Chapter 14

ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

BIJI JOSE
• The endocrine system is a complex network of
glands and organs. It uses hormones to control and
coordinate your body's metabolism, energy level,
reproduction, growth and development, and
response to injury, stress, and mood.
• The endocrine system is made up of glands that make
hormones. Hormones are the body's chemical
messengers. They carry information and instructions
from one set of cells to another.
• The endocrine system influences almost every cell,
organ, and function of our bodies.
• The hypothalamus is the neural control center for all
endocrine systems.
Endocrinology is the branch of medicine that focuses
on the study, diagnosis, and treatment of disorders
affecting the endocrine system.
HORMONES AND THEIR FUNCTIONS
• Endocrine glands are found in different regions of
the body of human beings.
• These glands and called ductless glands
• The endocrine secretions are hormones
• These hormones are directly poured into circulation
and carried to the distant parts of the body
HORMONES
A hormone may be defined as a chemical messenger
which although released in one part of the body
regulates the activities of the tissues and organs
located distantly.
➢ There are basically 3 types of stimuli that induce the
release of hormones from the endocrine glands.
➢ 1. Hormonal Stimulus
• A hormonal stimulus occurs when one hormone
influences the release of another hormone.
• This happens when an endocrine gland releases a
hormone in response to a hormone produced by
another endocrine gland.
For example, the hypothalamus releases hormones
that stimulate the anterior pituitary gland to release its
own hormones.
➢ 2. Humoral Stimulus
• Another stimulus is changes in the blood levels of
certain ions and nutrients which also bring about
hormonal release.
• For example: When the blood levels of calcium ions
become low, parathyroid glands are stimulated
which release parathyroid hormone. This hormone
instructs the osteoclasts to break down the bone
matrix and release calcium into the blood
.
.
Hormones
1. Amine hormones (water soluble)
Derived from tyrosine and tryptophan
They are adrenaline, noradrenaline, melatonin
and thyroid hormone
2. Protein or peptide hormones (water soluble)
insulin, glucagon and pituitary hormones
3. Steroid hormone (Lipid soluble)
Derived from cholesterol
Cortisol, aldosterone, testosterone, estrogen, and
progesterone
Functions of Hormone
1. Regulating cellular growth and metabolism
2. Reproduction
3. Stimulating defense mechanisms in response to
stress
4. Maintaining water and electrolyte balance
5. Regulating energy balance.
• The following are the endocrine glands present in
the body
1. Pituitary gland
2. Thyroid gland
3. Parathyroid gland
4. Adrenal glands (Suprarenal glands)
5. Pancreas
6. Gonads (Sex glands)
7. Thymus
8. Pineal gland
1. Exclusive endocrine glands – are Pituitary,
Thyroid, Parathyroid, Pineal, Adrenal, Thymus
2. Partial endocrine glands – are Pancreas,
Gastrointestinal tract, Kidney, Heart, Gonads and
Placenta
3. Neuro endocrine gland – Hypothalamus
PITUITARY GLAND
Pituitary Gland
• The pituitary gland is a pea shaped compact mass of
cells
• Located at the base of the midbrain attached to the
hypothalamus.
• Pituitary gland also called hypophysis is a reddish grey
colored structure, size varies in between 1-1.5 cm
It consists of two main lobes
1. The anterior lobe or adenohypophysis
(Anterior pituitary)
2. Posterior lobe or neurohypophysis (Posterior
pituitary)
Anterior Pituitary

