Sputtering

Instead of using heat to eject material from a source, we can bombard them with high speed particles. •
The momentum transfer from the particles to the surface atoms can impart enough energy to allow the
surface atoms to escape. • Once ejected, these atoms (or molecules) can travel to a substrate and
deposit as a film. • There are several considerations here: – Creating, controlling and directing a high
speed particle stream. – Interaction of these particles with the source surface and emission yields. –
Deposition of the emitted atoms on the substrate and film quality.

Some Terminology • Atomic particles can best be easily controlled by electromagnetic methods if they
are charged. A weakly charged gas of particles that exhibit collective behavior is called a plasma. • The
source material is called the target and the emitted atoms or molecules are said to be sputtered off.

Sputtering • So in sputtering, the target material and the substrate is placed in a vacuum chamber. • A
voltage is applied between them so that the target is the cathode and the substrate is attached to the
anode. • A plasma is created by ionizing a sputtering gas (generally a chemically inert, heavy gas like
Argon). • The sputtering gas bombards the target and sputters off the material we’d like to deposit.

Generating and Controlling the Plasma • Ions can be generated by the collision of neutral atoms with
high energy electrons. • The interaction of the ions and the target are determined by the velocity and
energy of the ions. • Since ions are charged particles, electric and magnetic fields can control these
parameters. • The process begins with a stray electron near the cathode is accelerated towards the
anode and collides with a neutral gas atom converting it to a positively charged ion. • The process
results in two electrons which can then collide with other gas atoms and ionize them creating a
cascading process until the gas breaks down. • The breakdown voltage depends on the pressure in the
chamber and the distance between the anode and the cathode. • At too low pressures, there aren’t
enough collisions between atoms and electrons to sustain a plasma. • At too high pressures, there so
many collisions that electrons do not have enough time to gather energy between collisions to be able
to ionize the atoms.

Glow Discharge Formation • Initially the current (charge flow) is small. As charges multiply the current
increases rapidly but the voltage, limited by supply, remains constant. • Eventually, there are enough
ions and charges for the plasma to be self-sustaining. • Some of the electron-atom collisions will
produce light instead of electrons and ions and the plasma will also glow accompanied by a voltage drop
(normal glow) • If the input power is increased further, the current density becomes uniform across the
cathode and we’ll be in the abnormal discharge regime. This is where sputtering operates.

Plasma Pressures • Unless there are enough collisions, the plasma will quickly die. • In order to have a
self-sustaining plasma, each electron has to generate enough secondary emission. • Since we want
collisions to occur, the pressure can not be too low. – The mean free path should be a tenth or less than
the typical size of the chamber. • Also, since we want the electrons to gain enough energy between
collisions, the pressure can not be too high. • This means discharge tube pressures around 10-1000
mTorr and plasma densities around 1010 – 1012 /cm3.
How Ions Sputter Atoms • When ions collide with surface atoms on the target, the energy transfer can
knock some of these atoms off the surface. • The key principle is energy and momentum conservation. •
In any collision, momentum is conserved. • If the collision is elastic, kinetic energy is also conserved. •
The energies required for sputtering are much higher than lattice bonding or vibrational energies (which
are the causes of inelastic interactions), therefore sputtering collisions can be considered elastic.

Deposition • Sputtered atoms from the target make their way on to the substrate through diffusion. •
Ions and neutralized gas atoms may also embed on the substrate as impurities. • The ions incident on
the substrate may also re-sputter the surface. • Chemical reactions may occur.

Deposition Rate • It is proportional to the sputtering yield. • An optimum pressure exists for high
deposition rates. – Higher pressure means more collisions and ions. – Lower pressure means less
scattering.

Alloy Composition Issues • If a target is made up of several atoms with different sputtering yields, initial
film composition can be off. • However, sputtering yield variations are smaller compared to vapor
pressure variations. Therefore the initial layers of film will be more closely related to the target
composition. • Also, since temperatures are lower and melting is not an issue, diffusive homogenization
at the substrate is less likely. • Finally, any initial disparities will eventually correct themselves as the
amount of the faster sputtering component at the target reduces.

Compound Issues • While most of the previous discussion is applicable to compounds there is an
interesting issue. • If the target temperature is too low, ion bombardment can result in amorphization of
crystalline targets and isotropic sputtering. • Increasing the target temperature anneals the surface as it
sputters, thereby keeping the crystalline structure and a more directional sputtering.

Step Coverage and Film Uniformity • Angular distribution of sputtering depends on the pressure. •
Lower pressures result in a more directed flow which results in less uniform films. • Higher pressures
result in more isotropic flow and better coverage. • Uniform films also require larger targets.

Advantages • Not a line of sight method – Can use diffusive spreading for coating – Can coat around
corners • Can process alloys and compounds. – High temperatures are not needed – Even organic
compounds have been sputtered. • Can coat large areas more uniformly. • Large target sources mean
less maintenance.