CHAPTER TWO

THEORITICAL REVIEW OF LITERATURE

2.1 Special Need Students

2.1.1 Definition and background

To define the term Special Need Students unambiguously is quite difficult.

There are many and varied definitions, moreover the range of symptoms varies

between individuals, both in severity and in extension, yet, there are main points

of concurrence among them, many of which generally refer to language learning.

Special need students is also embodied under the wider term special

learning disabilities (SLD), the term that is more often used in books, but covering

a broad range of disabilities from the minor ones to the really severe disabilities.

A learning disability is a neurological disorder that affects one or more of the

basic psychological processes involved in understanding or in using spoken

language.

The disability may manifest itself in an imperfect ability to listen, think,

speak, read, write and spell, or to do mathematical calculations.

([Link]) It means there are difficulties not only with reading and

spelling (that are generally associated with dyslexia), recognising language

patterns that are presented orally, poor handwriting (Schneider, Crombio 2003:

X), but also with attention, following and understanding directions, reading,

comprehending, writing, organizing and sequencing thoughts, retaining

information, following more than one step instructions or directions, interacting

([Link]) Learning disabilities should not be confused with

learning problems which are primarily the result of visual, hearing, or motor

handicaps; of mental retardation; of emotional disturbance; or of environmental,

cultural or economic disadvantages. Learning disabilities can not be cured.

Generally, SLD students are of average or above average intelligence.

Nevertheless, there often appears to be a gap between an individual’s

potential and actual achievement; the person might seem bright and intelligent,

but may be unable to demonstrate the skill level expected from someone of a

similar age. ([Link]) All authors add that every person shows

different combination and degree of difficulties and every student has a different

profile of strengths and weaknesses. As Turnbull writes in his book (Turnbull et

al. 2002: 107) “if you were to observe twenty students with learning disabilities,

you would find twenty different ways the condition manifests itself“. As well as

the definition, the terminology slightly differs, but differences are not essential.

Most authors use the term Special Learning Disabilities (SLD); quite

more specific is the term Special Learning Difficulties that concerns

predominantly Dysgraphia, Dyscalculia, Dyspraxia and Dyslexia; or only

Dyslexia including all difficulties mentioned. Artiles and Ortiz (2001) use the

term Special Educational Needs (SEN), nevertheless in their concept the term

covers all different types of special needs, including somehow handicapped

students and students with bad social and family conditions as well.
 As it is mentioned in their book, they do not like labels such as disabled

and typical. I have met one more term matching with the subject. Because some

students classified as dyslexic or with SLD or SEN and those not classified as

dyslexic or with SLD generally display similar difficulties and struggles with the

foreign language, The International Dyslexia Association ([Link])

uses the term at-risk students. But “at-risk“ can apply to a very broad range.

2.1.2 Characteristics of Special Need Students

Because learning disabilities is an “umbrella term“ including a broader

range of difficulties than the subject of the thesis is to be I have chosen a list of

SEN categories the thesis deals with: - a learning and reading disability (Dyslexia)

- a writing disorder resulting in illegibility (Dysgraphia) - difficulty processing

and remembering language-related tasks (Central Auditory Processing Disorder) -

reverses letters, cannot copy accurately, loses place (Visual Perceptual/Visual

Motor Deficit) - trouble with understanding spoken language, poor reading

comprehension (Language Disorders/Aphasia or Dysphasia) .

As the thesis deals mainly with the needs of students with language-

connected learning disabilities I will discuss the essential problems SEN students

can have and that can show the teacher that a student has some learning troubles.

Special need students can: - read slowly or painfully; - have trouble with

the order of letters in writing and its decoding, have trouble with spelling and with

handwriting (which can cause difficulties with written language) - show disparity

between listening and reading comprehension of some text - have unfinished

words or letters, omitted words, inconsistent spacing between words and letters -
take more time to copy or write something - have great difficulty thinking and

writing at the same time (it means taking notes, creative writing) - misspell and

mispronounce similar-sounding words or omits syllables, confuses similar-

sounding words (e.g., salary – celery, three – free, jab – job); have trouble to

understand directions when they are given in the foreign language and to

comprehend spoken language, especially when it is spoken quickly - incorrectly

repeat sounds, words, phrases or sentences that are provided by the teacher or

through an audio recorder - find it difficult to stay focused on or remember a

verbal presentation or lecture - have trouble with understanding and applying

grammatical rules (forming plurals and possessives, using proper word order),

especially when these rules are different from the native language - have difficulty

gaining meaning from spoken language - spend more time on foreign language

study than other school subjects, not know how to study a particular foreign

language concept (learning new vocabulary, analyzing a grammar or

pronunciation rule)

2.1 3 Foreign language learners with special need students

Students who have language learning difficulties in their mother tongue

may have problems in learning another language in school. Nevertheless, there are

many students who only have difficulties learning a new language system and are

not dyslexic or have a learning disability. This is one of the most important

reasons why also the language teacher should be trained in special pedagogy. He

or she should be able to recognise a student’s special educational needs and

should know how approaches work with this student. Students who have
difficulties in most or all of the four (reading, writing, listening, speaking)

language components are likely to experience the most problems learning a

foreign language, particularly in traditional language classrooms.

