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CFD simulations of rotary BOF slag carbonation kiln reactor with cyclone flow

Article in Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers Part E Journal of Process Mechanical Engineering · October 2019
DOI: 10.1177/0954408919883082

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Original article

Proc IMechE Part E:

J Process Mechanical Engineering
CFD simulations of rotary BOF slag 2020, Vol. 234(1) 37–45
! IMechE 2019

carbonation kiln reactor with cyclone flow Article reuse guidelines:

[Link]/journals-permissions
DOI: 10.1177/0954408919883082
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Tong-Bou Chang1 , Cho-Yu Lee2, Ming-Sheng Ko3 and

Chin-Fong Lim4

Abstract
Rotary kiln reactors play an important role in improving the mechanical properties and usability of basic oxygen furnace
slag through a carbonation process. The performance of such reactors is critically dependent on the residence time of
the CO2 gas used to promote the carbonation reaction. Accordingly, the present study proposes a rotary kiln reactor in
which the residence time is increased by arranging the inlet and outlet pipes obliquely to the reactor centerline; thereby
producing a cyclone flow structure within the reactor tube. The optimal geometry parameters and rotational speed of
the kiln are determined using the robust Taguchi experimental method. The CO2 residence time in the optimized kiln is
then evaluated by means of computational fluid dynamics simulations. It is shown that the residence time increases from
63.587 s in a standard (non-cyclone-flow) rotary kiln to 105.815 s in the optimized rotary kiln; corresponding to a
performance improvement of 66.4%.

Keywords
BOF slag, rotary kiln reactor, accelerated carbonation, residence time, CFD simulation

Date received: 4 October 2018; accepted: 24 September 2019

Introduction The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

The iron- and steel-making industry is the mainstay of (IPCC) has recognized carbon capture and storage
economic development around the world; providing (CCS) as a key enabling technology for reducing the
many of the basic materials needed for infrastructure level of atmospheric greenhouse gas.5 Calcium-based
development, industrial facilities, vehicles, daily materials, such as steel slags, have high CO2 reactiv-
necessities, and so forth. However, the steel-making ity, good absorption, low cost, and ready availability.
process not only emits large quantities of environmen- As a result, they have attracted great interest for CO2
tally harmful carbon dioxide (CO2) gas, but also pro- capture in recent years.6 Altun and Yılmaz7 reported
duces voluminous quantities of basic oxygen furnace that the free CaO content in BOF slag can react with
(BOF) slag. Producing one ton of steel generates H2O or CO2 for up to several months under normal
around 0.1–0.15 tons of slag.1 In Taiwan, the total atmospheric conditions. Thus, weathering BOF slag
quantity of BOF slag produced each year is estimated outdoors is a feasible method for improving its
to be around 1.5 million tons.1 Thus, the efficient volume stability. However, although the weathering
treatment and reuse of BOF slag is essential to method is cheap, it is inefficient and impractical
minimize the environmental impact of the steel- for the treatment of large slag quantities.
making process.
BOF slag is composed of silicon, calcium, alumi-
1
num, iron, and various other oxide components. Department of Mechanical and Energy Engineering, National Chiayi
University, Chiayi, Taiwan
Many studies have demonstrated the potential for 2
Department of Mechanical Electro-Mechanical Engineering, National
using BOF slag for applications such as cement pro- Sun Yat-sen University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
duction, road construction, and land reclamation in 3
Department of Materials & Mineral Resources Engineering, National
marine areas.2 However, the high free calcium oxide Taipei University of Technology, Taipei, Taiwan
4
(CaO) content in BOF slag causes a volume expansion Department of Mechanical Engineering, Southern Taiwan University of
Science and Technology, Tainan, Taiwan
problem, and hence limits its applicability as a con-
struction material.3,4 Consequently, effective methods Corresponding author:
for reducing the CaO content in BOF slag are Tong-Bou Chang, No. 300, Syuefu Rd, Chiayi, Taiwan.
required to improve its potential for reuse. Email: tbchang@[Link]
38 Proc IMechE Part E: J Process Mechanical Engineering 234(1)