The anterior lobe of pituitary secretes 6 tropic

hormones; they are,
1. Growth hormone (GH)
2. Thyrotropic hormone (TSH)
3. Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
4. Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH)
5. Luteinizing hormone (LH)
6. Luteotropic hormone (LTH)
1. Growth hormone (GH)
➢ It is also known as Somatotropic hormone
(STH)
➢ It is a peptide hormone
➢ The GH promotes the development and
enlargement of all tissues of the body
➢ It stimulates the growth of muscles, cartilage
and long bones
 Functions
• It induces the growth of long bones of the body
• It helps in the growth and development of skeletal
bones and muscle mass, in children and infants.
• It controls the cell metabolism
• It mainly affects fat metabolism by increasing lipolysis
• This helps to utilize the released fatty acids for
production of energy.
• It stimulates the growth of the thymus gland.
• In lactating mothers, it enhances the secretion of milk.
 Regulation
The secretion of growth hormone is regulated by the
two hypothalamic hormones.
➢ These include growth-hormone releasing hormone
(GHRH) which induces the release of GH
➢ growth hormone- inhibiting hormone (GHIH) which
retards its secretion.
Factors Stimulating GH Release
a. Decreased blood glucose levels (hypoglycemia)
b. Starvation
c. Exercise
d. Increased blood levels of amino acids with
decreased levels of fatty acid
e. Deep sleep
f. Stressful conditions
g. Hormones such as insulin, estrogens and glucagon.
Factors Inhibiting GH Release
(a) Obesity
(b) Increased blood levels of fatty acids and decreased
amino acids
(c) Rapid eye movement (REM) sleep
(d) Decreased secretion of thyroid hormones
(e) Negative feedback mechanism stimulated by the
GH itself.
2. Thyrotropic hormone (TSH)
• TSH Controls the growth of thyroid gland
• It is a glycoprotein hormone,
• which stimulates the thyroid gland to secrete Tri-
iodothyronine (T3) and Thyroxine (T4)
• lt's release from the anterior pituitary is induced by
the thyrotropin releasing hormone (TRH)
• TSH is secreted by the thyrotropes of the anterior
pituitary
3. Follicle stimulating Hormone (FSH)
▪ FSH is a glycoprotein hormone
▪ It stimulates the germinal epithelium of testis for
formation of sperms (in male)
▪ It initiates the growth of ovarian follicles and its
development in ovary (in female)
Functions
(a) In ovaries, FSH induces the maturation of Graafian
follicles therefore facilitates ovulation in females.
(b) It stimulates the follicular cells to secrete the female
sex hormones.
(c) In males FSH stimulates spermatogenesis, a process
of sperm production in the testes.
4. Adreno corticotropic Hormone (ACTH)/ Corticotropin
• ACTH stimulates adrenal cortex of the adrenal gland
• It also influences protein synthesis in the adrenal cortex
• ACTH is a peptide hormone that stimulates the adrenal
cortex to secrete glucocorticoids and
mineralocorticoids.
• It stimulates melanin synthesis and stimulates insulin
secretion
Functions
• Responsible for promoting the growth of cortex.
• Stimulates the secretion of cortisol (steroid hormone)
Regulation
• Corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) released from
the hypothalamus stimulates the secretion of ACTH
from the anterior pituitary.
Factors Stimulating ACTH Release

• Hypoglycemia
• Exercise
• Stressful conditions like emotional disturbances, fever,
trauma etc.
5. Luteinizing hormone (LH)
➢ LH is a glycoprotein hormone
➢ It is also known as Interstitial Cell Stimulating
Hormone (ICSH)
Functions
In Males
Initially stimulates the growth and development of
interstitial cells of testes and then stimulates them to
release testosterone
 In Females
• Luteinizing hormone brings about complete
development of ovarian follicles and thus ovulation.
• It stimulates the ovarian cells to secrete estrogens.
• It initially stimulates the formation of corpus luteum
and induces it to release progesterone.
• Both estrogens and progesterone make the uterus
ready to receive and subsequently implant the
fertilized ovum.
• They also induce lactation.
Regulation
➢ Luteinizing hormone-releasing hormone (LHRH) also
referred to as the gonadotropin releasing hormone
produced by the hypothalamus induces the release
of LH from the anterior pituitary
6. Luteotropic hormone (LTH) / Prolactin (PRL)
• Its main target is the mammary glands were initiate
milk secretion after childbirth.
• It induces lactation only when the mammary glands
have been prepared by the actions of female sex
hormones,
• The secretion of prolactin and milk production is
initiated in postpartum women by suckling of the
mammary glands by the infant.
Functions
➢ Prolactin initiates the secretion of milk,
➢ Prolactin along with other hormones stimulate the
proliferation of glandular epithelium of the breasts,
thereby completing their development.
➢ Along with LH, prolactin stimulates the secretion of
progesterone from the corpus luteum.
Regulation
➢ In nonpregnant women, lactation is inhibited by
continuous release of prolactin-inhibiting hormone
(PIH) i.e, dopamine.
➢ However, in pregnant women, hypothalamus
releases prolactin-releasing hormone (PRH),
thereby increasing the levels of prolactin.
Posterior Pituitary

