEDMAN, A. Lewis FORD, 2012

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Contents
Chapter 1 ....................................................................................................................................................... 6

Physical Quantities and Vectors .................................................................................................................... 6

1.1. Physical Quantities.................................................................................................................... 6

1.2. Dimensional Analysis ................................................................................................................ 7

1.3. Scalers and Vectors ................................................................................................................... 8

Chapter 2 ..................................................................................................................................................... 14

Kinematics: Motion along a Straight Line.................................................................................................. 14

2.1. Position, Displacement, and Average Velocity...................................................................... 14

2.2. Instantaneous Velocity and Speed ......................................................................................... 15

2.3. Average and Instantaneous Acceleration .............................................................................. 16

2.4. Motion with Constant Acceleration ....................................................................................... 16

2.5. Free Fall ................................................................................................................................... 18

Chapter 3 ..................................................................................................................................................... 19

Kinematics: Motion in Two and Three Dimensions ................................................................................... 19

3.1. Displacement and Velocity Vectors ....................................................................................... 19

3.2. Acceleration Vector................................................................................................................. 20

3.3. Projectile Motion ..................................................................................................................... 21

3.4. Uniform Circular Motion ....................................................................................................... 22

Chapter 4 ..................................................................................................................................................... 25

Newton’s Laws of Motion ............................................................................................................................ 25

4.1. Forces ....................................................................................................................................... 25

4.2. Newton’s First Law ................................................................................................................. 25

4.3. Newton’s Second Law ............................................................................................................. 26

4.4. Mass and weight ...................................................................................................................... 26

4.5. Newton’s Third Law ............................................................................................................... 27

4.6. Common Forces....................................................................................................................... 27

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 4.7. Free-Body Diagrams ............................................................................................................... 30
Chapter 5 ..................................................................................................................................................... 32

Work and Energy ......................................................................................................................................... 32

5.1. Work......................................................................................................................................... 32

5.2. Kinetic Energy ......................................................................................................................... 33

5.3. Potential Energy ...................................................................................................................... 34

5.4. Conservation of Energy .......................................................................................................... 37

5.5. Power ........................................................................................................................................ 37

Chapter 6 ..................................................................................................................................................... 39

Linear Momentum and Collisions ............................................................................................................... 39

6.1. Linear Momentum .................................................................................................................. 39

6.2. Impulse and Collisions ............................................................................................................ 39

6.3. Conservation of Linear Momentum ...................................................................................... 40

6.4. Types of Collisions................................................................................................................... 41

6.5. Elastic Collisions...................................................................................................................... 41

6.6. Center of Mass......................................................................................................................... 42

Chapter 7 ..................................................................................................................................................... 43

Gravitation.................................................................................................................................................... 43

7.1. Newton's Law of Universal Gravitation................................................................................ 43

7.2. Gravitation Near Earth's Surface.......................................................................................... 44

7.3. Gravitational Potential Energy and Total Energy ............................................................... 44

7.5. Satellite Orbits and Energy .................................................................................................... 45

7.6. Energy in Circular Orbits ...................................................................................................... 46

7.7. Escape Velocity........................................................................................................................ 46

7.8. Kepler’s Laws of Planetary Motion....................................................................................... 47

Chapter 8 ..................................................................................................................................................... 50

Static Equilibrium ........................................................................................................................................ 50

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 8.1. Conditions for Static Equilibrium ......................................................................................... 50
Chapter 9 ..................................................................................................................................................... 52

Fluid Mechanics .......................................................................................................................................... 52

9.1. Fluids, Density and Pressure .................................................................................................. 52

9.2. Measuring Pressure ................................................................................................................ 54

9.3. Pascal’s Principle and Hydraulics ......................................................................................... 56

9.4. Archimedes’ Principle and Buoyancy ................................................................................... 58

9.5. Fluid Dynamics ........................................................................................................................ 60

9.6. Bernoulli’s Equation ............................................................................................................... 62

9.7. Viscosity and Turbulence ....................................................................................................... 64

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 Chapter 1
Physical Quantities and Vectors
Physics is one of the most fundamental of the sciences. Physics is an experimental science.
Physicists observe the phenomena of nature and try to find patterns that relate these phenomena.
These patterns are called physical theories and become physical laws or principles when they are
very well established and widely used. Physics is also the foundation of all engineering and
technology. The study of physics is an adventure. You will find it challenging, sometimes
frustrating, occasionally painful, and often richly rewarding. In this opening chapter, we will go
over some important preliminaries that we will need throughout our study. These include the nature
of physical theory, the use of idealised models to represent physical systems and the systems of
units used to describe physical quantities. We will also study several aspects of scalars, vectors
and vector algebra. Vectors will be needed throughout our study of physics to describe and analyse
physical quantities, such as velocity and force that have direction as well as magnitude.

1.1. Physical Quantities

There are three fundamental physical quantities, which are mass (m), length (L), and time (t). The
corresponding basic SI units are kilogram (kg), meter (m) and second (s). Derived units for other
physical quantities are products or quotients of the fundamental units, e.g. velocity (m/s),
acceleration (m/s2), force (kg.m/s2), etc. Equations must be dimensionally consistent; two terms can
be added only when they have the same units. Once we have defined the fundamental units, it is
easy to introduce larger and smaller units for the same physical quantities. The other units are
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related to the fundamental units by multiples of 10 or 10. Thus one kilometer (1 km) is 1000 meters
1
(1000 m), and one centimeter ( 1 cm), 100
m. We usually express multiples of 10 in exponential
1
notation: 1000 = 103, 1000 = 10-3 and so on. The names of the additional units are derived by adding

a prefix to the name of the fundamental unit. For example, the prefix “kilo-” abbreviated k, always
means a unit larger by a factor of 1000; thus 1 km = 103 m: 1 kg = 103 g; 1 kW = 103 W.

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 Table 1-1. Metric prefixes and symbols used to denote various factors of 10 in SI units.
Prefix Symbol Meaning Prefix Symbol Meaning
yotta- Y 1024 yocto- y 10-24
zetta- Z 1021 zepto- z 10-21
exa- E 1018 atto A 10-18
Peta- P 1015 femto- f 10-15
tera- T 1012 pico- p 10-12
giga- G 109 nano- n 10-9
mega- M 106 micro- μ 10-6
kilo- K 103 milli- m 10-3
hector- h 102 centi- c 10-2
deka- da 101 deci- d 10-1

The only rule when using prefixes is that you cannot “double them up.” For example, if you have
measurements in petameters (1 Pm = 1015 m), it is not allowed to talk about megagigameters,
although 106 × 109 = 1015 .

1.2. Dimensional Analysis

The dimension of any physical quantity expresses its dependence on the base quantities as a product
of symbols (or powers of symbols) representing the base quantities. Dimensions are not units;
however, knowing the units of a certain quantity, one can obtain the dimensions of that quantity. A
measurement of length has a dimension L or L1, mass M or M1 and time T or T1. Like units,
dimensions obey the rules of algebra. Thus, area is the product of two lengths and so has dimension
L2, or length squared. Volume is the product of three lengths and has dimension L3, or length cubed.
Speed has dimension length over time, L/T or LT-1. Volumetric mass density has dimension M/L3
or ML-3, or mass over length cubed. Any quantity with a dimension that can be written so that the
power is zero, is called dimensionless (or sometimes “of dimension 1,” because anything raised to
the zero power is one). Physicists often call dimensionless quantities pure numbers.
Table 1-2. Selected base quantities and their dimensions.
Base Quantity Symbol for Dimension
Length L
Mass M
Time T

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 Current I

Square brackets around the symbol for a physical quantity are used to represent the dimensions of
that quantity. E.g., if r is the radius of a cylinder and h its height, we write [r] = L and [h] = L to
indicate the dimensions of the radius and height are both those of length. Similarly, if we use the
symbol A for the surface area of a cylinder and V for its volume, then [A] = L2 and [V] = L3. If we
use the symbol m for the mass of the cylinder and ρ for the density of the material from which the
cylinder is made, then [m] = M and [ρ] = ML-3. Any mathematical equation relating physical
quantities must be dimensionally consistent, i.e. the equation must obey the following rules:
• Every term in an expression must have the same dimensions; it does not make sense to add
or subtract quantities of differing dimension.
• The arguments of any of the standard mathematical functions such as trigonometric functions,
logarithms, or exponential functions that appear in the equation must be dimensionless. These
functions require pure numbers as inputs and give pure numbers as outputs.

1.3. Scalers and Vectors

Scalar quantities are physical quantities that can be specified completely by single number and the
appropriate unit. E.g. time, distance, length, temperature, mass, and density. Scalar quantities that
have the same physical units can be added or subtracted according to the usual rules of algebra for
numbers. E.g. a class ending 10 min earlier than 50 min lasts 50 min − 10 min = 40 min. On the
other hand, physical quantities specified completely by giving a number of units (magnitude) and a
direction are called vector quantities. E.g. displacement, velocity, position, force, and torque.
Physical vector quantities are represented by mathematical objects called vectors (Figure 1.1). We
can add or subtract two vectors, and we can multiply a vector by a scalar or by another vector, but
we cannot divide by a vector. The operation of division by a vector is not defined.

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Figure 1-1. We draw a vector from the initial point or origin (called the “tail” of a vector) to the
end or terminal point (called the “head” of a vector), marked by an arrowhead. Magnitude is the
length of a vector and is always a positive scalar quantity.
Vector quantities are represented by a single letter, either in bold or with an arrow/bar above them.
E.g. displacement (d or 𝑑𝑑⃗). When handwriting a symbol for a vector, always write it with an
arrow/bar on top. If you don’t distinguish between scalar and vector quantities in your notation,
you won’t make the distinction in your communication.

Figure 1-2. Illustration of relations between vectors.

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Displacement is always a straight-line segment directed from the starting point to the ending point,
even though the object’s actual path may be curved. If two vectors have the same direction, they
are parallel. If they have the same magnitude and the same direction, they are equal, no matter
where they are located in space (𝐴𝐴⃗ = 𝐵𝐵
�⃗). When two vectors have opposite directions, whether their

magnitudes are the same or not, we say that they are antiparallel. A negative of a vector is defined
as a vector having the same magnitude as the original vector but opposite in direction (𝐴𝐴⃗ = −𝐴𝐴⃗).
The magnitude of a vector quantity is represented by the same letter used for the vector, but in light
type with no arrow/bar on top. An alternative notation is the vector symbol with vertical bars on
both sides (A=|𝐴𝐴⃗|). The magnitude of a vector quantity is a scalar quantity (a number) and is always
positive.

1.3.1. Vector Algebra (Addition)

Vectors can be added with the parallelogram and triangular laws of addition. If a particle undergoes
a displacement 𝐴𝐴⃗ followed by a second displacement 𝐵𝐵
�⃗. The final result is the same as if the particle

had started at the same initial point and undergone a single displacement 𝐶𝐶⃗ (see Figure 1-3).
Displacement 𝐶𝐶⃗ is called the vector sum, or resultant, of displacements 𝐴𝐴⃗ and 𝐵𝐵
�⃗.

𝐶𝐶⃗ = 𝐴𝐴⃗ + 𝐵𝐵
�⃗ = 𝐵𝐵
�⃗ + 𝐴𝐴⃗

�⃗ and 𝐶𝐶⃗ are vectors and m and n are scalars, then

Laws of vector algebra. If 𝐴𝐴⃗, 𝐵𝐵

𝐴𝐴⃗ + 𝐵𝐵 �⃗ + 𝐴𝐴⃗
�⃗ = 𝐵𝐵 Commutative law.