Accordingly, Salman et al.8 used a carbonation reac- intensity and inducing a higher combustion tempera-
tor to increase the CO2 partial pressure and tempera- ture. Wu and Lee12 adopted the standard k" turbu-
ture in order to accelerate the CaO reaction process. lence model and an eddy dissipation combustion
Ko et al.1 investigated the effects of the carbonation model to simulate the burning of rice hulls within a
conditions (e.g., temperature, CO2 content and rela- rotary kiln incinerator. The results revealed that the
tive humidity) on the composition and mechanical average temperature, retention time of the flue gas,
properties of BOF slag. Notably, to improve the con- and combustion efficiency were 1309 K, 6.9 s, and
tact between the gas and the solid phases, the authors 96.85%, respectively. The results additionally sug-
used a rotary kiln reactor rather than a traditional gested that the inclusion of a secondary combustion
static reactor. The results showed that the mechanical chamber was beneficial in enhancing the overall per-
properties of the BOF slag were significantly formance of the incinerator.
improved following the carbonation process, and Generally speaking, for rotary kiln reactors such as
this shows that the rotary kiln reactor can capture those considered above, the carbonation performance
more CO2 than the traditional static reactor. increases with an increasing CO2 residence time, i.e.
The flow of CO2 gas in a rotary kiln reactor is the reaction time. Accordingly, the present study pro-
extremely complex and depends on many factors, poses a method for increasing the CO2 residence time
including rotational speed and geometry parameters. by configuring the inlet and outlet pipes of the reactor
Consequently, in examining the flow field within the kiln at an oblique angle to the reactor centerline;
reactor, and in particular, in devising methods to pro- thereby producing a slow-moving cyclone-like flow
long the residence time of the CO2 gas, computational structure within the reactor. The geometry parameters
fluid dynamics (CFD) simulations are generally pre- and rotational speed of the reactor are optimized
ferred to experimental methods. Veranth et al.9 per- using the robust Taguchi experimental design
formed CFD simulations to examine the flow field in a method. The simulation results show that the opti-
commercial hazardous waste slagging rotary kiln with mized rotary kiln reactor increases the CO2 residence
a 35 MW power output. Yang and Farouk10 used a time by 66.4% compared to that of an original (non-
solid particle flow model to simulate the flow condi- cyclone-flow) rotary kiln reactor.
tions and heat transfer in a rotary kiln calciner. The
simulation results were shown to be in good agree- CAD models and numerical simulation
ment with the measurement data. Chen et al.11 ana-
procedure
lyzed the flow field and temperature distribution in a
rotary kiln incinerator, and showed that a larger inlet Figure 1 presents a schematic illustration of a conven-
flow rate was beneficial in enhancing the turbulence tional rotary kiln reactor, in which the CO2 gas enters

Figure 1. Schematic illustration of conventional rotary kiln reactor.

Chang et al. 39

the reactor from the center position of the left end- of polyhedral cells. As shown in Figure 2(c), such a
plate, flows along the rotational axis of the reactor design induces only a short flow path. Consequently,
tube, and then exits the reactor from the center of the residence time of the CO2 gas is reduced, and
the right endplate. Figure 2(a) presents the CAD hence the BOF slag carbonation performance is cor-
model of a conventional rotary kiln reactor. respondingly degraded. To address this problem, the
Figure 2(b) shows the computational mesh for con- present study proposes a cyclone type rotary kiln
ventional rotary kiln reactor. The fluid mesh consisted reactor of the form shown in Figure 3(a), in which

Figure 2. (a) CAD model of conventional rotary kiln reactor. (b) CFD mesh of reactor. (c) Flow field trajectory in conventional
rotary kiln reactor.

Figure 3. (a) CAD model of cyclone type rotary kiln reactor. (b) CFD mesh of reactor. (c) Flow field trajectory in cyclone type
rotary kiln reactor.
40 Proc IMechE Part E: J Process Mechanical Engineering 234(1)

   
1 @p @ u @u 0 0
@ u @u 0 0
¼ þ uu þ uv
 @x @x  @x @y  @y
 
@ u @u
þ  u0 w0 ð2Þ
@z  @z

y-direction momentum equation

@v @v @v @v
þu þv þw
@t @x @y @z
   
1 @p @ u @u 0 0
@ u @u 0 0
¼ þ vu þ vv
 @x @x  @x @y  @y
 
@ u @u
þ  v0 w0 ð3Þ
@z  @z
Figure 4. Schematic model and optimization parameters of
cyclone type rotary kiln reactor. z-direction momentum equation

the CO2 gas enters (and exits) the rotary kiln reactor @w @w @w @w
þu þv þw
obliquely and hence induces a cyclonic airflow within @t @x @y @z
   