The posterior lobe of pituitary secretes 2

hormones; they are,
1. Vasopressin or Antidiuretic hormone
(ADH)
2. Oxytocin
1. Vasopressin (ADH) Antidiuretic hormone
➢ Vasopressin is a peptide hormone
➢ Antidiuretic hormone inhibits the process of diuresis
i.e., it inhibits urinary excretion and helps to conserve
water.
➢ This is done by increasing the reabsorption of water
from the renal tubules.
➢ There fore more water is returned to blood thus
increasing the blood volume while decreasing the
urinary output.
Functions
➢ It helps to conserve water by inhibiting its urinary
excretion.
➢ It also decreases water loss
➢ It constricts the blood vessels and increases the blood
pressure.
➢ It stimulates the smooth muscles of the urinary bladder
and ureters.
Regulation
➢ The principal factor that governs the secretion of
vasopressin is the osmotic pressure of the systemic
blood,
➢ which is sensed by osmoreceptors situated in
the hypothalamus
➢ Increased osmotic pressure of the blood means low
blood volume. This is sensed by the osmoreceptors in
the hypothalamus.
➢ These osmoreceptors induce the synthesis and release
of vasopressin.
➢ The released vasopressin acts on kidneys (which
reabsorb more water),
➢ sweat glands (which reduce perspiration)
➢ arterioles (which get constricted).
➢ This effect is increased blood pressure and blood
volume.
Factors Stimulating ADH Release
➢ Pain and trauma
➢ Stressful conditions
➢ Anxiety
➢ Acetylcholine
➢ Nicotine
➢ Drugs like morphine, tranquilizers etc

Factors Inhibiting ADH Release

➢ Alcohol consumption is associated with increased
diuresis due to inhibition of ADH.
2. Oxytocin
It has 2 functions;
➢ It helps in the contraction of the smooth
muscles of uterus at the time of child birth
➢ Milk ejection from the mammary gland after
child birth
➢ During child birth, oxytocin facilitates the
expulsion of the child by inducing the
contractions of the uterus and increased
stretching of the uterine cervix.
Functions
➢ It induces powerful contractions of the uterine
smooth muscles, thereby facilitating delivery.
➢ It induces lactation in nursing mothers.
➢ In nonpregnant women, it facilitates fertilization by
helping in the movement of sperm in the female
genital tract.
➢ Oxytocin also possesses certain antidiuretic effect
i.e., inhibits the urinary excretion of water and
electrolytes.
 Regulation
The regulation of release of oxytocin occurs mainly by
two stimuli both of which follow positive feedback
mechanism

(a) Cervical Distension

During parturition the cervical muscles undergo
distension under the influence of oxytocin. This
distention stimulates the hypothalamus to secrete
more amount of oxytocin
 (b) Suckling
➢ When a nursing infant suckles, the suckling provides
two stimuli.
➢ Firstly, it creates a sensory impulse which is
transmitted to the hypothalamus which in turn
stimulates the release of oxytocin