𝐴𝐴⃗ + �𝐵𝐵
�⃗ + 𝐶𝐶⃗� = �𝐵𝐵
�⃗ + 𝐴𝐴⃗� + 𝐶𝐶⃗ Associative law

𝑚𝑚𝐴𝐴⃗ = 𝐴𝐴⃗𝑚𝑚 Commutative law

𝑚𝑚�𝑛𝑛𝐴𝐴⃗� = (𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚)𝐴𝐴⃗ Associative law

(𝑚𝑚 + 𝑛𝑛)𝐴𝐴⃗ = 𝑚𝑚𝐴𝐴⃗ + 𝑛𝑛𝐴𝐴⃗ Distributive law

𝑚𝑚�𝐴𝐴⃗ + 𝐵𝐵
�⃗� = 𝑚𝑚𝐴𝐴⃗ + 𝑚𝑚𝐵𝐵
�⃗ Distributive law

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 Figure 1-3. Three ways to add two vectors. As shown in (b), the order in vector addition doesn’t
matter; vector addition is commutative.
A unit vector is a vector with a magnitude of unity (one), with no units. Its only purpose is to
describe a direction in space. Unit vectors provide a convenient notation for many expressions
�⃗ are called rectangular unit vectors
involving components of vectors (𝑖𝑖 = 𝑗𝑗 = 𝑘𝑘 = 1). 𝚤𝚤⃗, 𝚥𝚥⃗, and 𝑘𝑘
and are mutually perpendicular having directions of the positive x; y and z axes (Figure 1.4).

Figure 1-4. Unit vectors in a three-dimensional (3-D) coordinate system. Caps on top of the unit
vectors also show vector property, just like bold letters and bars on top.

Any vector in a 3-dimentional space can be represented with an initial point at the origin 𝑂𝑂 of a
rectangular system. Figure 1.4b shows vector 𝑎𝑎⃗ in 3-D with its components in the x, y, and z-
directions. The components of vector 𝑎𝑎⃗ are 𝑎𝑎x , 𝑎𝑎y , 𝑎𝑎z ; while the rectangular component vectors of
�⃗. We can write, with reference to Figure 1.4b:
vector are 𝑎𝑎x 𝚤𝚤⃗, 𝑎𝑎y 𝚥𝚥⃗, 𝑎𝑎z 𝑘𝑘
�⃗
𝑎𝑎⃗ = 𝑎𝑎x 𝚤𝚤⃗ + 𝑎𝑎y 𝚥𝚥⃗ + 𝑎𝑎z 𝑘𝑘
The magnitude of vector 𝑎𝑎⃗ is:

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 𝑎𝑎 = |𝑎𝑎⃗| = �𝑎𝑎x2 + 𝑎𝑎𝑦𝑦2 + 𝑎𝑎𝑧𝑧2

1.3.2. Scalar or Dot Product

The scalar product of two vectors is defined as the product of the magnitudes of the vectors and
cosine of the angle (0 ≤ 𝜃𝜃 ≤ 𝜋𝜋). Then we can write:
�⃗ = 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 cos 𝜃𝜃
𝐴𝐴⃗. 𝐵𝐵
Scalar product is commutative. From the relation we get that:
𝐴𝐴⃗. 𝐵𝐵
�⃗ 𝐴𝐴⃗. 𝐵𝐵
�⃗
= cos 𝜃𝜃 or 𝜃𝜃 = cos −1 � �
𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴

where 𝐴𝐴 = �𝐴𝐴2x + 𝐴𝐴2𝑦𝑦 + 𝐴𝐴2𝑧𝑧 and 𝐵𝐵 = �𝐵𝐵x2 + 𝐵𝐵𝑦𝑦2 + 𝐵𝐵𝑧𝑧2 and 𝜃𝜃 is the angle between �𝐴𝐴⃗ and 𝐵𝐵
�⃗.

Figure 1-5. The scalar product of two vectors. (a) The angle between the two vectors. (b) The
orthogonal projection A⊥ of vector 𝐴𝐴⃗ onto the direction of vector 𝐵𝐵
�⃗ (c) The orthogonal projection
�⃗ onto the direction of vector 𝐴𝐴⃗ .
B⊥ of vector 𝐵𝐵
In the Cartesian coordinate system, scalar products of the unit vector of an axis with other unit
vectors of axes always vanish because these unit vectors are orthogonal:

𝚤𝚤⃗. 𝚥𝚥⃗ = 𝑖𝑖. 𝑗𝑗 cos 90° = 1.1(0) = 0

𝚤𝚤⃗. 𝚤𝚤⃗ = 𝑖𝑖. 𝑖𝑖 cos 0° = 1.1(1) = 1

Similarly,

�⃗ = 0; 𝑘𝑘
𝚤𝚤⃗. 𝑘𝑘 �⃗ . 𝚥𝚥⃗ = 0; 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝚥𝚥⃗. 𝚥𝚥⃗ = 1; 𝑘𝑘
�⃗ . 𝑘𝑘
�⃗ = 1

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 1.3.3. Vector or Cross Product

The second kind of product is a vector product whose magnitude is defined as the product of the
magnitudes of the vectors and the sine of the angle (0 ≤ 𝜃𝜃 ≤ 𝜋𝜋) between them. The direction is
perpendicular to the plane of the two vectors in the sense of the translation of a right-handed screw
rotated from the first to the second vector. Note that the order of the vectors is now relevant. The
notation is:
𝐴𝐴⃗ × 𝐵𝐵
�⃗ = 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 sin 𝜃𝜃 𝑛𝑛�⃗
n is a unit vector perpendicular to the plane and into (rather than out of) the plane.

Figure 1-6. The right hand rule is illustrated. The direction of two vectors is the one not in the cross
product.
When we apply the definition of the cross product on the unit vectors we get

�⃗ = 1 × 1 sin 90° 𝑘𝑘� = 𝑘𝑘�

𝚤𝚤⃗ × 𝚥𝚥⃗ = 𝑖𝑖 × 𝑗𝑗 sin 𝜃𝜃 𝑘𝑘

�⃗ = 1 × 1 sin 90° − 𝑘𝑘� = −𝑘𝑘�

𝚥𝚥⃗ × 𝚤𝚤⃗ = 𝑗𝑗 × 𝑖𝑖 sin 𝜃𝜃 − 𝑘𝑘
Similarly,

�⃗ = 𝚤𝚤̂; 𝑘𝑘
𝚥𝚥⃗ × 𝑘𝑘 �⃗ × 𝚤𝚤⃗ = 𝚥𝚥̂; 𝑘𝑘
�⃗ × 𝚥𝚥⃗ = −𝚤𝚤̂; 𝚤𝚤⃗ × 𝑘𝑘
�⃗ = −𝚥𝚥̂

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 Chapter 2
Kinematics: Motion along a Straight Line
The universe is full of objects in motion: from the stars, planets, and galaxies; to the motion of
people and animals; down to the microscopic scale of atoms and molecules. Motion of objects can
be described using two disciplines: kinematics and dynamics. Dynamics is concerned with the
causes of motion. Kinematics involves describing motion through properties such as position, time,
velocity, and acceleration. A full treatment of kinematics considers motion in two and three
dimensions. For now, we discuss motion in one dimension, which provides us with the tools
necessary to study multidimensional motion.

2.1. Position, Displacement, and Average Velocity

To describe the motion of an object, you must first be able to describe its position (x) relative to a
convenient frame of reference. A frame of reference is an arbitrary set of axes from which the
position and motion of an object are described. Earth is often used as a frame of reference, and we
often describe the position of an object as it relates to stationary objects on Earth. For example, a
rocket launch could be described in terms of the position of the rocket with respect to Earth as a
whole, whereas a cyclist’s position could be described in terms of where s/he is in relation to the
buildings she passes. In other cases, we use reference frames that are not stationary but are in motion
relative to Earth. To describe the position of a person in an airplane, for example, we use the
airplane, not Earth, as the reference frame. To describe the position of an object undergoing one
dimensional motion, we often use the variable x. If an object moves relative to a frame of reference,
then the object’s position changes. This change in position is called displacement.
∆x = xf − x0
where ∆x is displacement, xf is the final position, and x0 is the initial position. Since displacement
indicates direction, it is a vector and can be either positive or negative, depending on the choice of
positive direction. We define total displacement ∆xtot , as the sum of the individual displacements,
and express this mathematically with the equation:

∆xtot = � ∆ xi

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 where ∆xi are the individual displacements.
To calculate the other physical quantities in kinematics we must introduce the time variable. The
time variable allows us not only to state where the object is (its position) during its motion, but
also how fast it is moving. How fast an object is moving, is given by the rate at which the position
changes with time. For each position xi , we assign a particular time 𝑡𝑡i . If the details of the motion
at each instant are not important, the rate is usually expressed as the average velocity (v
�⃗). This
vector quantity is simply the total displacement between two points divided by the time taken to
travel between them. The time taken to travel between two points is called the elapsed time 𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥. If
𝑥𝑥1 and 𝑥𝑥2 are the positions of an object at times 𝑡𝑡1 and 𝑡𝑡2, respectively, then

𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 ∆x x2 − x1

𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 = v
�⃗ = = =
𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 ∆𝑡𝑡 𝑡𝑡2 − 𝑡𝑡1

2.2. Instantaneous Velocity and Speed

Instantaneous velocity or simply velocity is the quantity that tells us how fast an object is moving
anywhere along its path. To illustrate this idea mathematically, we express position x as a
continuous function of 𝑡𝑡. The expression for the average velocity between two points will be:
𝑥𝑥(𝑡𝑡2 ) − 𝑥𝑥(𝑡𝑡1 )
�v⃗ =
𝑡𝑡2 − 𝑡𝑡1

To find the instantaneous velocity at any position, we let 𝑡𝑡1 = 𝑡𝑡 and 𝑡𝑡2 = 𝑡𝑡 + 𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥. After inserting
these expressions into the equation for the average velocity and taking the limit as 𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥 → 0, we find
the expression for the instantaneous velocity:
𝑥𝑥(𝑡𝑡 + ∆𝑡𝑡) − 𝑥𝑥(𝑡𝑡) 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑(𝑡𝑡)
�⃗ = lim
v =
∆𝑡𝑡→0 ∆𝑡𝑡 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Hence, the instantaneous velocity of an object is the limit of the average velocity as the elapsed
time approaches zero. Like average velocity, instantaneous velocity is a vector with dimension of
length per time.

Contrary to velocity, which is a vector, speed has no direction, hence a scalar. Average speed is
calculated by finding the total distance travelled divided by the elapsed time:

𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 =
𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡

15
 Average speed is not necessarily the same as the magnitude of the average velocity, however, we
can calculate the instantaneous speed from the magnitude of the instantaneous velocity:

Instantaneous speed = |v(𝑡𝑡)|

When calculating instantaneous velocity, we need to specify the explicit form of the position
function 𝑥𝑥(𝑡𝑡). For the moment, let’s use polynomials 𝑥𝑥(𝑡𝑡) = 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝑛𝑛 , because they are easily
differentiated using the power rule of calculus:

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑(𝑡𝑡)
= 𝑛𝑛𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝑛𝑛−1
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

2.3. Average and Instantaneous Acceleration

Average acceleration is defined as the rate at which velocity changes:

�⃗ v𝑓𝑓 − v0
∆v
𝑎𝑎⃗ = =
∆𝑡𝑡 𝑡𝑡𝑓𝑓 − 𝑡𝑡0

The bar over 𝑎𝑎 means average acceleration.