the reactor tube. Figure 3(b) shows the computational 1 @p @ u @w @ u @w
¼ þ 0 0
wu þ 0
wv 0
mesh for cyclone type rotary kiln reactor. The fluid  @x @x  @x @y  @y
mesh also consisted of polyhedral cells. As shown in  
@ u @w
Figure 3(c), the cyclic flow structure increases the flow þ  w0 w0 ð4Þ
path length (and hence residence time) of the CO2 gas, @z  @z
and therefore leads to an improved BOF slag carbon-
ation performance. In the above equations, the gravity force is
Figure 4 shows the five parameters considered in assumed to act in the y-direction. Moreover, p is
optimizing the proposed cyclone rotary kiln reactor, the local pressure relative to atmospheric pressure.
namely , , W, Di and r/min.  represents the angle The simulations adopted the standard k" turbulence
between the longitudinal axis of the inlet pipe and the model and used the FVM method to establish the
x–y plane,  is the angle between the axis of the inlet corresponding difference equations. The coupled
pipe and the z-axis of the x–z plane, and W is the non-linear equations for the velocity field were
distance between the inlet center and the edge of the solved using the SIMPLE method.14 The FVM calcu-
reactor in the x-direction. Finally, Di is the diameter lation method can be derived from the conservation
of the inlet (and outlet) tube and r/min is the reactor equation as
rotation speed. In performing the optimization pro-
cess, the diameter and length of the reactor were @

ð’Þ þ div u’  ’ grad’ ¼ S’ ð5Þ
assigned constant values of 300 mm and 1500 mm, @t
respectively. In addition, the inlet and outlet pipe
lengths were both set as 200 mm and the CO2 gas where represents the variables (i.e., ui , " and k), ’ is
flow rate was given as 1 L/s. the diffusion coefficient and S ’ is the source term.
The residence time of the CO2 gas in the rotary kiln The flow field in the rotary kiln reactor was set as
reactor was investigated by means of CFD Finite rotational flow and was implemented using the
Volume Method (FVM) simulations performed Moving Reference Frame (MRF) model. The MRF
using Star-CCMþ software.13 The simulations con- model utilizes single rotational coordinates, multi-
sidered the air within the reactor to be turbulent, rotational coordinates, and translational coordinates
incompressible and subject to Newtonian flow. The for calculation purposes and is one of the most com-
governing equations and boundary conditions were monly used methods for analyzing the flow field in
thus given as follows: rotating machines.13 The residence time of the CO2
Continuity equation gas in the rotary reactor was determined using the
Lagrange Multphase Method.13 The CO2 gas entering
@u @v @w
þ þ ¼0 ð1Þ the rotary reactor was assumed to contain many small
@x @y @z particles. In order to minimizing the effect of particle
x-direction momentum equation properties, the particles size is set as 0.004 mm and
without any mass. Therefore the particles were carried
@u @u @u @u through the reactor tube by the CO2 flow. The simu-
þu þv þw
@t @x @y @z lation process tracked the trajectory of each particle
and computed the corresponding flow time from the
Chang et al. 41

Figure 5. Grid independence test results for conventional rotary kiln reactor.

Table 1. Control factors and level settings for cyclone type rotary kiln reactor.

Code Control factor (unit) Level 1 level 2 level 3 level 4 level 5

A Inlet angle  ( ) 15 0 15 30 45

B Inlet angle  ( ) 0 15 30 45 60
C Distance between inlet center and reactor edge W (mm) 60 80 100 120 150
D Diameter of inlet and outlet tube Di (mm) 60 50 40 30 20
E Reactor rotational speed (r/min) 2 4 6 8 10

inlet to the outlet. The residence time of the CO2 gas

was then estimated as the average flow time of all the
Analysis method
dust particles (n ¼ 65–85). The optimization process was performed using the
In CFD simulations, the grid size has a critical effect robust Taguchi experimental design method with
on the computational accuracy and convergence time five control factors, namely  (the angle between
of the simulation process. Accordingly, prior to the the inlet axis and the y-axis of the x–y plane), 
optimization process, a grid independence test was (the angle between the inlet axis and the z-axis of
performed using a standard (non-cyclone-flow) the x–z plane), W (the distance between the inlet
rotary kiln reactor as shown in Figure 2(a) and with center and the edge of the reactor tube in the
the design parameters are the same as shown above, x-direction), Di (the diameter of the inlet and outlet
i.e. the inlet and outlet pipe lengths were both set as pipes) and r/min (the reactor rotational speed). As
200 mm and the CO2 gas flow rate was given as 1 L/s shown in Figure 3(a), the outlet pipe was arranged
and the diameter and length of the reactor were symmetrically to the inlet pipe, and hence parameters
assigned constant values of 300 mm and 1500 mm, ,  and W apply to both the inlet pipe and the
respectively. The residence time was computed for outlet pipe.
seven different meshes containing 35987, 40695, Each control factor was assigned five levels (see
45350, 52608, 58645, 65890 and 73568 grid points, Table 1). Thus, the optimization experiments involved
respectively. The corresponding residence time results a total of 55 ¼ 3125 parameter combinations. Given
are shown in Figure 5. It is seen that the residence time such a large number of combinations, a full factorial
increases significantly as the number of grid points design is extremely laborious and complex.
increases from 35983 to 65890. However, as the Accordingly, the parameter space was explored
number of grid points is further increased to 73568, instead using an L25 ¼ 55 Taguchi orthogonal array
the residence time changes only very slightly, i.e., (OA), as shown in Table 2. Briefly, the Taguchi
from 63.587 s to 63.604 s (corresponding to a change method15 was proposed by Taguchi in 1950 and pro-
of just 0.026%). Thus, in performing the optimization vides a statistical approach for optimizing the process-
simulations, the number of grid points was set ing conditions of complex processes by performing a
as 65890. minimum number of experimental trials.
42 Proc IMechE Part E: J Process Mechanical Engineering 234(1)

