When travelling by airplane, the path does not follow the geodesic of the Earth's surface, but rather a nearly straight line through the atmosphere, which can slightly decrease the overall distance travelled. The percentage change in the travel distance can be estimated by comparing the arc length along the Earth's surface with the chord length through the Earth's atmosphere. The percentage change is determined by the difference in these lengths, divided by the great-circle distance, multiplied by 100 to convert it to a percentage. This requires precise calculation using trigonometric identities and Earth's radius .

To compute a line integral of a vector field \( \mathbf{v} = ay\hat{i} + bx\hat{j} \) over a circular path, different coordinate systems offer strategic advantages. In a plane polar coordinate system, rewrite the integral in terms of \( r \) and \( \theta \), leveraging the circular symmetry, while in Cartesian coordinates, express \( x \) and \( y \) in parametric form. Each system simplifies calculations by aligning with the curve's nature, thus easing integration over the path. Selection depends on symmetry and the function's complexity .

A vector field \( \mathbf{v} = ay\hat{i} + bx\hat{j} \) on a circular path exhibits direct applications of integral theorems. The line integral around the circle is directly solved using Green's Theorem, reflecting the planar area enclosed. Extending this to a cylindrical surface, with the cylinder's height aligned along the z-axis, involves using Stokes' Theorem where surface integrals replace line integrals. Calculating the flux in cylindrical coordinates ensures consistency with divergence theorem conditions, leveraging symmetric properties and integral theorem interchangeability .

Corollaries from fundamental integral theorems like gradient, divergence, and curl can be derived by applying specific conditions or assumptions. For instance, transforming the divergence theorem with a constant vector \( \mathbf{c} \), we achieve \( \int_V (\nabla T) \, dV = \oint_S T \, d\mathbf{S} \) by setting \( \mathbf{v} = \mathbf{c} T \). Similarly, substituting \( \mathbf{v} = \mathbf{v} \times \mathbf{c} \) in the divergence theorem helps demonstrate \( \int_V (\nabla \times \mathbf{v}) \, dV = -\oint_S \mathbf{v} \times d\mathbf{S} \), emphasizing vector operations' influence in integral transformations. These exercises demand deep understanding of vector manipulation and theorem applications .

Cylindrical coordinates effectively simplify problems with inherent cylindrical symmetry. For a vector field \( \mathbf{v} = ay\hat{i} + bx\hat{j} \), and a right circular cylinder with axis along the z-axis, the use of cylindrical coordinates elucidates the relationships and integrals. To show theorem validity, calculate the surface integral \( \oint_S \mathbf{v} \cdot d\mathbf{S} \) over the entire cylinder surface and relate it to volume integral \( \int_V \nabla \cdot \mathbf{v} \, dV \). This application emphasizes symmetry and simplifies calculations due to coordinate alignment with the cylinder's geometry .

The shortest path taken by a ship between two points on the Earth's surface is along a great circle. To compute the distance, we use the formula \( d = R \cdot \Delta\sigma \), where \( R \) is the Earth's radius and \( \Delta\sigma \) is the angular separation between the two points. Given the coordinates of the southernmost points of India (6.75°N, 93.84°E) and Africa (34.5°S, 20°E), and using the spherical law of cosines, the angular distance \( \Delta\sigma \) is calculated, which can then be multiplied by the Earth's radius (6400 km) to obtain the linear distance .

Using Stokes' Theorem, which relates a surface integral over a surface to an integral of a curl of a vector field over the boundary curve of the surface, we can compute the line integral of \( \mathbf{F} = (2xz + y, 2yz + 3x, x^2 + y^2 + 5) \). The surface bounded by the circular cylinder's top, using the circle in xy-plane as boundary, enables the application of Stokes' Theorem. Compute the curl \( \nabla \times \mathbf{F} \) and perform a surface integral over the planar surface, which will equal the line integral of \( \mathbf{F} \) over the boundary. The positive orientation of the curve ensures proper direction for integration .

The divergence theorem equates the divergence of a vector field inside a volume to the flux through the surface enclosing that volume. For a vector field \( \mathbf{v} = r \cos \theta \hat{r} + r \sin \theta \hat{\theta} + r \sin \theta \cos \phi \hat{\phi} \), the divergence is computed and integrated over the volume of the hemisphere. The result should match the surface integral of \( \mathbf{v} \) over the hemisphere surface. As the hemisphere is symmetrical about the z-axis and resting on the xy-plane, the calculations involve spherical coordinates and consideration of boundary conditions at the surface intersection .

The scalar potential \( \phi(r) = (\mathbf{a} \times \mathbf{r}) \cdot (\mathbf{b} \times \mathbf{r}) \) is used to derive the electric field \( \mathbf{E} = -\nabla \phi \) and charge density \( \rho = \varepsilon_0 \nabla \cdot \mathbf{E} \). First, express the potential in terms of spherical coordinates. Then, compute the gradient to find the electric field. Subsequently, calculate the divergence of this electric field to determine the charge density, paying attention to the transformation properties of the coordinate system and constants \( \mathbf{a} \) and \( \mathbf{b} \). This involves heavy use of vector identities and properties of curl and dot products .

The integral of the vector field \( \mathbf{F} = 0.5(-y\hat{i} + x\hat{j}) \) along a closed curve \( C \) is equal to the area of the planar surface \( S \) bounded by that curve based on the relationship given by Green's Theorem, which is a component of Stokes' Theorem. This theorem relates a line integral around a simple closed curve to a double integral over the plane region bounded by the curve. According to Green's Theorem, the line integral of \( \mathbf{F} \) around the closed curve \( C \) is given by the double integral of the curl of \( \mathbf{F} \) over the surface \( S \). Since \( \nabla \times \mathbf{F} = 1 \) everywhere, it follows that the line integral around \( C \) is equal to the area of \( S \) itself .