Instantaneous acceleration or acceleration at a specific instant in time, is obtained using the same
process discussed for instantaneous velocity. That is, we calculate the average acceleration between
two points in time separated by 𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥 and let 𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥 approach zero. The result is the derivative of the
velocity function v(𝑡𝑡), which is instantaneous acceleration and is expressed as

𝑑𝑑v(𝑡𝑡)
𝑎𝑎⃗(𝑡𝑡) =
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

2.4. Motion with Constant Acceleration

To get our first two equations, we start with the definition of average velocity:

∆𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥 − 𝑥𝑥0
�⃗ =
v =
∆𝑡𝑡 𝑡𝑡

16
Solving for 𝑥𝑥 gives us

𝑥𝑥 = 𝑥𝑥0 + v
�⃗𝑡𝑡

where the average velocity is

v + v0
�⃗ =
v
2

We can derive another useful equation by manipulating the definition of acceleration:

∆v v − v0
𝑎𝑎⃗ = = (constant a)
∆𝑡𝑡 𝑡𝑡

Solving for v yields

v = v0 + 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 (constant a)

Adding v0 to each side of this equation and dividing by 2 gives

v + v0 1
= v0 + 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎.
2 2

v+v0
Since v
�⃗ = for constant acceleration, we have
2

1
�⃗ = v0 + 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎.
v
2

Substituting the expression for v

�⃗ into the equation for displacement, 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑥𝑥0 + �v⃗𝑡𝑡, we get

1
𝑥𝑥 = 𝑥𝑥0 + v0 𝑡𝑡 + 𝑎𝑎𝑡𝑡 2
2

A fourth useful equation can be obtained from another algebraic manipulation of previous
equations. If we solve v = v0 + 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 for t, we get

v − v0
𝑡𝑡 = .
𝑎𝑎

v−v0 v+v0
Substituting 𝑡𝑡 = and v
�⃗ = into 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑥𝑥0 + v
�⃗𝑡𝑡, we get
𝑎𝑎 2

17
 v 2 = v02 + 2𝑎𝑎(𝑥𝑥 − 𝑥𝑥0 )

Summary of Kinematic Equations (constant a)

𝑥𝑥 = 𝑥𝑥0 + �v⃗𝑡𝑡
v + v0
�⃗ =
v
2
�⃗ = v0 + 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎
v
1
𝑥𝑥 = 𝑥𝑥0 + v0 𝑡𝑡 + 𝑎𝑎𝑡𝑡 2
2
v 2 = v02 + 2𝑎𝑎(𝑥𝑥 − 𝑥𝑥0 )

2.5. Free Fall

Free fall describes the motion of an object falling in a gravitational field, such as near the surface
of the earth or other celestial objects of planetary size. The most remarkable and unexpected fact about
falling objects is that if air resistance and friction are negligible, then in a given location all objects
fall toward the center of earth with the same constant acceleration, independent of their mass. The
force of gravity causes objects to fall toward the center of the earth. The acceleration of free-falling
objects is therefore called acceleration due to gravity. Acceleration due to gravity is constant (g =
9.81 𝑚𝑚⁄𝑠𝑠 2 ), which means we can apply the kinematic equations to any falling object where air
resistance and friction are negligible.

Kinematic Equations for Objects in Free Fall

We assume here that acceleration equals −g (with the positive direction upward).

�⃗ = v0 − g𝑡𝑡
v

1
𝑦𝑦 = 𝑦𝑦0 + v0 𝑡𝑡 − g𝑡𝑡 2
2

v 2 = v02 − 2g(𝑦𝑦 − 𝑦𝑦0 )

18
 Chapter 3
Kinematics: Motion in Two and Three Dimensions
To give a complete description of kinematics, we must explore motion in two and three dimensions.
Most objects in our universe do not move in straight lines; rather, they follow curved paths. E.g.
kicked footballs, flight paths, orbital motions of celestial bodies, flow of blood plasma in your veins,
etc. We can apply the same basic equations for displacement, velocity, and acceleration we derived
in Motion along a Straight Line to describe the motions in two and three dimensions, but with some
modifications, in particular, the inclusion of vectors.

3.1. Displacement and Velocity Vectors

To describe motion in two and three dimensions, we must first establish a coordinate system and a
convention for the axes. We generally use the coordinates 𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦, and 𝑧𝑧 to locate a particle at point P(𝑥𝑥,
𝑦𝑦, 𝑧𝑧) in three dimensions. If the particle is moving, the variables 𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦, and 𝑧𝑧 are functions of time
(𝑡𝑡):

𝑥𝑥 = 𝑥𝑥(𝑡𝑡); 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑦𝑦(𝑡𝑡); 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑧𝑧(𝑡𝑡)

The position vector from the origin of the coordinate system to point 𝑃𝑃 is 𝑟𝑟⃗(𝑡𝑡). In unit vector
notation, introduced in Coordinate Systems and Components of a Vector, 𝑟𝑟⃗(𝑡𝑡) is

𝑟𝑟⃗(𝑡𝑡) = 𝑥𝑥(𝑡𝑡)𝚤𝚤̂ + 𝑦𝑦(𝑡𝑡)𝚥𝚥̂ + 𝑧𝑧(𝑡𝑡)𝑘𝑘�

Figure 3.1(a) shows the coordinate system and the vector to point 𝑃𝑃, where a particle could be
located at a particular time 𝑡𝑡. Note the orientation of the 𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦, and 𝑧𝑧 axes. This orientation is called
a right-handed coordinate system (Coordinate Systems and Components of a Vector). With the
definition of the position of a particle in 3-D space, we can formulate the 3-D displacement. Figure
3.1(b) shows a particle at time 𝑡𝑡1 located at 𝑃𝑃1 with position vector 𝑟𝑟⃗(𝑡𝑡1 ). At a later time 𝑡𝑡2 , the
particle is located at 𝑃𝑃2 with position vector 𝑟𝑟⃗(𝑡𝑡2 ). The displacement vector ∆𝑟𝑟⃗ is found by
subtracting 𝑟𝑟⃗(𝑡𝑡1 ) from 𝑟𝑟⃗(𝑡𝑡2 ):

∆𝑟𝑟⃗ = 𝑟𝑟⃗(𝑡𝑡2 ) − 𝑟𝑟⃗(𝑡𝑡1 )

19
Figure 3-1. (a) Three-dimensional coordinate system with a particle at position 𝑃𝑃(𝑥𝑥(𝑡𝑡), 𝑦𝑦(𝑡𝑡), 𝑧𝑧(𝑡𝑡)).
(b) the displacement ∆𝑟𝑟⃗ = 𝑟𝑟⃗(𝑡𝑡2 ) − 𝑟𝑟⃗(𝑡𝑡1 ) is the vector from P1 to P2.

In more than one dimension, the instantaneous velocity vector is now

𝑟𝑟⃗(𝑡𝑡 + ∆𝑡𝑡) − 𝑟𝑟⃗(𝑡𝑡) 𝑑𝑑𝑟𝑟⃗

�⃗(𝑡𝑡) = lim
v =
∆𝑡𝑡→0 ∆𝑡𝑡 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

This equation can also be written in terms of the components of v

�⃗(𝑡𝑡).

�⃗(𝑡𝑡) = v𝑥𝑥 (𝑡𝑡)𝚤𝚤̂ + v𝑦𝑦 (𝑡𝑡)𝚥𝚥̂ + v𝑧𝑧 (𝑡𝑡)𝑘𝑘�

v

where
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑(𝑡𝑡) 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑(𝑡𝑡) 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑(𝑡𝑡)
v𝑥𝑥 (𝑡𝑡) = ; v𝑦𝑦 (𝑡𝑡) = ; v𝑧𝑧 (𝑡𝑡) =
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

If only the average velocity is of concern, we have the vector equivalent of the 1-D average velocity for 2-
D and 3-D:

𝑟𝑟⃗(𝑡𝑡2 ) − 𝑟𝑟⃗(𝑡𝑡1 )
�⃗avg =
v
𝑡𝑡2 − 𝑡𝑡1

3.2. Acceleration Vector

20
 In addition to obtaining the displacement and velocity vectors of an object in motion, we often
want to know its acceleration vector at any point in time along its trajectory. This acceleration
vector is the instantaneous acceleration and it can be obtained from the derivative with respect to
time of the velocity function, as we have seen in a previous chapter. The only difference in 2-D or
3-D is that these are now vector quantities. Taking the derivative with respect to time �v⃗(𝑡𝑡), we find

�⃗(𝑡𝑡 + ∆𝑡𝑡) − �v⃗(𝑡𝑡) 𝑑𝑑v

v �⃗
�a⃗(𝑡𝑡) = lim =
∆𝑡𝑡→0 ∆𝑡𝑡 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
The acceleration in terms of components is
𝑑𝑑v𝑥𝑥 (𝑡𝑡) 𝑑𝑑v𝑦𝑦 (𝑡𝑡) 𝑑𝑑v𝑧𝑧 (𝑡𝑡)
�a⃗(𝑡𝑡) = a𝑥𝑥 (𝑡𝑡)𝚤𝚤̂ + a𝑦𝑦 (𝑡𝑡)𝚥𝚥̂ + 𝑎𝑎𝑧𝑧 (𝑡𝑡)𝑘𝑘� = 𝚤𝚤̂ + 𝚥𝚥̂ + 𝑘𝑘�
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Also, since the velocity is the derivative of the position function, we can write the acceleration in
terms of the second derivative of the position function:
𝑑𝑑 2 𝑥𝑥(𝑡𝑡) 𝑑𝑑2 𝑦𝑦(𝑡𝑡) 𝑑𝑑 2 𝑧𝑧(𝑡𝑡)
𝑎𝑎⃗(𝑡𝑡) = 𝚤𝚤̂ + 𝚥𝚥̂ + 𝑘𝑘�
𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡 2 𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡 2 𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡 2

3.3. Projectile Motion

Projectile motion is the motion of an object thrown or projected into the air, subject only to
acceleration as a result of gravity. E.g. fireworks, ball, etc. Such objects are called projectiles and
their path is called a trajectory. The motion of falling objects as discussed in motion along a straight
line is a simple one-dimensional type of projectile motion in which there is no horizontal movement.
In this section, we consider two-dimensional projectile motion, and our treatment neglects the
effects of air resistance. The key to analysing 2-D projectile motion is to break it into two motions:
one along the horizontal axis and the other along the vertical. Figure 3- 3 illustrates the notation for
displacement, where we define 𝑠𝑠⃗ to be the total displacement, and 𝑥𝑥⃗ and 𝑦𝑦⃗ are its component
vectors along the horizontal and vertical axes, respectively. To describe projectile motion
completely, we must include velocity and acceleration. We must find their components along the x-
and y-axes. Let’s assume all forces except gravity are negligible. Defining the positive direction to
be upward, the components of acceleration are then very simple:
𝑎𝑎𝑦𝑦 = −g = −9.8 𝑚𝑚⁄𝑠𝑠 2

21
Figure 3-2. The total displacement s of a soccer ball at a point along its path. The vector 𝑠𝑠⃗ has
components 𝑥𝑥⃗ and 𝑦𝑦⃗ along the horizontal and vertical axes. Its magnitude is 𝑠𝑠 and it makes an angle
𝜃𝜃 with the horizontal.

If 𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥 = 0, it means v𝑥𝑥 = v0𝑥𝑥 . Then the kinematic equations for motion in a uniform gravitational
field become kinematic equations with 𝑎𝑎𝑦𝑦 = −g, 𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥 = 0:

Horizontal Vertical
v𝑥𝑥 = v0𝑥𝑥 1
𝑦𝑦 = 𝑦𝑦0 + �v0𝑦𝑦 + v𝑦𝑦 �𝑡𝑡
2
𝑥𝑥 = 𝑥𝑥0 + v𝑥𝑥 𝑡𝑡
v𝑦𝑦 = v0𝑦𝑦 − g𝑡𝑡

1
𝑦𝑦 = 𝑦𝑦0 + v0𝑦𝑦 𝑡𝑡 − g𝑡𝑡 2
2

2
v𝑦𝑦2 = v0𝑦𝑦 − 2g(𝑦𝑦 − 𝑦𝑦0 )

3.4. Uniform Circular Motion

In 2-D and 3-D kinematics, even if the speed is a constant, a particle can have acceleration if it
moves along a curved trajectory such as a circle (see Figure 3-3). Thus, the velocity vector is
changing, or 𝑑𝑑v
�⃗⁄𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 ≠ 0. As the particle moves counterclockwise in time 𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥 on the circular path,
its position vector moves from 𝑟𝑟⃗(𝑡𝑡) to 𝑟𝑟⃗(𝑡𝑡 + ∆𝑡𝑡).