Results and discussions rotary reactor have a significant effect on the residence
Figure 6 shows the residence time on the streamline time of the gas.
for the conventional rotary reactor kiln. Table 3 To identify the factors having the greatest effect on
shows the calculated average residence time of the the residence time, and to determine whether these
CO2 gas in the rotary reactor kiln for each of the factors act independently or through interaction
experimental runs in the L25 ¼ 55 OA. It is seen that with the other factors, the simulation results were fur-
the residence time ranges from 35.9 s (11th experimen- ther examined by means of a level average analysis.15
tal run) to 99.6 s (24th experimental run). In other Level average analysis involves determining the aver-
words, the geometry and rotational speed of the age effect of each factor on the outcome of the experi-
ment, and is one of the most commonly used methods
for exploring the results obtained from Taguchi
Table 2. L25 ¼ 55 Taguchi orthogonal array. experiments. Table 4 shows the corresponding results,
where A1 is the average effect of Factor A at level 1,
Number of simulation A B C D E A2 is the average effect of the same factor at level 2,
1 1 1 1 1 1
and so on. For the problem considered in the present
study, a longer residence time is preferred. An inspec-
2 1 2 2 2 2
tion of Table 4 shows that the optimal parameter level
3 1 3 3 3 3
settings are thus A5, B5, C5, D1 and E1. The corres-
4 1 4 4 4 4 ponding values of the optimized factors are shown in
5 1 5 5 5 5 Table 5. The equivalent parameter settings for the
6 2 1 2 3 4 conventional rotary kiln reactor are also shown for
7 2 2 3 4 5 comparison purposes. Figure 7 shows the residence
8 2 3 4 5 1 time on the streamline for the optimized rotary reac-
9 2 4 5 1 2 tor kiln.
10 2 5 1 2 3 Comparing Figures 2(a) and 3(a), it is seen that the
11 3 1 3 5 2 main difference between the conventional rotary kiln
12 3 2 4 1 3 reactor and the optimized cyclone type rotary reactor
lies in the arrangement of the inlet and outlet pipes.
13 3 3 5 2 4
The two reactors further differ in the diameters of the
14 3 4 1 3 5
inlet and outlet pipes, i.e., 60 mm in the optimized
15 3 5 2 4 1
reactor and 30 mm in the conventional reactor (see
16 4 1 4 2 5 Table 5). As shown in Table 5, the average residence
17 4 2 5 3 1 time of the CO2 gas in the conventional rotary kiln
18 4 3 1 4 2 reactor is 63.587 s. By contrast, the average residence
19 4 4 2 5 3 time in the optimized reactor is 105.815 s. In other
20 4 5 3 1 4 words, the optimized design increases the average resi-
21 5 1 5 4 3 dence time of the CO2 gas by 42.228 s; corresponding
22 5 2 1 5 4 to a performance improvement of 66.4%.
23 5 3 2 1 5 Figures 2(b) and 3(b) show the simulated flow fields
24 5 4 3 2 1 within the original rotary kiln reactor and the opti-
mized cyclone type rotary kiln reactor, respectively.
25 5 5 4 3 2
In the original reactor, the inlet and outlet pipes are

Figure 6. The residence time on the streamline for the conventional rotary reactor kiln.
Chang et al. 43

Table 3. Simulation results for residence time given parameter settings in L25 ¼ 55 orthogonal array.