➢ Secondly, suckling also inhibits the release of

prolactin-inhibiting hormone from the
hypothalamus.
THYROID GLAND
Thyroid Gland
o Thyroid gland is butterfly shaped
o It is situated in the lower part of neck on the
thyroid cartilage
o It contains two lobes, one on each side of the
trachea
o It is the largest endocrine gland in the body
o The 2 lobes are connected by means of a narrow
band of tissue known as the isthmus
o Weight between 20-25g
Secretion
o The thyroid gland synthesizes and secretes 2 hormones
o Triiodothyronine (T3)
o Thyroxine or tetra-iodothyronine (T4)
o The parafollicular cells or ‘C’ cells of thyroid gland
secrete a hormone called calcitonin (thyrocalcitonin)
o Iodide is removed from plasma and concentrated in the
thyroid gland
o Iodide is oxidized to iodine
o Iodide combines with the amino acid tyrosine and form
Monoiodotyrosine (MIT) and diiodotyrosine (DIT)
 Iodine Uptake: The thyroid gland actively captures iodine
from the bloodstream, a process requiring a special
transport protein.
Thyroglobulin Production: Follicular cells in the thyroid
gland synthesize thyroglobulin (Tg), a large protein that
serves as a storage site for thyroid hormones.
Iodination: Iodide is oxidized to iodine, which is then
attached to tyrosine residues within Tg, forming
monoiodotyrosine (MIT) and diiodotyrosine (DIT).
Coupling: MIT and DIT are combined to form T3, while two
DIT molecules combine to form T4.
Storage: T3 and T4 are stored within Tg molecules in the
colloid of the thyroid follicles.
Functions
o Helps to maintain normal body temperature
o Increase in oxygen consumption and heat
production in tissues
o Increase in bowl metabolic rate (BMR)
o Increase in the absorption and utilization of
glucose
o Anabolic effects like growth promotion and
protein synthesis
o Influences the activity of CNS.
o It control the bone formation
o Increase in the rate of cholesterol synthesis in
liver
o Storage of iodine
o Essential for normal physical, mental and
personality development
o Regulate cell metabolism
o It is also known as personality hormone
Release:
Hormone Release: T3 and T4 are released from Tg
molecules through proteolysis, which is stimulated by
TSH (thyroid-stimulating hormone).
Circulation: The released T3 and T4 are transported in
the bloodstream bound to plasma proteins.
Thyrocalcitonin / Calcitonin
• Calcitonin is a polypeptide hormone
• It is a hormone produced by the parafollicular cells or
C-cells.
• Calcitonin is essential during childhood due to which
there occurs a rapid development of skeletal system.
Functions
• Which regulate the blood calcium and phosphate
levels
• It reduces the blood calcium level
Parathyroid Glands
o It is a hypercalcemic hormone
o It is a peptide hormone
o Parathyroid glands are 4 small oval bodies that are
situated on the posterior surface of the thyroid lobes
o Parathyroid glands are small, round tissues found on
both the lobes of the thyroid gland.
o Each parathyroid gland weighs about 0.04 g
o The parathyroid glands are composed of masses of
epithelial cells
Structure
These cells are of 2 types;
1. Chief cells - it secrete parathyroid hormone
(PTH) or parathormone
2. Oxyphill cells
Function
o So involved in controlling the calcium and
phosphate homeostasis
o It increases calcium level of plasma and
extracellular fluid
o Mobilization of calcium of bone into the
extracellular fluid
o Increased reabsorption of calcium in the renal
tubule
o Increased absorption of calcium in
gastrointestinal tract
➢ Stimulating bone resorption
➢ Increasing calcium absorption in the intestines
➢ Promoting calcium reabsorption in the kidneys
Adrenal gland (Suprarenal glands)
• A pair of adrenal glands are located above each
kidney hence, called as Supra renal glands.
• Adrenal glands are two in number and are almost
triangular in shape.
• Left adrenal gland is relatively larger than the right
one
• 3-5 cm in length and 3-5 cm in width
• weighs about 5-9 g
 Structure
o The adrenal gland can be divided into 2
1. Adrenal medulla - inner part
2. Adrenal cortex - outer part
Adrenal cortex is concerned with the secretion of
steroid hormones collectively called corticosteroids.
➢ These hormones are essential for life
➢ they are concerned with the maintenance of water
and electrolyte balance.
➢ Adrenal medulla secretes catecholamines, namely
adrenaline and noradrenaline.
Adrenal cortex
o The cortex has 3 distinct layers of cells, and they
secretes 3 groups of hormones