22
Figure 3-3. A particle is moving in a circle at a constant speed, with position and velocity vectors
at times 𝑡𝑡 and 𝑡𝑡 + 𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥. (b) Velocity vectors forming a triangle.
The velocity vector has constant magnitude and is tangent to the path as it changes from v
�⃗(𝑡𝑡) to
�⃗(𝑡𝑡 + ∆𝑡𝑡), changing its direction only. Since the velocity vector v
v �⃗(𝑡𝑡) is perpendicular to the
position vector 𝑟𝑟⃗(𝑡𝑡), the triangles formed by the position vectors and ∆𝑟𝑟⃗, and the velocity vectors
�⃗ are similar. Furthermore, since |r⃗(𝑡𝑡)| = |r⃗(𝑡𝑡 + ∆𝑡𝑡)| and |v
and 𝛥𝛥v �⃗(𝑡𝑡 + ∆𝑡𝑡)|, the two
�⃗(𝑡𝑡)| = |v
triangles are isosceles. From these facts we can make the assertion

∆v ∆r v
= 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜∆v = ∆r.
v r r

We can find the magnitude of the acceleration from

∆v v ∆r v2
𝑎𝑎 = lim � � = lim � � = .
∆𝑡𝑡→0 ∆t 𝑟𝑟 ∆𝑡𝑡→0 ∆t 𝑟𝑟

In summary, a particle moving in a circle at a constant speed has an acceleration with magnitude

v2
𝑎𝑎𝑐𝑐 = .
𝑟𝑟

Figure 3-4 shows a particle executing circular motion in a counterclockwise direction. As the
particle moves on the circle, its position vector makes out the angle 𝜃𝜃 (angular position) with the
x-axis. Vector 𝑟𝑟⃗(𝑡𝑡) making an angle 𝜃𝜃 with the x-axis is shown with its components along the x-

23
and y-axes. The magnitude of the position vector is 𝐴𝐴 = |𝑟𝑟⃗(𝑡𝑡)| and is also the radius of the circle,
so that in terms of its components,

Figure 3-4. The position vector for a particle in circular motion with its components along the x-
and y-axes. The particle moves counterclockwise.

𝑟𝑟⃗(𝑡𝑡) = 𝐴𝐴 cos 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 ı̂ + 𝐴𝐴 sin 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 ȷ̂.

where 𝜔𝜔 is the angular frequency in radians (rad) per second and is simply the number of radians
of angular measure through which the particle passes per second. The angle θ that the position
vector has at any particular time is 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔.
If 𝑇𝑇 is the period of motion, or the time to complete one revolution (2π rad), then velocity and
acceleration can be obtained from the position function by differentiation:

𝑑𝑑𝑟𝑟⃗(𝑡𝑡)
v
�⃗(𝑡𝑡) = = −𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 sin 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 ı̂ + 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 cos 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 ȷ̂.
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑑𝑑v
�⃗(𝑡𝑡)
a�⃗(𝑡𝑡) = = −𝜔𝜔2 𝐴𝐴 cos 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 ı̂ − 𝜔𝜔2 𝐴𝐴 sin 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 ȷ̂.
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

From this equation we see that the acceleration vector has magnitude 𝜔𝜔2 𝐴𝐴 and is directed opposite
the position vector, toward the origin, because �a⃗(𝑡𝑡) = 𝜔𝜔2 𝑟𝑟⃗(𝑡𝑡).

24
 Chapter 4
Newton’s Laws of Motion

4.1. Forces

A force is simply defined as a push or pull. It has both magnitude and direction, hence a vector
quantity. Forces, like other vectors, can be added using the familiar head-to-tail method or
trigonometric methods.

Figure 4-1. (a) An overhead view of two ice skaters pushing on a third skater. Forces are vectors
and add like other vectors, so the total force on the third skater is in the direction shown. (b) A
free-body diagram representing the forces acting on the third skater.
The SI unit of force is called the newton (N or kgm/s2), i.e. 1 N is the force needed to accelerate
an abject with a mass of 1 kg at a rate of 1 m/s2. The resultant force or net external force is found
by taking the vector sum of all external forces acting on an object or system.

𝐹𝐹⃗ = � 𝐹𝐹⃗1 + 𝐹𝐹⃗2 + ⋯ + 𝐹𝐹⃗𝑁𝑁

4.2. Newton’s First Law

25
Newton’s First Law of Motion states that a body at rest remains at rest or, if in motion, remains in
motion at constant velocity unless acted on by a net external force. All objects regardless of size are
subjected to gravitation and inertia and both are connected to mass. Mass is a measure of the
amount of matter in an object. Gravitation is the attraction of one mass to another, such as the
attraction between yourself and Earth that holds your feet to the floor. The magnitude of this
attraction is your weight (𝑤𝑤
��⃗) and it is a force. Inertia is the ability of an object to resist changes in
its motion i.e. to resist acceleration. Newton’s first law is often called the law of inertia. Newton’s
first law provides a method for identifying a special type of reference frame: the inertial reference
frame. A reference frame moving at constant velocity relative to an inertial frame is also inertial. A
reference frame accelerating relative to an inertial frame is not inertial. Newton’s first law tells us
about the equilibrium of a system, which is the state in which the forces on the system are balanced,
i.e. the net force is zero.

4.3. Newton’s Second Law

Newton’s second law of motion states “the acceleration of a system is directly proportional to and
in the same direction as the net external force acting on the system and is inversely proportion to its
mass”. In equation form, Newton’s second law is

𝐹𝐹⃗net = 𝑚𝑚𝑎𝑎⃗

where 𝑎𝑎⃗ is the acceleration, 𝐹𝐹⃗net net is the net force, and m is the mass.
Newton’s second can also be stated in terms of momentum: “The instantaneous rate at which a
body’s momentum changes is equal to the net force acting on the body.” (“Instantaneous rate”
implies that the derivative is involved.) This can be given by the vector equation

𝑑𝑑𝑝𝑝⃗
𝐹𝐹⃗net =
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

Momentum is defined as the product of the mass of the object and its velocity:

𝑝𝑝⃗ = 𝑚𝑚v
�⃗

4.4. Mass and weight

26
The net force on a falling object is the gravitational force, commonly called its weight 𝑤𝑤
��⃗, or its force
due to gravity acting on an object of mass 𝑚𝑚. The acceleration of an object due to gravity is �g⃗.
Substituting 𝑤𝑤
��⃗ and �g⃗ into Newton’s second law, we get

��⃗ = 𝑚𝑚g
𝑤𝑤 �⃗

4.5. Newton’s Third Law

Newton’s Third Law of Motion states “whenever one body exerts a force on a second body, the first
body experiences a force that is equal in magnitude and opposite in direction to the force that it
exerts”. Mathematically, if a body 𝐴𝐴 exerts a force 𝐹𝐹⃗ on body 𝐵𝐵, then 𝐵𝐵 simultaneously exerts a force
−𝐹𝐹⃗ on 𝐴𝐴, or in vector equation form,

𝐹𝐹⃗𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 = −𝐹𝐹⃗𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵

Figure 4-2. When the swimmer exerts a force on the wall, she accelerates in the opposite direction;
in other words, the net external force on her is in the direction opposite of 𝐹𝐹𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 . This
opposition occurs because, in accordance with Newton’s third law, the wall exerts a force 𝐹𝐹𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤
on feet on the swimmer that is equal in magnitude but in the direction opposite to the one she
exerts on it. The line around the swimmer indicates the system of interest. Thus, the free-body
diagram shows only 𝐹𝐹𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑒 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 , 𝑤𝑤 (the gravitational force), and 𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵, which is the buoyant
force of the water supporting the swimmer’s weight. The vertical forces 𝑤𝑤 and 𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 cancel because
there is no vertical acceleration.

4.6. Common Forces

Weight (also called the force of gravity) is a pervasive force that acts at all times and must be
counteracted to keep an object from falling. If a load exerts a weight when placed on top (in
contact) of the table, oppositely the table is also exerting a force on the load (upwards). If the force
27
supporting the weight of a load, is perpendicular to the surface of contact between the load and
�⃗. The adjective normal means that the force
table, then the force is called a normal force 𝑁𝑁
always acts perpendicular to the surface of contact, no matter what the angle of that surface.

�⃗ = −𝑚𝑚g�⃗
𝑁𝑁

Tension is a force along the length of a medium; it is a pulling force that acts along a stretched
flexible connector, such as a rope or cable.

�⃗ is perpendicular to the slope and 𝑓𝑓⃗ is parallel to the slope, but 𝑤𝑤

Figure 4-3. 𝑁𝑁 ��⃗ has components
along x and y axes.

�⃗ opposite weight 𝑤𝑤
Figure 4-4. A hand exert a tension force 𝑇𝑇 ��⃗.

28
 Figure 4-5. The weight of a tightrope walker causes a wire to sag by 5.0°. The system of interest
is the point in the wire at which the tightrope walker is standing.

Friction is a resistive force exerted on an object by a surface and acts parallel to the surface, in the
direction that opposes the motion. Imagine an object at rest on a horizontal surface. The net force
acting on the object must be zero, leading to equality of the weight and the normal force, which
act in opposite directions. If the surface is tilted, the normal force balances the component of the
weight perpendicular to the surface. If the object does not slide downward, the component of the
weight parallel to the inclined plane is balanced by friction. The magnitude of static friction is 𝐹𝐹𝑠𝑠 ≤
𝜇𝜇𝑠𝑠 𝑁𝑁, where 𝜇𝜇𝑠𝑠 is the coefficient of static friction and 𝑁𝑁 is the magnitude of the normal force.
Spring force. A spring is a special medium that has the ability to restore its shape, if deformed. To
restore its shape, a spring exerts a restoring force that is proportional to and in the opposite direction
in which it is stretched or compressed. This is the statement of a law known as Hooke’s law, which
has the mathematical form

𝐹𝐹⃗ = −𝑘𝑘𝑥𝑥⃗

where the constant of proportionality 𝑘𝑘 is a measure of the spring’s stiffness.

29
 Figure 4-6. A spring exerts its force proportional to a displacement, whether it is compressed or
stretched. (a) The spring is in a relaxed position and exerts no force on the block. (b) The spring is
compressed by displacement ∆𝑥𝑥⃗1 of the object and exerts restoring force −𝑘𝑘∆𝑥𝑥⃗1 . (c) The spring is
stretched by displacement ∆𝑥𝑥⃗2 of the object and exerts restoring force −𝑘𝑘∆𝑥𝑥⃗2 .

4.7. Free-Body Diagrams

The first step in describing and analysing most phenomena in physics involves the careful drawing
of a free-body diagram. A free-body diagram must only include the external forces acting on the
body of interest. Once we have drawn an accurate free-body diagram, we can apply Newton’s first
law if the body is in equilibrium (balanced forces; 𝐹𝐹𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 = 0) or Newton’s second law if the body is
accelerating (unbalanced force; 𝐹𝐹𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 ≠ 0).

Figure 4-7. (a) A sled is pulled by force P at an angle of 30°. In part (b), we show a free-body
diagram for this situation. In part (c), we show all forces in terms of their x- and y-components, in
keeping with step.

30
 Problem-Solving Strategy: Constructing Free-Body Diagrams

1. Draw the object under consideration at the origin of an xy-coordinate system; it does not have
to be artistic.
2. Include all forces (applied force, weight, normal force, friction, tension, and spring force) that
act on the object, representing these forces as vectors. Do not include the net force on the
object. With the exception of gravity, all of the forces we have discussed require direct contact
with the object.
3. Convert the free-body diagram into a more detailed diagram showing the x- and y-components
of a given force.
4. If there are two or more objects, or bodies, in the problem, draw a separate free-body diagram
for each object.
Note: If there is acceleration, we do not directly include it in the free-body diagram; however, it may help
to indicate acceleration outside the free-body diagram.

31
 Chapter 5
Work and Energy

5.1. Work

Work is done on an object when energy is transferred to the object, i.e., when a force acts on an
object that undergoes a displacement from one position to another. We define work 𝑊𝑊 done by a
constant force as the product of the force magnitude 𝐹𝐹 and the displacement magnitude 𝑠𝑠:

𝑊𝑊 = 𝐹𝐹. 𝑠𝑠 = 𝑁𝑁. 𝑚𝑚 = 𝐽𝐽

If the applied force is at an angle 𝜃𝜃, to the lawn mower’s displacement (Figure 5-1), then 𝐹𝐹⃗ has
components 𝐹𝐹∥ = 𝐹𝐹 cos 𝜃𝜃 and 𝐹𝐹⊥ = 𝐹𝐹 sin 𝜃𝜃 parallel and perpendicular to the direction of the
displacement, respectively. Hence, the work done is defined as the product of the force component
and the magnitude of the displacement (we only consider parallel motion since it is effective in
moving the loan).

𝑊𝑊 = 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 cos 𝜃𝜃

Figure 5-1. A lawn mower moves through displacement 𝑠𝑠 while a constant force 𝐹𝐹⃗ acts on it at an
angle 𝜃𝜃 to the displacement.