A B C D E
Inlet center and Entrance and Rotating
Number of Inlet Inlet reactor sideline exit pipe speed of Residence
simulation angle () angle () distance (W) diameter (A) reactor (r/min) time (s)

1 15 0 60 60 2 83.879
2 15 15 80 50 4 72.07
3 15 30 100 40 6 74.42
4 15 45 120 30 8 42.766
5 15 60 150 20 10 60.46
6 0 0 80 40 8 61.3
7 0 15 100 30 10 55.269
8 0 30 120 20 2 52.725
9 0 45 150 60 4 91.198
10 0 60 60 50 6 57.62
11 15 0 100 20 4 35.852
12 15 15 120 60 6 76.61
13 15 30 150 50 8 71.646
14 15 45 60 40 10 48.3
15 15 60 80 30 2 67.493
16 30 0 120 50 10 54.44
17 30 15 150 40 2 98.91
18 30 30 60 30 4 54.068
19 30 45 80 20 6 48.22
20 30 60 100 60 8 88.468
21 45 0 150 30 6 61.256
22 45 15 60 20 8 38.19
23 45 30 80 60 10 69.5
24 45 45 100 50 2 99.582
25 45 60 120 40 4 98.686

Table 4. Level average analysis results for each control factor.

Factor

A B C D E
Distance between Inlet and Rotating
Inlet Inlet inlet center and outlet tube speed of
Level angle () angle () reactor sideline (W) diameter (Di) reactor (r/min)

1 66.719 59.3454 56.4114 81.931 80.5178

2 63.6224 68.2098 63.7166 71.0716 70.3748
3 59.9802 64.4718 70.7182 76.3232 63.6252
4 68.8212 66.0132 65.0454 56.1704 60.474
5 73.4428 74.5454 76.694 47.0894 57.5938

Table 5. Parameters of optimized cyclone type rotary kiln reactor and standard (non-cyclone-type) rotary kiln reactor.

A B C D E
Distance between Inlet and Rotating
Inlet Inlet inlet center and outlet tube speed of Residence
angle () angle () reactor sideline (W) diameter (Di) reactor (r/min) time (s)

Optimized 45 60 150 60 2 105.815

Conventional 0 0 150 30 2 63.587
44 Proc IMechE Part E: J Process Mechanical Engineering 234(1)

Figure 7. The residence time on the streamline for the optimized rotary reactor kiln.

aligned with the longitudinal axis of the reactor. 2. The Taguchi optimization experiments have con-
Consequently, most of the stream lines flow directly sidered five geometry and operating parameters,
from the inlet to the outlet, while only a minority namely  (the angle between the inlet axis and
undergo rotation. As a result, the average flow path the y-axis of the x–y plane),  (the angle between
length within the reactor is relatively short, and hence the inlet axis and the z-axis of the x–z plane), W
the residence time of the CO2 gas is reduced. By con- (the distance between the inlet center and the edge
trast, in the optimized rotary kiln reactor, the oblique of the reactor tube in the x-direction), Di (the
arrangement of the inlet pipe results in the formation diameter of the inlet (and outlet) tube), and
of a cyclone-type flow structure in the entrance region r/min (the reactor rotation speed). It has been
of the reactor tube. The cyclone structure moves shown that the optimal parameter settings are
slowly toward the outlet region of the tube under the 45 , 60 , 150 mm, 60 mm and 2 r/min, respectively.
effects of rotation. Comparing Figures 2(b) and 3(b), it 3. The CFD simulation results have shown that the
is evident that the optimized reactor design results in a optimized cyclone rotary kiln reactor increases the
much longer flow path and hence a significantly average CO2 gas residence time from 63.587 s
improved residence time. (conventional non-cyclone flow kiln reactor) to
105.815 s, corresponding to a residence time
improvement of 66.4%.
Conclusion
The present study has proposed a cyclone type rotary
Declaration of conflicting interests
kiln reactor with an oblique arrangement of the inlet
and outlet CO2 gas pipes for improving the efficiency The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with
respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of
of the BOF carbonation reaction process. The geo-
this article.
metrical design and operating parameters (i.e., rota-
tional speed) of the proposed reactor have been
Funding
optimized using the Taguchi experimental design
method. The main findings of this study can be sum- The author(s) disclosed receipt of the following financial sup-
port for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this
marized as follows:
article: The authors gratefully acknowledge the financial sup-
port provided to this study by the Ministry of Science and
1. The oblique arrangement of the inlet and outlet Technology (MOST) of Taiwan under grant number MOST
pipes results in the formation of a cyclone flow 106-3113-E-007-002 and MOST 106-2221-E-415-013.
structure within the reactor tube, which moves
slowly toward the outlet under the effects of reac-
tor rotation. The cyclone structure results in a sig- ORCID iD
nificantly longer flow path than that in a Tong-Bou Chang [Link]
conventional reactor, in which the inlet and
outlet pipes are installed perpendicularly to the References
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