1. Zona glomerulosa - an outer layer.

Secretes mineralocorticoids
2. Zona fasciculata - a middle layer
Secretes glucocorticoids
3. Zona reticularis - an inner layer
Secretes sex steroids
Mineralocorticoids
Mineralocorticoids are a type of steroid hormone
produced by the adrenal cortex that primarily regulates
salt and water balance in the body.
o It secretes aldosterone and deoxycortisterone
o They influence water and mineral metabolism
o They helps to maintain electrolyte and water balance
of the body
o By increasing the reabsorption of sodium in the renal
tubule
o It causes increased excretion of potassium
Function
o Mineralocorticoids regulate the blood levels of
minerals.
o Inducing tubular reabsorption of water and sodium
o But promoting the urinary excretion of potassium
ions.
o These mineralocorticoids also enhance the tubular
reabsorption of bicarbonates
o Increase the elimination of phosphates.
o Increased conservation of sodium and water increases
the blood pressure due to an increase in blood
volume
o They influence water and mineral metabolism
o They helps to maintain electrolyte and water balance
of the body

o Regulation:
1. Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone System (RAAS):
o Juxtaglomerular apparatus (JGA) in the kidneys:
Detects low blood pressure or sodium levels.
2. Potassium and Sodium Levels:
• High potassium levels stimulate aldosterone release,
• while low levels suppress it.
• Low sodium levels can also stimulate aldosterone
secretion.
 3. Mineralocorticoid Receptor (MR):
o Aldosterone binds to the MR in target tissues
o This leads to increased sodium reabsorption and
potassium excretion, contributing to electrolyte and
fluid homeostasis.
Glucocorticoids
o Three glucocorticoids are secreted by the cells of zona
fasciculata; It secretes cortisol, cortisone and
corticosterone
o Glucocorticoids influence carbohydrate metabolism

Function
o They regulate the cell metabolism
o Stimulate the formation of glucose from glycogen in
the liver
o Stimulate the breakdown of protein into amino acids
o Mobilization and redistribution of fat
o They produce anti-inflammatory and anti-allergic effect
o Reduces the production of eosinophils and
lymphocytes
o maintains the function of cardiovascular system and
kidneys
o It is also known as stress combat hormone
o Increased (corticotropin-releasing hormone)CRH and
decreased cortisol levels stimulate anterior pituitary to
release adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH).
o Increased levels of glucocorticoids in turn exert a
negative feedback onto the hypothalamus and anterior
pituitary, thereby inhibiting their own release.
Regulation of adrenocortical secretion
o The secretion of various hormones in the adrenal
cortex is controlled by adrenocorticotropic
hormone (ACTH) of anterior pituitary
 Androgens
Zona reticularis of the adrenal cortex releases male sex
hormones i.e., androgens.
These are release in small amounts in both males and
females but are relatively weak in action.

Function
Male Sexual Development: Androgens, particularly
testosterone, stimulate the development of male
reproductive organs and the development of secondary
sexual characteristics like facial and body hair, deepened
voice, and increased muscle mass.
Spermatogenesis: Androgens are essential for the
production of sperm.
Muscle Growth and Strength: Androgens promote
muscle growth and strength, contributing to overall
physical development.
Bone Development and Strength: Androgens play a role
in maintaining bone mass and strength, helping to
prevent osteoporosis.
Red Blood Cell Production (Erythropoiesis): Androgens
influence the production of red blood cells.
Libido and Sexual Arousal: Androgens play a role in
regulating sex drive (libido) and sexual arousal in both
men and women.
Cognitive Function and Behavior: While research is
ongoing, some studies suggest a role for androgens in
cognitive function and behavior.
Metabolism: Androgens are involved in regulating
various metabolic processes, including fat distribution
and metabolism.
Stress Response: Androgens may play a role in
regulating stress responses.
Adrenal medulla
The inner adrenal cortex region is called adrenal medulla.
Adrenal medulla secretes catecholamines namely
adrenaline (also called epinephrine) and noradrenaline
(or norepinephrine).