32
5.2. Kinetic Energy

Kinetic energy is the measure of the work that an object does by virtue of its motion. Simple
activities like walking, jumping, throwing, and falling involve kinetic energy. To accelerate an
object, we have to apply force. To apply force, we need to do work. When work is done on an
object, energy is transferred, and the object moves with a new constant speed. We call the energy
that is transferred kinetic energy, and it depends on the mass and speed achieved. The kinetic energy
of a particle is one-half the product of the particle’s mass 𝑚𝑚 and the square of its speed v:
1
𝐾𝐾 = 𝑚𝑚v 2
2

For a system of many particles the kinetic energies of all the constituents can be added together:

1
𝐾𝐾 = � 𝑚𝑚𝑣𝑣 2
2

Kinetic energy of a particle can also be expressed in terms of its mass and momentum:

1 𝑝𝑝 2 1 𝑝𝑝2
𝐾𝐾 = 𝑚𝑚 � � =
2 𝑚𝑚 2 𝑚𝑚

Consider a particle with mass m moving along the 𝑥𝑥-axis under the action of a constant net force
with magnitude 𝐹𝐹 directed along the positive x-axis (Figure 5-2). Suppose the speed changes from
𝑣𝑣1 to 𝑣𝑣2 while the particle undergoes a displacement 𝑠𝑠 = 𝑥𝑥2 − 𝑥𝑥1 from point 𝑥𝑥1 to 𝑥𝑥2 . Using a
constant-acceleration equation, we have

𝑣𝑣22 = 𝑣𝑣12 + 2𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥 𝑠𝑠

𝑣𝑣22 − 𝑣𝑣12
𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥 =
2𝑠𝑠

Therefore, substituting 𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥 into the force equation, we have

2 2
𝑣𝑣 − 𝑣𝑣1
𝐹𝐹 = 𝑚𝑚𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥 = 𝑚𝑚 2
2𝑠𝑠

33
 1 1
∴ 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 = 𝑚𝑚𝑣𝑣22 − 𝑚𝑚𝑣𝑣12
2 2

= 𝐾𝐾2 − 𝐾𝐾1 = ∆𝐾𝐾

The above equation simple state that “the total work done by the net force on a particle equals the
change in the particle’s kinetic energy”.

𝑊𝑊 = 𝐾𝐾2 − 𝐾𝐾1 = ∆𝐾𝐾 (𝐰𝐰𝐰𝐰𝐰𝐰𝐰𝐰 − 𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞 𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭)

Figure 5-2. A constant net force does work on a moving body.

5.3. Potential Energy

Potential energy is energy that an object has because of its position relative to other objects. It is
called potential because it has the potential to be converted into other forms of energy, such as
kinetic energy. The work done on an object by the constant gravitational force is a function only of
the difference in the positions of the end-points of the displacement. This property allows us to define
a different kind of energy for the object, which is called potential energy. We shall consider various
properties and types of potential energy.

34
 Figure 5-3. As a football starts its descent toward the wide receiver, gravitational potential energy
is converted back into kinetic energy.
The difference of potential energy from point 1 to point 5 in Figure 5-3 can be described as “the
negative of the work done:

∆𝑈𝑈𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 = 𝑈𝑈𝐵𝐵 − 𝑈𝑈𝐴𝐴 = −𝑊𝑊𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴

This formula explicitly states a potential energy difference, not just an absolute potential energy.
Therefore, we need to define potential energy at a given position. We do this by rewriting the
potential energy function in terms of an arbitrary constant,

∆𝑈𝑈 = 𝑈𝑈(𝑟𝑟⃗) − 𝑈𝑈(𝑟𝑟⃗0 )

The choice of the potential energy at a starting location of 𝑟𝑟⃗0 is made out of convenience in the
given problem. Whatever choice is made should be stated and kept consistent throughout the given
problem. The lowest height in a problem is usually defined as zero potential energy, or if an object
is in space, the farthest point away from the system is often defined as zero potential energy. Then,
the potential energy, with respect to zero at 𝑟𝑟⃗0 , is just (𝑟𝑟⃗). Going back to Figure 5.3, the change in
kinetic energy of the football equals the change in gravitational potential energy of the football.

∆𝐾𝐾𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 = ∆𝑈𝑈𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴

The gravitational potential energy function (due to height), near earth’s surface, is

𝑈𝑈(𝑦𝑦) = 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 + 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐.

35
 The change in 𝑈𝑈grav is the final value minus the initial value, 𝑈𝑈grav = 𝑈𝑈grav,2 − 𝑈𝑈grav,1. Work
𝑊𝑊grav done can be expressed by the gravitational force during the displacement from 𝑦𝑦1 to 𝑦𝑦2 as

𝑊𝑊grav = 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 = 𝐹𝐹(𝑦𝑦1 − 𝑦𝑦2 ) = 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑦𝑦1 − 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑦𝑦2

∴ 𝑊𝑊grav = 𝑈𝑈grav,1 − 𝑈𝑈grav,2 = −�𝑈𝑈grav,2 − 𝑈𝑈grav,1 � = −∆𝑈𝑈grav

The negative sign in front of ∆𝑈𝑈grav is essential. When the body moves up, 𝑦𝑦 increases, the work
done by the gravitational force is negative, and the gravitational potential energy increases.

A system can embody both gravitational and elastic types of potential energy. This consists of a
massive particle (or block), hung from one end of a perfectly elastic, massless spring, the other end
of which is fixed, as illustrated in Figure 5-4. If we consider that the total energy of the system is
conserved, then the energy at point A equals point C. The block is placed just on the spring so its
initial kinetic energy is zero. Both the gravitational potential energy and elastic potential energy are
equal to zero. Therefore, the initial energy of the system is zero. When the block arrives at point C,
its kinetic energy is zero. However, it now has both gravitational potential energy and elastic
potential energy. Therefore, we can solve for the distance 𝑦𝑦 that the block travels before coming to
a stop. The work done on the spring is given by the area under the force vs. extension.

1
𝑊𝑊 = 𝐹𝐹∆𝑥𝑥
2

1
According to Hooke’s law, 𝐹𝐹 = 2 𝑘𝑘∆𝑥𝑥. so the total work done to compress or extend the spring by

1
𝑊𝑊 = 𝑘𝑘∆𝑥𝑥 2
2

where 𝑘𝑘 is the spring constant of the spring. If there are no other forces, then all the work done on
the spring would be converted to elastic potential energy in the spring. Then,

1
𝐸𝐸𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 = 𝑘𝑘∆𝑥𝑥 2
2

36
Figure 5-4. A vertical mass-spring system, with the y-axis pointing downward. The mass is initially
at an unstretched spring length, point A. Then it is released, expanding past point B to point C,
where it comes to a stop.

𝐾𝐾𝐴𝐴 + 𝑈𝑈𝐴𝐴 = 𝐾𝐾𝐶𝐶 + 𝑈𝑈𝐶𝐶

1
∴ 0 = 0 + 𝑚𝑚g𝑦𝑦𝑐𝑐 = − 𝑘𝑘𝑦𝑦𝐶𝐶2
2

−2𝑚𝑚g
∴ 𝑦𝑦𝐶𝐶 =
𝑘𝑘

5.4. Conservation of Energy

The sum of the kinetic and potential energies, K + U = E is defined as the mechanical energy of
the particle. The conservation of energy principle states “The mechanical energy E of a particle
stays constant unless forces outside the system or non-conservative forces do work on it, in which
case, the change in the mechanical energy is equal to the work done by the non-conservative forces”

𝑊𝑊 = ∆(𝐾𝐾 + 𝑈𝑈) = ∆𝐸𝐸

5.5. Power

If the amount of work ∆𝑊𝑊 is done at a time ∆𝑡𝑡, then the average power 𝑃𝑃 is defined as the average
rate at which work is done.

37
 ∆𝑊𝑊
𝑃𝑃ave =
∆𝑡𝑡

Then, we can define the instantaneous power (frequently referred to as just plain power) as

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑃𝑃 =
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

The power involved in moving a body can also be expressed in terms of the forces acting on it. If
force 𝐹𝐹⃗ acts on a body that is displaced 𝑑𝑑𝑟𝑟⃗ in a time 𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡, the power expended by the force is

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝐹𝐹⃗ 𝑑𝑑𝑟𝑟⃗ 𝑑𝑑𝑟𝑟⃗

𝑃𝑃 = = = 𝐹𝐹⃗ . � � = 𝐹𝐹⃗ . v
�⃗
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

where v
�⃗ is the velocity of the body.

38
 Chapter 6

Linear Momentum and Collisions

6.1. Linear Momentum

Like kinetic energy, momentum includes both mass and velocity and it is a way of characterising
the “quantity of motion” of an object. It is given the name momentum (from the Latin word
momentum, meaning “movement”), and it is represented by the symbol 𝑝𝑝. It is given as the product
of its mass and velocity.

𝑝𝑝⃗ = 𝑚𝑚𝑣𝑣⃗

6.2. Impulse and Collisions

An impulse denoted by symbol ⃗ȷ is defined as the product of a force and a time interval over which
that force acts.

𝑑𝑑ȷ⃗ = 𝐹𝐹⃗ (𝑡𝑡)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 ⃗ȷ = 𝐹𝐹⃗ave ∆𝑡𝑡

The total impulse over the interval 𝑡𝑡𝑓𝑓 − 𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑖 is

𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑖 𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑖 𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑖

⃗ȷ = � 𝐹𝐹⃗ (𝑡𝑡)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = � 𝑚𝑚𝑎𝑎⃗(𝑡𝑡)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑚𝑚 � 𝑎𝑎⃗(𝑡𝑡)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑚𝑚�v
�⃗𝑓𝑓 − v
�⃗𝑖𝑖 �
𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑖 𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑖 𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑖

∴ ⃗j = 𝑚𝑚∆v⃗

Since 𝑚𝑚∆v
�⃗ is the momentum of a system, 𝑚𝑚∆v
�⃗ is the change of momentum ∆𝑝𝑝⃗. This gives us the
following relation, called the impulse-momentum theorem which states that “An impulse applied
to a system changes the system’s momentum, and that change of momentum is exactly equal to the
impulse that was applied”:

⃗ȷ = ∆p
�⃗

39
6.3. Conservation of Linear Momentum

The law of conservation of momentum states “when two particles collide, the total momentum of
the system just before the collision equals the total momentum just after collision”. From Newton’s
third law: when two objects of masses 𝑚𝑚1 and 𝑚𝑚2 interact, the force that object 2 applies to object
1 is equal in magnitude and opposite in direction to the force that object 1 applies on object 2. Let
𝐹𝐹⃗21 be the force on 𝑚𝑚1 from 𝑚𝑚2 and 𝐹𝐹⃗12 the force on 𝑚𝑚2 from 𝑚𝑚1 . In symbols, Newton’s third law
says:

𝐹𝐹⃗21 = −𝐹𝐹⃗12

∴ 𝑚𝑚1 𝑎𝑎⃗1 = −𝑚𝑚2 𝑎𝑎⃗2

𝑑𝑑v
�⃗1 𝑑𝑑v
�⃗2
∴ 𝑚𝑚1 = −𝑚𝑚2
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑
∴ (𝑚𝑚1 v
�⃗1 ) = − (𝑚𝑚2 v
�⃗2 )
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑑𝑑𝑝𝑝⃗1 𝑑𝑑𝑝𝑝⃗2
∴ =−
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

This says that the rate at which momentum changes is the same for both objects. The masses are
different, and the changes of velocity are different, but the rate of change of the product of 𝑚𝑚 and
�⃗ are the same. If the momentum of object 1 increases, then that the momentum of object 2 decreases
v
by exactly the same amount. The equation can be rewritten as

𝑑𝑑𝑝𝑝⃗1 𝑑𝑑𝑝𝑝⃗2
+ =0
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

The total combined momentum of the two objects together never changes, then we could write

𝑑𝑑
(𝑝𝑝⃗ + 𝑝𝑝⃗2 ) = 0
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 1

from which it follows that

𝑝𝑝⃗1 + 𝑝𝑝⃗2 = const.

40
However, the system must meet the following two requirements for momentum to be conserved:
(a) The mass of the system must remain constant during the interaction and (b) The net external
force on the system must be zero.