Regulation
➢ The major controller of catecholamine secretion is the
hypothalamus.
Function
• It is sympathomimetic in nature, and it stimulate the
sympathetic nervous system.
• By regulating the release of adrenaline, adrenal
medulla facilitates in maintaining the blood pressure at
normal levels.
• During stressful conditions, adrenal medulla secretes
catecholamines which via fight-or-flight response helps
to deal with the situation.
• It helps to regulate heat production.
• It plays an important role in carbohydrate metabolism.
GONADS (Sex glands / Reproductive glands)
 Gonads
o The gonads are called as reproductive or sex glands
o They are 2;
1. Ovaries - in the female
2. Testes- in the male
1. Ovary
o The ovaries are the female gonads
o Located in the pelvic cavity of the abdomen
o They a secrete the female sex hormone (steroid)
oestrogen and progesterone
Ovary
Functions of oestrogen
o Regulation of menstrual cycle
o Development of secondary sex characters
o The development and function of the uterus andovaries.
o Helps to maintain bone density and strength
o Skin and Hair: Estrogen influences skin thickness and
elasticity, as well as hair growth and texture.
o Estrogen can also affect mood and emotional regulation.
o During pregnancy - estrogen levels increase significantly,
supporting the growth of the uterus and the
development of the baby's organs.
o Estrogen also plays a role in breast milk production after
delivery.
Functions of progesterone
o Maturation and development of uterus and breast
o Preparation of the uterus to receive the fertilized
ovum
o It maintains pregnancy
o Helps to relax the uterine muscle, preventing
contractions that could expel a fertilized egg.
o Regulating the Menstrual Cycle
o During pregnancy , progesterone induces the
development of placenta
o Stimulates the development of breast in females
Testes
Testosterone is produced by the interstitial cells of
the testes.
o The testes are its reproductive glands of males
o A pair of testes is present in scrotal sac
o They secrete the male sex hormone androgens.
o The most important androgen is testosterone
Testes
Testes
Functions of androgens / testosterone
o Stimulation of spermatogenesis
o Regulate the production of sperms
o Stimulate the protein synthesis and controls muscular
growth
o Growth of penis, scrotum and prostate
o Responsible for the development of secondary sexual
characters [distribution of hair on body and face,
masculine voice and male sexual behavior]
PANCREAS
PANCREAS
Pancreas
o Pancreas is an elongated, yellowish, leaf like
structural gland situated on the posterior abdominal
wall in front of abdominal aorta and lumbar
vertebrae
o The pancreas contains 2 major tissues
o Acini
(exocrine cells): it secret pancreatic juice which
is digestive in function
o Islets of Langerhans
(endocrine cells): secrets hormones like
insulin,glucagon and somatostatin
Islets of Langerhans

o There are 1-2 million islets in the pancreas

o 60%. of cells are β cells secrete insulin
o 25% of cells are α cells secrete glucagon
o 10% of cells are δ cells secrete somatostatin
Insulin Function
poly peptide hormone
o Insulin decrease the glucose level in blood
o Increases glycogen synthesis but prevents glycogen
break down in the liver
o By preventing synthesis of glucose (gluconeogenesis),
stimulate the uptake and utilization of glucose in the
skeletal muscle
o Promotes the conversion of glucose into fat in the
adipose tissue
o Insulin plays a role in carbohydrate, fat, and protein
metabolism by influencing the uptake and
utilization of these nutrients by cells.
o It promotes lipogenesis (fat synthesis) and protein
synthesis, while inhibiting lipolysis (fat breakdown)
and protein degradation.
o Insulin is involved in cell growth and development,
influencing the proliferation and differentiation of
various cells.
Glucagon Function
o It is a polypeptide hormone
• Raising blood glucose levels: Glucagon stimulates the
liver to convert stored glycogen into glucose, which is
then released into the bloodstream.
• Stimulating gluconeogenesis: Glucagon promotes
gluconeogenesis, the production of glucose from non-
carbohydrate sources.
• Breaking down fat: Glucagon stimulates lipolysis, the
breakdown of fat for energy
• Increasing blood glucose levels during fasting: Glucagon
helps maintain blood glucose levels during fasting or
starvation.
Somatostatin
• This hormone is secreted from the δ cells of pancreatic
islets.
• It inhibits the secretion of both insulin and glucagon.
• It also inhibits the release of growth hormone from the
anterior pituitary.
Pancreatic Polypeptide
o It is secreted by the F cells of pancreatic islets and
inhibits the secretion of somatostatin.
o It also inhibits the contraction of gall bladder and
exocrine pancreatic secretions.
 Disorders
Disorders of Pituitary gland
Hyperpituitarism
Gigantism - is due to the over production of growth
hormone in children (i.e. overgrowth of skeletal
structure and visceral growth)
Acromegaly - caused by the overproduction of growth
hormone in adults (i.e. abnormal enlargement of
head, face, hand and feet)
Gigantism –
Acromegaly -
Hypopituitarism
Dwarfism - It is caused by decrease in the production
growth hormone in children (i.e. stunted growth, delayed
skeletal formation and mental disability)
Disorders of Thyroid gland
Hypothyroidism
Cretinism –
It is caused by hypothyroidism, often due to iodine
deficiency during pregnancy, leading to stunted growth and
mental impairment in infants and children (retarded
skeletal growth, absence of sexual maturity, retarded
mental ability, thick wrinkled skin, enlarged tongue,
bloated face and short limbs)
Myxoedema –
It is called as Gull's disease. Myxedema is characterized by
swelling and thickening of the skin, often in the face,
tongue, and lower legs. Mentally sluggish, increased body
weight, puffiness of the face and hand.
Cretinism - Myxoedema
Goitre - caused due to the inadequate supply of iodine in
our diet,It leads to the enlargement of thyroid gland, is
called goitre.
Hyperthyroidism
Grave's disease - which is due to excessive production of
TSH
It is an autoimmune disorder where the body's immune
system mistakenly attacks the thyroid gland, causing it to
produce too much thyroid hormone, leading to
hyperthyroidism.