6.4. Types of Collisions

Although momentum is conserved in all interactions, not all interactions (collisions or

explosions) are the same. The first possibility is “a single object can explode into multiple
objects (one-to-many)”. E.g., firecracker, bow and arrow, a rocket rising through the air toward
space. The momentum of the system is conserved in an explosion, but the kinetic energy of the
system is not; it increases. This interaction is called an explosion.
The second possibility is when “multiple objects collide and stick together, forming a single
object (many-to-one). The total mass of the object is the sum of the masses of the original
objects, and the new single object moves with a velocity dictated by the conservation of
momentum. The total momentum of the system of objects remains constant, but the kinetic
energy doesn’t; but this time, decreases. This type of collision is called inelastic. In the extreme
case, multiple objects collide, stick together, and remain motionless after the collision. Since
the objects are all motionless after the collision, the final kinetic energy is also zero; the loss of
kinetic energy is a maximum. Such a collision is said to be perfectly inelastic.
The third possibility is when “multiple objects collide and bounce off of each other, remaining
as multiple objects and move away from each other at the same relative speed at which they
approached each other (many-to-many). In this case, the total kinetic energy of the system is
conserved and momentum is also conserved. Such an interaction is called elastic.

6.5. Elastic Collisions

Consider a one-dimensional elastic collision between two bodies 𝐴𝐴 and 𝐵𝐵 in which all the
velocities lie along the same line. From conservation of kinetic energy, we have
1 2
1 2
1 2
1 2
𝑚𝑚𝐴𝐴 𝑣𝑣𝐴𝐴1 + 𝑚𝑚𝐵𝐵 𝑣𝑣𝐵𝐵1 = 𝑚𝑚𝐴𝐴 𝑣𝑣𝐴𝐴2 + 𝑚𝑚𝐵𝐵 𝑣𝑣𝐵𝐵2
2 2 2 2
where 𝑣𝑣𝐴𝐴1 and 𝑣𝑣𝐵𝐵1 are velocities before collision and 𝑣𝑣𝐴𝐴2 and 𝑣𝑣𝐵𝐵2 are velocities after collision.
Conservation of momentum gives
𝑚𝑚𝐴𝐴 𝑣𝑣𝐴𝐴1 + 𝑚𝑚𝐵𝐵 𝑣𝑣𝐵𝐵1 = 𝑚𝑚𝐴𝐴 𝑣𝑣𝐴𝐴2 + 𝑚𝑚𝐵𝐵 𝑣𝑣𝐵𝐵2

41
Now, we consider a case in which body 𝐵𝐵 is at rest before the collision (𝑣𝑣𝐵𝐵1 = 0). Think of
body 𝐵𝐵 as a target for body 𝐴𝐴 to hit. Then the kinetic energy and momentum conservation
equations are, respectively,
1 2
1 2
1 2
𝑚𝑚𝐴𝐴 𝑣𝑣𝐴𝐴1 = 𝑚𝑚𝐴𝐴 𝑣𝑣𝐴𝐴2 + 𝑚𝑚𝐵𝐵 𝑣𝑣𝐵𝐵2
2 2 2
𝑚𝑚𝐴𝐴 𝑣𝑣𝐴𝐴1 = 𝑚𝑚𝐴𝐴 𝑣𝑣𝐴𝐴2 + 𝑚𝑚𝐵𝐵 𝑣𝑣𝐵𝐵2

6.6. Center of Mass

We can restate the principle of conservation of momentum in a useful way by using the concept
of center of mass. The center of mass is a position defined relative to an object or system of
objects. It is the average position of all the parts of the system, weighted according to their
masses. Suppose we have several particles with masses 𝑚𝑚1 , 𝑚𝑚2 , 𝑚𝑚3 , …; the coordinates of 𝑚𝑚1
are (𝑥𝑥1 , 𝑦𝑦1 ), and those of 𝑚𝑚2 are (𝑥𝑥2 , 𝑦𝑦2 ) and so on. We define the center of mass of the system
as the point that has coordinates (𝑥𝑥𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 , 𝑦𝑦𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 ) given by
𝑚𝑚1 𝑥𝑥1 + 𝑚𝑚2 𝑥𝑥2 + 𝑚𝑚3 𝑥𝑥3 + ⋯
𝑥𝑥𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = = � 𝑚𝑚𝑖𝑖 𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖 ÷ � 𝑚𝑚𝑖𝑖
𝑚𝑚1 + 𝑚𝑚2 + 𝑚𝑚3 +
𝑖𝑖 𝑖𝑖
𝑚𝑚1 𝑦𝑦1 + 𝑚𝑚2 𝑦𝑦2 + 𝑚𝑚3 𝑦𝑦3 + ⋯
𝑦𝑦𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = = � 𝑚𝑚𝑖𝑖 𝑦𝑦𝑖𝑖 ÷ � 𝑚𝑚𝑖𝑖
𝑚𝑚1 + 𝑚𝑚2 + 𝑚𝑚3 +
𝑖𝑖 𝑖𝑖

The position vector 𝑟𝑟⃗𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 of the center of mass can be expressed in terms of the position vectors
𝑟𝑟⃗1 , 𝑟𝑟⃗2 , 𝑟𝑟⃗3 , … of the particles as
𝑚𝑚1 𝑟𝑟⃗1 + 𝑚𝑚2 𝑟𝑟⃗2 + 𝑚𝑚3 𝑟𝑟⃗3 + ⋯
𝑟𝑟⃗𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = = � 𝑚𝑚1 𝑟𝑟⃗1 ÷ � 𝑚𝑚𝑖𝑖
𝑚𝑚1 + 𝑚𝑚2 + 𝑚𝑚3 +
𝑖𝑖 𝑖𝑖

In statistical language, the center of mass is a mass-weighted average position of the particles.

42
 Chapter 7
Gravitation

7.1. Newton's Law of Universal Gravitation

A force exists between any two objects, whose magnitude is given by the product of the two
masses divided by the square of the distance between them. The strength of any source at a
distance 𝑟𝑟 is spread over the surface of a sphere centered about the mass. The surface area of
that sphere is proportional to r2. Newton’s law of gravitation can be expressed as

𝑚𝑚1 𝑚𝑚2
𝐹𝐹⃗12 = 𝐺𝐺 𝑟𝑟̂
𝑟𝑟 2 12

where 𝐹𝐹⃗12 is the force on object 1 exerted by object 2 and 𝑟𝑟̂12 is a unit vector that points from
object 1 toward object 2. The constant 𝐺𝐺 is called the universal gravitational constant and
Cavendish determined it to be 𝐺𝐺 = 6.67 × 10−11 N · m2 ⁄kg 2 . As shown in Figure 7.1, the 𝐹𝐹⃗12
vector points from object 1 toward object 2, and hence represents an attractive force between
the objects. The equal but opposite force 𝐹𝐹⃗21 is the force on object 2 exerted by object 1.

Figure 7-1. Gravitational force acts along a line joining the centers of mass of two objects.

43
7.2. Gravitation Near Earth's Surface

The acceleration of a free-falling object near Earth’s surface is approximately g = 9.80 m/s2.
The force causing this acceleration is called the weight of the object, and from Newton’s second
law, it has the value mg. This weight is present regardless of whether the object is in free fall.
We now know that this force is the gravitational force between the object and Earth. If we
substitute mg for the magnitude of 𝐹𝐹⃗12 in Newton’s law of universal gravitation, m for m1, and
ME for m2, we obtain the scalar equation

𝑚𝑚𝑀𝑀𝐸𝐸
𝑚𝑚g = 𝐺𝐺
𝑟𝑟 2

𝑀𝑀𝐸𝐸
∴ g = 𝐺𝐺 .
𝑟𝑟 2

This explains why all masses free fall with the same acceleration.

7.3. Gravitational Potential Energy and Total Energy

Potential energy is particularly useful for forces that change with position, as the gravitational
force does over large distances. The change in gravitational potential energy near Earth’s
surface is 𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥 = 𝑚𝑚g(𝑦𝑦2 − 𝑦𝑦1 ). We return to the definition of work and potential energy to
derive an expression that is correct over larger distances. Recall that work (𝑊𝑊) is the integral
of the dot product between force and distance. We define 𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥 as the negative of the work done
by the force we associate with the potential energy.

𝑟𝑟2 𝑟𝑟2
𝑑𝑑𝑟𝑟⃗
∆𝑈𝑈 = − � 𝐹𝐹⃗ . 𝑑𝑑𝑟𝑟⃗ = −𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝑀𝑀𝐸𝐸 �
𝑟𝑟1 𝑟𝑟1 𝑟𝑟 2

1 1 𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝑀𝑀𝐸𝐸 𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝑀𝑀𝐸𝐸
∴ ∆𝑈𝑈 = −𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝑀𝑀𝐸𝐸 � − � = − +
𝑟𝑟1 𝑟𝑟2 𝑟𝑟1 𝑟𝑟2

Since ∆𝑈𝑈 = 𝑈𝑈2 − 𝑈𝑈1, we see that the appropriate gravitational potential energy is

𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝑀𝑀𝐸𝐸
𝑈𝑈 = − .
𝑟𝑟

44
7.4. Conservation of Energy

In Potential Energy and Conservation of Energy, we described how to apply conservation of

energy for systems with conservative forces. We have

𝐸𝐸 = 𝐾𝐾1 + 𝑈𝑈1 = 𝐾𝐾2 + 𝑈𝑈2

1 𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺 1 𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺
∴ 𝑚𝑚v12 − = 𝑚𝑚v22 −
2 𝑟𝑟1 2 𝑟𝑟2

The use of M instead of 𝑀𝑀𝐸𝐸 shows that we are not restricted to problems involving Earth.

7.5. Satellite Orbits and Energy

Consider a satellite of mass 𝑚𝑚 in a circular orbit about Earth at distance 𝑟𝑟 from the center of
Earth (Figure 7-2). It has centripetal acceleration directed toward the center of Earth. Earth’s
gravity is the only force acting, so Newton’s second law gives

2
𝑚𝑚vorbit 𝑚𝑚𝑀𝑀𝐸𝐸
𝑚𝑚a𝑐𝑐 = = 𝐺𝐺 2
𝑟𝑟 𝑟𝑟

Figure 7-2. A satellite of mass m orbiting at radius r from the center of Earth. The gravitational
force supplies the centripetal acceleration.
We solve for the speed of the orbit,

𝐺𝐺𝑀𝑀𝐸𝐸
vorbit = �
𝑟𝑟

45
To find the period of a circular orbit, we note that the satellite travels the circumference of the
orbit 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 in one period 𝑇𝑇. Using the definition of speed, we have vorbit = 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋/𝑇𝑇. Then

𝑟𝑟 3
𝑇𝑇 = 2𝜋𝜋�
𝐺𝐺𝑀𝑀𝐸𝐸

7.6. Energy in Circular Orbits

We examine the total energy for a circular orbit and show that indeed, the total energy is
negative. As we did earlier, we start with Newton’s second law applied to a circular orbit,

𝑚𝑚v 2 𝑚𝑚𝑀𝑀𝐸𝐸
𝑚𝑚a𝑐𝑐 = = 𝐺𝐺 2
𝑟𝑟 𝑟𝑟

𝑚𝑚𝑀𝑀𝐸𝐸
∴ 𝐺𝐺 = 𝑚𝑚v 2
𝑟𝑟

The right hand side is just twice the kinetic energy

1 𝑚𝑚𝑀𝑀𝐸𝐸
𝐾𝐾 = 𝑚𝑚v 2 = 𝐺𝐺
2 2𝑟𝑟

The total energy is the sum of the kinetic and potential energies, so our final result is

𝑚𝑚𝑀𝑀𝐸𝐸 𝑚𝑚𝑀𝑀𝐸𝐸 𝑚𝑚𝑀𝑀𝐸𝐸

𝐸𝐸 = 𝐾𝐾 + 𝑈𝑈 = 𝐺𝐺 − 𝐺𝐺 = −𝐺𝐺
2𝑟𝑟 𝑟𝑟 2𝑟𝑟

We can see that the total energy is negative, with the same magnitude as the kinetic energy. For
circular orbits, the magnitude of the kinetic energy is exactly one-half the magnitude of the
potential energy.