It produces protrusion of eyeballs, elevated respiratory

and excretory rate, weakness of eye muscles, weight loss
and nervousness
Grave's disease -
Disorders of Para Thyroid gland
Hyperparathyroidism
It is caused due to the excess PTH (parathyroid hormone)
in blood
It produces osteitis fibrosa. (Osteitis fibrosa cystica (OFC)
is a skeletal disorder resulting from excessive bone
breakdown and replacement with fibrous tissue, often
seen in hyperparathyroidism
The symptoms of hyperparathyroidisms are
decalcification of bone, loss of muscle tone, softening of
bone, general weakness and renal disorders
Hypoparathyroidism
Tetany –
➢ caused due to the hyposecretion of PTH.
➢ Tetany is primarily caused by hypocalcemia, where the
body has insufficient calcium. This can be due to
various factors like hypoparathyroidism, vitamin D
deficiency, or kidney problems, which affect calcium
regulation.
➢ So the serum calcium level decreased but the serum
phosphate level increase
Tetany
Disorders of Adrenal gland
Addison's disease
➢ Hyposecretion of glucocorticoids and mineralo
corticoids from the adrenal cortex.
➢ It is characterised by loss of weight, hypotension,
pigmentation of the skin etc.
Causes:
➢ Autoimmune disease: In most cases, the immune
system mistakenly attacks and damages the adrenal
glands.
➢ Tuberculosis: A severe infection that can damage the
adrenal glands.
Hyperaldosteronism/Cohn’s Disease
➢ It occurs due to a tumour which affects the zona
glomerulosa of adrenal cortex.
➢ This tumour causes excessive secretion of aldosterone
which results in,
➢ Increased blood volume and hypertension due to
drastic increase in sodium and water retention
➢ Increased potassium excretion resulting in muscle
weakness and cardiac arrhythmias.
Cushing’s syndrome
• Caused due to the excess secretion of Cortisol
• It is otherwise called as moon face
• It is characterized by deposition of fat on face and neck,
redness of the face, hand, feet, thin skin, excessive hair
growth.
Disorders of Adrenal medulla
Pheochromocytoma
• It is characterized by tumor in the adrenal medulla
• In this condition there is an excessive secretion of
adrenaline and noradrenaline
• Common symptoms include high blood pressure
(hypertension), rapid heart rate (tachycardia),
headaches, sweating, and anxiety.
Disorders of Pancreas
Hyperglycemia or Diabetes mellitus
➢ It is the most commonly occurring endocrinal
disorder.
➢ The deficiency of insulin causes diabetes mellitus
➢ Diabetes mellitus (DM) is defined as a heterogenous
metabolic syndrome characterized by chronic
hyperglycemia.
➢ i.e., increase in blood glucose levels with
carbohydrate, fat and protein metabolism
disturbances.
Characterized by;
Increase in blood sugar level (Hyper- glycemia)
Excretion of excess glucose in the urine (Glycosuria)
Frequent urination (polyuria)
Increased thirst (polydipsia)
Increase in appetite (polyphagia)