7.7. Escape Velocity

Escape velocity is often defined to be the minimum initial velocity of an object that is required
to escape the surface of a planet (or any large body like a moon) and never return. Consider the
case where an object is launched from the surface of a planet with an initial velocity directed
away from the planet. With the minimum velocity needed to escape, the object would just come

46
to rest infinitely far away, that is, the object gives up the last of its kinetic energy just as it
reaches infinity, where the force of gravity becomes zero. Since U → 0 as r → ∞, this means
the total energy is zero. Thus, we find the escape velocity from the surface of an astronomical
body of mass 𝑀𝑀 and radius 𝑅𝑅 by setting the total energy equal to zero. At the surface of the
body, the object is located at 𝑟𝑟1 = 𝑅𝑅 and it has escape velocity v1 = vesc . It reaches 𝑟𝑟2 = ∞
with velocity v2 = 0. Therefore,

1 2
𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺 1 𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺
𝑚𝑚vesc − = 𝑚𝑚v 2 − =0
2 𝑅𝑅 2 ∞

2𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺
∴ vesc = � .
𝑅𝑅

The escape velocity is the same for all objects, regardless of mass. The escape speed from
Earth's surface is about 11.186 km/s. Also, we are not restricted to the surface of the planet;
R can be any starting point beyond the surface of the planet.

7.8. Kepler’s Laws of Planetary Motion

Kepler’s first law states that every planet moves along an ellipse, with the Sun located at a
focus of the ellipse. An ellipse is defined as the set of all points such that the sum of the distance
from each point to two foci is a constant. Figure 7-3 shows an ellipse and describes a simple
way to create it.

Figure 7-3. (a) An ellipse is a curve in which the sum of the distances from a point on the
curve to two foci (𝑓𝑓1 and 𝑓𝑓2 ) is a constant. From this definition, we can see that an ellipse can
47
 be created in the following way. Place a pin at each focus, then place a loop of string around
a pencil and the pins. Keeping the string taught, move the pencil around in a complete circuit.
If the two foci occupy the same place, the result is a circle - a special case of an ellipse. (b)
For an elliptical orbit, if m ≪ M, then m follows an elliptical path with M at one focus. More
exactly, both m and M move in their own ellipse about the common center of mass.
For elliptical orbits, the point of closest approach of a planet to the Sun is called the perihelion,
labeled point A in Figure 7-3. The farthest point is the aphelion and is labeled point B in the
figure. For the Moon’s orbit about Earth, those points are called the perigee and apogee,
respectively. An ellipse has several mathematical forms, but all are a specific case of the more
general equation for conic sections. There are four different conic sections, all given by the
equation

𝛼𝛼
= 1 + 𝑒𝑒 cos 𝜃𝜃.
𝑟𝑟

The constants 𝛼𝛼 and 𝑒𝑒 are determined by the total energy and angular momentum of the
satellite at a given point. The constant 𝑒𝑒 is called the eccentricity. The values of 𝛼𝛼 and 𝑒𝑒
determine which of the four conic sections represents the path of the satellite.

Figure 7-4. As before, the distance between the planet and the Sun is 𝑟𝑟, and the angle measured
from the x-axis, which is along the major axis of the ellipse, is 𝜃𝜃.
Kepler’s second law states that a planet sweeps out equal areas in equal times, that is, the area
divided by time, called the areal velocity, is constant (see Figure 7-4). The time it takes a planet
to move from position A to B, sweeping out area 𝐴𝐴1 , is exactly the time taken to move from

48
position C to D, sweeping area 𝐴𝐴2 , and to move from E to F, sweeping out area 𝐴𝐴3 . These areas
are the same: 𝐴𝐴1 = 𝐴𝐴2 = 𝐴𝐴3 .

Figure 7-5. The shaded regions shown have equal areas and represent the same time interval.

Kepler’s third law states that the square of the period is proportional to the cube of the semi-
major axis of the orbit. In Satellite Orbits and Energy, we derived Kepler’s third law for the
special case of a circular orbit.

𝑟𝑟 3
𝑇𝑇 = 2𝜋𝜋�
𝐺𝐺𝑀𝑀𝐸𝐸

For a circular orbit, the semi-major axis (a) is the same as the radius for the orbit. If we simply
replace 𝑟𝑟 with 𝑎𝑎 and square both sides.

4𝜋𝜋 2 3
𝑇𝑇 2 = 𝑎𝑎
𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺

We have changed the mass of Earth to the more general M, since this equation applies to
satellites orbiting any large mass.

49
 Chapter 8
Static Equilibrium
We say that a rigid body is in equilibrium when both its linear and angular acceleration are
zero relative to an inertial frame of reference. This means that a body in equilibrium can be
moving, but if so, its linear and angular velocities must be constant. We say that a rigid body
is in static equilibrium when it is at rest in our selected frame of reference.

8.1. Conditions for Static Equilibrium

The first equilibrium condition for the static equilibrium of a rigid body expresses translational
equilibrium. For a point particle at rest to remain at rest, the net force must be zero.

� 𝐹𝐹⃗𝑘𝑘 = 0
𝑘𝑘

The second equilibrium condition for the static equilibrium of a rigid body expresses rotational
equilibrium: the net torque must be zero.

� 𝜏𝜏⃗𝑘𝑘 = 0
𝑘𝑘

A torque in 3-D is the quantity that indicates the ability of a force to cause rotation. Thus,
when a force 𝐹𝐹⃗ is applied to a point 𝑃𝑃 whose position is 𝑟𝑟⃗ relative to 𝑂𝑂 (Figure 8-1), the torque
𝜏𝜏⃗ around O is

𝜏𝜏⃗ = 𝑟𝑟⃗ × 𝐹𝐹⃗

From the definition of the cross product, the torque 𝜏𝜏⃗ is perpendicular to the plane containing
𝑟𝑟⃗ and 𝐹𝐹⃗ and has magnitude

|𝜏𝜏⃗| = �𝑟𝑟⃗ × 𝐹𝐹⃗ � = 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 sin 𝜃𝜃

50
Figure 8-1. The torque is perpendicular to the plane defined by 𝑟𝑟⃗ and 𝐹𝐹⃗ and its direction is
determined by the right-hand rule.
In many equilibrium situations, one of the forces acting on the body is its weight. In free-body
diagrams, the weight vector is attached to the center of gravity of the body. For all practical
purposes, the center of gravity is identical to the center of mass. Center of gravity is the point
at which the weight of a rigid body may be considered to be concentrated. For mathematical
calculations of center of gravity, consider two point weights on a weightless rod as shown in
Figure 8-2. Taking center of gravity to be a distance 𝑥𝑥1 from 𝑤𝑤1 and 𝑥𝑥2 from 𝑤𝑤2 , then the net
torque about the center of gravity due to the two weights must be equal but opposite.

Figure 8-2. Illustration of center of gravity.

The center of gravity of the two weights is given by

𝑥𝑥1 𝑤𝑤1 + 𝑥𝑥2 𝑤𝑤2

𝑋𝑋 =
𝑤𝑤

where 𝑤𝑤 = 𝑤𝑤1 + 𝑤𝑤2.

51
 Chapter 9
Fluid Mechanics

9.1. Fluids, Density and Pressure

Matter most commonly exists as a solid, liquid, or gas; these states are known as the three
common phases of matter. Solids are rigid and have specific shapes and definite volumes. The
atoms or molecules in a solid are in close proximity to each other, and there is a significant
force between these molecules. Liquids and gases are considered to be fluids because they yield
to shearing forces, whereas solids resist them. Like solids, the molecules in a liquid are bonded
to neighbouring molecules and have volume, but possess many fewer of these bonds. Gases are
not bonded to neighbouring atoms and can have large separations between molecules. Gases
have neither specific shapes nor definite volumes, since their molecules move to fill the
container in which they are held (see Figure 9-1).

Figure 9-1. Atoms in a (a) solid, (b) liquid and (c) a gas.

On the other hand, density is also an important characteristic of substances in determining

whether an object sinks or floats in a fluid. E.g. suppose a block of brass and a block of wood
have exactly the same mass. If both blocks are dropped in a tank of water, wood will float and
brass sink. This is because the brass has a greater density than water, whereas the wood has a

52
lower density than water. The average density of a substance or object is defined as its mass
per unit volume,
𝑚𝑚
𝜌𝜌 = = kg⁄m3
𝑉𝑉
where the Greek letter 𝜌𝜌 (rho) is the symbol for density, 𝑚𝑚 is the mass, and 𝑉𝑉 is the volume.

Table 9-1. Densities of Some Common Substances

Pressure (𝑃𝑃) is defined as the normal force 𝐹𝐹 per unit area 𝐴𝐴 over which the force is applied,
𝐹𝐹
𝑃𝑃 = = 𝑁𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2 = 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃
𝐴𝐴
To define the pressure at a specific point, the pressure is defined as the force 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 exerted by a
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
fluid over an infinitesimal element of area 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 containing the point, resulting in 𝑃𝑃 = 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑.

Pressure is defined for all states of matter, but it is particularly important when discussing
fluids. A force applied perpendicular to the surface compresses or expands the fluid. Consider
a fluid of constant density as shown in Figure 9-2. The pressure at the bottom of the container
is due to the pressure of the atmosphere (𝑝𝑝0 ) plus the pressure due to the weight of the fluid.
The pressure due to the fluid is equal to the weight of the fluid divided by the area. The weight
of the fluid is equal to its mass times the acceleration due to gravity. Since the density is
constant, the weight can be calculated using the density:

53
 𝑤𝑤 = 𝑚𝑚g = 𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌g = 𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌ℎg

The pressure at the bottom of the container is therefore equal to atmospheric pressure added to
the weight of the fluid divided by the area:

𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌ℎg
𝑝𝑝 = 𝑝𝑝0 + = 𝑝𝑝0 + 𝜌𝜌ℎg
𝐴𝐴

This equation is only good for pressure at a depth for a fluid of constant density.

Figure 9-2. The bottom of this container supports the entire weight of the fluid in it. The vertical
sides cannot exert an upward force on the fluid (since it cannot withstand a shearing force), so
the bottom must support it all.

9.2. Measuring Pressure

Most pressure gauges are calibrated to read zero at atmospheric pressure. Pressure readings
from such gauges are called gauge pressure, which is the pressure relative to the atmospheric
pressure. Some gauges are designed to measure negative pressure. E.g. many physics
experiments must take place in a vacuum chamber, a rigid chamber from which some of the air
is pumped out. The pressure inside the vacuum chamber is less than atmospheric pressure, so
the pressure gauge on the chamber reads a negative value. Unlike gauge pressure, absolute
pressure accounts for atmospheric pressure, which in effect adds to the pressure in any fluid

54
not enclosed in a rigid container. The absolute pressure, or total pressure, is the sum of gauge
pressure and atmospheric pressure:

𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = 𝑝𝑝g + 𝑝𝑝atm

Figure 9-3. (a) Gauges are used to measure and monitor pressure in gas cylinders. Compressed
gases are used in many industrial as well as medical applications. (b) Tire pressure gauges
come in many different models, but all are meant for the same purpose: to measure the internal
pressure of the tire. (c) An ionisation gauge is a high-sensitivity device used to monitor the
pressure of gases in an enclosed system.
A host of devices are used for measuring pressure, including manometers and barometers. The
U-shaped shown in Figure 9-4 is an example of a manometer. The property that pressure due
to the weight of a fluid of constant density is given by 𝑝𝑝 = ℎ𝜌𝜌g applies. In part (a), both sides
of the tube are open to the atmosphere, allowing atmospheric pressure to push down on each
side equally so that its effects cancel. A manometer with only one side open to the atmosphere
is an ideal device for measuring gauge pressures. The gauge pressure is 𝑝𝑝g = ℎ𝜌𝜌g and is found
by measuring ℎ. For example, suppose one side of the U-tube is connected to some source of
pressure 𝑝𝑝abs , such as the balloon in part (b) of the figure or the vacuum-packed peanut jar
shown in part (c). Pressure is transmitted undiminished to the manometer, and the fluid levels
are no longer equal. In part (b), 𝑝𝑝abs is greater than atmospheric pressure, whereas in part (c),
𝑝𝑝abs is less than atmospheric pressure. In both cases, 𝑝𝑝abs differs from atmospheric pressure
by an amount ℎ𝜌𝜌g. In part (b), 𝑝𝑝abs can support a column of fluid of height ℎ, so it must exert
a pressure ℎ𝜌𝜌g greater than atmospheric pressure. In part (c), atmospheric pressure can support
a column of fluid of height ℎ, so 𝑝𝑝abs is less than atmospheric pressure by an amount ℎ𝜌𝜌g (the
gauge pressure is negative).

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 Figure 9-4. An open-tube manometer has one side open to the atmosphere.

A barometer (see Figure 9-5) uses a single column of mercury to measure atmospheric pressure.

Figure 9-5. Mercury barometer measures atmospheric.

It measures atmospheric pressure, rather than gauge pressure, because there is a nearly pure
vacuum above the mercury in the tube. The height of the mercury is such that ℎ𝜌𝜌g = 𝑝𝑝atm .
When atmospheric pressure varies, the mercury rises or falls.

9.3. Pascal’s Principle and Hydraulics

Pascal’s principle or law states “when a change in pressure is applied to an enclosed fluid, it
is transmitted undiminished to all portions of the fluid and to the walls of its container”. Note
that this principle does not say that pressure is the same at all points of a fluid, but change in
56
pressure. Suppose you place some water in a cylindrical container of height ℎ and cross-
sectional area 𝐴𝐴 that has a movable piston of mass m (Figure 9-6). Adding weight Mg at the
top of the piston increases the pressure at the top by Mg/A.

Figure 9-6. Pressure in a fluid changes when the fluid is compressed. (a) The pressure at the
top layer of the fluid is different from pressure at the bottom layer. (b) The increase in pressure
by adding weight to the piston is the same everywhere.
According to the principle, the pressure at all points in the water changes by the same amount,
𝑀𝑀g/𝐴𝐴.

𝑀𝑀g
∆𝑝𝑝top = ∆𝑝𝑝bottom = ∆𝑝𝑝everywhere =
𝐴𝐴

The pressure at the bottom of the container is equal to the sum of the atmospheric pressure, the
pressure due the fluid, and the pressure supplied by the mass. Hydraulic systems are used to
operate automotive brakes, hydraulic jacks, and other mechanical systems (Figure 9-7).

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 Figure 9-7. Typical hydraulic system with two fluid-filled cylinders, capped with pistons and
connected by a tube called a hydraulic line.
We can derive a relationship between the forces in this simple hydraulic system by applying
Pascal’s principle. Note first that the two pistons in the system are at the same height, so there
is no difference in pressure due to a difference in depth. The pressure due to F1 acting on area
𝐹𝐹
A1 is simply 𝑝𝑝1 = 𝐴𝐴1 . According to Pascal’s principle, this pressure is transmitted undiminished
1

throughout the fluid and to all walls of the container. Thus, a pressure 𝑝𝑝2 is felt at the other
𝐹𝐹
piston that is equal to 𝑝𝑝1. That is, 𝑝𝑝1 = 𝑝𝑝2. However, since 𝑝𝑝2 = 𝐴𝐴2 , we see that
2

𝐹𝐹1 𝐹𝐹2
=
𝐴𝐴1 𝐴𝐴2

This equation relates the ratios of force to area in any hydraulic system, provided that the
pistons are at the same vertical height and that friction in the system is negligible.

9.4. Archimedes’ Principle and Buoyancy

The buoyant force is the upward force on any object in any fluid. It is responsible for the
floating of objects. If the buoyant force is greater than the object’s weight, the object rises to
the surface and floats. If the buoyant force is less than the object’s weight, the object sinks. If
the buoyant force equals the object’s weight, the object can remain suspended at its present
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depth. Archimedes’ principle states “the buoyant force on an object equals the weight of the
fluid it displaces”.
𝐹𝐹B = 𝑤𝑤fl
where 𝐹𝐹𝐵𝐵 is the buoyant force and 𝑤𝑤fl is the weight of the fluid displaced by the object. If you
drop a lump of clay in water, it will sink. But if you mould the same lump of clay into the
shape of a boat, it will float. Because of its shape, the clay boat displaces more water than the
lump and experiences a greater buoyant force, even though its mass is the same. The average
density of an object is what ultimately determines whether it floats. If an object’s average
density is less than that of the surrounding fluid, it will float.

Figure 9-8. An unloaded ship (a) floats higher in the water than a loaded ship (b).

The extent to which a floating object is submerged depends on how the object’s density
compares to the density of the fluid. In Figure 9-8, the unloaded ship has a lower density and
less of it is submerged compared with the same ship when loaded. We can derive a quantitative
expression for the fraction submerged by considering density. The fraction submerged is the
ratio of the volume submerged to the volume of the object,

𝑉𝑉sub 𝑉𝑉fl
fraction submerged = =
𝑉𝑉obj 𝑉𝑉obj

The volume submerged equals the volume of fluid displaced. Now we can obtain the
relationship between the densities by substituting ρ = mV into the expression.

𝑉𝑉fl 𝑚𝑚𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 ⁄𝜌𝜌𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓

=
𝑉𝑉obj 𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 ⁄𝜌𝜌𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜

59
Since the object floats, its mass and that of the displaced fluid are equal, so they cancel from
the equation, leaving

𝜌𝜌obj
fraction submerged =
𝜌𝜌fl

9.5. Fluid Dynamics

So far, we have discussed fluid at rest. Now, we shall focus on fluid dynamics, the study of
fluids in motion. An ideally, we deal with fluids with negligible viscosity, which is a measure
of the internal friction in a fluid. Velocity vectors are often used to illustrate fluid motion in
applications like meteorology. Wind—the fluid motion of air in the atmosphere can be
represented by vectors indicating the speed and direction of the wind at any given point on a
map (see Figure 9-9).

Figure 9-9. The velocity vectors show the flow of wind in Hurricane.

Another method for representing fluid motion is a streamline. A streamline represents the path
of a small volume of fluid as it flows. The velocity is always tangential to the streamline (Figure
9-10). The first fluid (a) exhibits a laminar flow (sometimes described as a steady flow),

60
represented by smooth, parallel streamlines. Note that the velocity of the fluid is greatest in the
center and decreases near the walls of the pipe due to the viscosity of the fluid and friction
between the pipe walls and the fluid. This is a special case of laminar flow, where the friction
between the pipe and the fluid is high, known as no slip boundary conditions. The second
diagram represents turbulent flow, in which streamlines are irregular and change over time. In
turbulent flow, the paths of the fluid flow are irregular as different parts of the fluid mix together
or form small circular regions that resemble whirlpools. This can occur when the speed of the
fluid reaches a certain critical speed.

Figure 9-10. (a) Laminar flow can be thought of as layers of fluid moving in parallel, regular
paths. (b) In turbulent flow, regions of fluid move in irregular, colliding paths, resulting in
mixing and swirling.
The volume of fluid passing by a given location through an area during a period of time is
called flow rate 𝑄𝑄, or more precisely, volume flow rate.

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑄𝑄 =
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

where 𝑉𝑉 is the volume and 𝑡𝑡 is the elapsed time. In Figure 9-11, the volume of the cylinder is
Ax, so the flow rate is

Figure 9-11. The volume of fluid flowing past a point through the area A per unit time.

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 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑄𝑄 = = (𝐴𝐴x) = 𝐴𝐴 = 𝐴𝐴v = 𝑚𝑚3 ⁄𝑠𝑠
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

For incompressible fluid with constant density, the equation of continuity applies.

𝑄𝑄1 = 𝑄𝑄2

∴ 𝐴𝐴1 v1 = 𝐴𝐴2 v2

9.6. Bernoulli’s Equation

When a fluid flows into a narrower channel, its speed increases. That means its kinetic energy
also increases. The increased kinetic energy comes from the net work done on the fluid to push
it into the channel. Also, if the fluid changes vertical position, work is done on the fluid by the
gravitational force. A pressure difference occurs when the channel narrows. This pressure
difference results in a net force on the fluid because pressure times area equals the force, and
this net force does work. Recall the work-energy theorem:

1 1
𝑊𝑊𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 = 𝑚𝑚𝑣𝑣22 − 𝑚𝑚𝑣𝑣12
2 2

The net work done increases the fluid’s kinetic energy. As a result, the pressure drops in a
rapidly moving fluid whether or not the fluid is confined to a tube. For instance, shower curtains
have a tendency of protruding into the shower booth when the water is on. This is because of
the high-velocity stream of water and air creates a region of lower pressure inside the shower,
whereas the pressure on the outside remains at the standard atmospheric pressure. This pressure
difference results in a net force, pushing the curtain inward. Similarly, when a car passes a truck
on the highway, the two vehicles seem to pull toward each other. The reason is the same: The
high velocity of the air between the car and the truck creates a region of lower pressure between
the vehicles, and they are pushed together by greater pressure on the outside.
The application of the principle of conservation of energy to frictionless laminar flow leads to
a very useful relation between pressure and flow speed in a fluid. This relation is called
Bernoulli’s equation. Consider an incompressible fluid flowing through a pipe that has a
varying diameter and height, as shown in Figure 9-12. Subscripts 1 and 2 in the figure denote
two locations along the pipe and illustrate the relationships between the areas of the cross
62
sections A, the speed of flow 𝑣𝑣, the height from ground 𝑦𝑦, and the pressure 𝑝𝑝 at each point. We
assume that the density at the two points is the same, therefore, density is denoted by 𝜌𝜌 without
any subscripts and since the fluid in incompressible, the shaded volumes must be equal.

Figure 9-12. The geometry used for the derivation of Bernoulli’s equation.

We also assume that there are no viscous forces in the fluid, so the energy of any part of the
fluid will be conserved. To derive Bernoulli’s equation, we first calculate the work that was
done on the fluid:
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝐹𝐹1 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑1 − 𝐹𝐹2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑2

∴ 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑝𝑝1 𝐴𝐴1 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑1 − 𝑝𝑝2 𝐴𝐴2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑2 = 𝑝𝑝1 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 − 𝑝𝑝2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = (𝑝𝑝1 − 𝑝𝑝2 )𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑.

The work done was due to the conservative force of gravity and the change in the kinetic energy
of the fluid. The change in the kinetic energy of the fluid is equal to

1 1 1
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑚𝑚2 v22 − 𝑚𝑚1 v12 = 𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌(v22 − v12 ).
2 2 2

The change in potential energy is

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑚𝑚g𝑦𝑦2 − 𝑚𝑚g𝑦𝑦1 = 𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌g(𝑦𝑦2 − 𝑦𝑦1 ).

The energy equation then becomes

63
 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

1
∴ (𝑝𝑝1 − 𝑝𝑝2 )𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌(v22 − v12 ) + 𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌g(𝑦𝑦2 − 𝑦𝑦1 )
2

1
∴ (𝑝𝑝1 − 𝑝𝑝2 ) = 𝜌𝜌(v22 − v12 ) + 𝜌𝜌g(𝑦𝑦2 − 𝑦𝑦1 ).
2

Rearranging the equation gives Bernoulli’s equation:

1 1
𝑝𝑝1 + 𝜌𝜌v12 + 𝜌𝜌g𝑦𝑦1 = 𝑝𝑝2 + 𝜌𝜌v22 + 𝜌𝜌g𝑦𝑦2 .
2 2

This relation states that the mechanical energy of any part of the fluid changes as a result of the
work done by the fluid external to that part, due to varying pressure along the way. Therefore,
Bernoulli’s Equation states “For an incompressible, frictionless fluid, the combination of
pressure and the sum of kinetic and potential energy densities is constant not only over time,
but also along a streamline”.

1
𝑝𝑝 + 𝜌𝜌v 2 + 𝜌𝜌g𝑦𝑦 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐.
2

9.7. Viscosity and Turbulence

When you pour water in a glass, it flows freely and quickly, but oil will flow slowly and sticks
to the glass. The difference is fluid friction, both within the fluid itself and between the fluid
and its surroundings. We call this property of fluids viscosity. Water has low viscosity than oil.
Viscosity is based on laminar/nonturbulent flow. When flow is laminar, layers flow without
mixing. When flow is turbulent, the layers mix, and significant velocities occur in directions
other than the overall direction of flow. Turbulence is a fluid flow in which layers mix together
via eddies and swirls. Viscosity (𝜂𝜂) is proportionally related to the magnitude of the force by

v𝐴𝐴
𝐹𝐹 = 𝜂𝜂
𝐿𝐿

𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹
∴ 𝜂𝜂 =
v𝐴𝐴

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Figure 9-13. (a) Laminar flow and (b) Turbulent flow.

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