Research findings suggest that there is not a specific disability for

learning a foreign language, though. Rather, the difficulties are an extension of a

continuum from very good to very poor language learners. Nevertheless, as report

of European Commission mentions, “we can observe students of all abilities

successfully learning foreign languages.“ (Special Educational Needs in Europe.

Teaching Languages to Learners with Special Needs. January 2005. 22 Dec. 2006.

2.1.4 Specific learning disabilities and their causes

The term “specific learning disabilities” (SLD) is used in American

publications. In British publications the equivalent is “specific learning

difficulties” (Titlová 5). I would like to stick to the American terminology.

“Learning difficulties” are generally difficulties with reading,spelling, writing or

arithmetic. Some of the learning difficulties can be caused by learningdisabilities

(“Learning Connection” 3).

“Learning disabilities” are of bioneurological origin andare mostly

connected with some kind of disorders in perceiving, thinking,

remembering,learning, acquisition, short-term memory or organization

(Bartonova 6-17, 107). In short, the term “disorders” is more often used when

brain or genes are taken into account, while the term“difficulties” is more general,

often used with all kinds of learning difficulties students struggle with, not

necessary of brain or gene nature.

dyspraxia, and dysgraphia, while Behavioural, Emotional and Social Difficulties

affect social interaction, concentration and temper (Marsh 14). Learning

disabilities, though different in severity, can have negative influence on children’s

learning process, their psycho, emotions, general performance and life in a society

Learning disabilities are of neurological or genetic origin. Also brain

injury, neurological dysfunction, environmental, psychological and social causes

can be responsible for learning disabilities and their severity (Walcot-Gayda part.

1-4; Bartoňová 9). Moreover, disturbance in sensory integration can cause various

learning, behaviour or

development difficulties. Sensory motor integration plays an important role in

school readiness as it is a brain organization process of interpreting all body and

sense stimuli

2.1.5 Meeting the needs of students with special need students

To meet the needs of students is one of the most essential aims for the

teacher. For all teachers, either teaching special need students or not, because each

class is a heterogeneous place full of individuals with different motivation,

intelligence, strengths and weaknesses. There can be said that each teacher teaches

in a mixed ability class in fact.

European Commission report (Special Educational Needs in Europe.

Teaching Languages to Learners with Special Needs. January 2005. 22 Dec. 2006.

) points out the teacher should adopt an “eclectic approach“, which means to

provide an active response to diverse foreign language learning styles. The same
the report maintains that “the use of words such as ‘difficulty and ‘disorder’ may

be counter-productive when considering equality of access to foreign language

learning in SEN.

An alternative approach involves not having predominant focus on

learning disorders and disabilities, but rather on different kinds of learning ability“

(Special Educational Needs in Europe. Teaching Languages to Learners with

Special Needs. January 2005. 22 Dec. 2006. ) and recommends to make schools´

foreign language programme flexible, so that it can meet the wide range of student

needs.

As argued in a UNESCO guide (2000) “all pupils gain when teachers

adapt the curricula and their teaching styles to suit the range of diversity that is

found among children in any class. Usually these adaptations require little extra

equipment but lots of creativity“. (McConkey, R. 2000. 22 Dec. 2006. ) I remind

that instructional methods used with special need students are proved to be usually

good teaching practices to use with all learners. As there is variety of students

there is variety of language teaching methods. Nevertheless, there are some of the

methods that are recommended as highly useful and effective for special need

students.

2.1.6 Accommodation for students with special educational needs

One of the most important questions connected with teaching students

with special educational needs is the way to do it. How to teach a Special need

student in an inclusive classroom, including students of all skill levels, so he or

in the learning process.

I found many materials dealing with ways of teaching, teaching methods,

alternative approaches, some of which could be more helpful in SMPLB LABUI

conditions more than the others. Yet, with regard to the aim and the extent of the

thesis, I focus on such essential items that would be fundamental for an applicable

and productive teaching process, for special need students.

As Schneider and Crombio maintain "when students see that they are

successful, they are more likely to invest energy in the subject in the future

because they received positive feedback for their efforts." (Schneider, Crombio

2003: 47). There are some really important things that can not be omitted within

each lesson of each subject. One is a positive and pleasant school climate. Such a

climate should devote attention to the philosophy that all students can learn and a

teacher should do as much as possible towards this. So, "in order to become a

better teacher it seems important to be aware of as many options as possible. This

may enable a teacher to generate his or her own rules and guidelines as to what

works and what doesn’t." (Scrivener 1998: vi). A teacher should perceive the

needs of students in the class and try to meet them.

2.1.7 Essential items in the teacher’s approach

The main source for this part is the view of Schneider and Crombio

(Schneider, Crombio 2003: 47 – 73), but with regard to other attitudes and

materials used. These are the strategies that are essential for good teaching skills
in general; moreover the careful application of these skills is essential for special

need students.

1. First there is the fact that all language activities, including reading,

spelling/writing, listening, speaking, grammar and vocabulary exercises, should

be somehow included in each lesson. All of them have their own importance in

learning the language and, on the other hand, there is evidence they provide more

possibilities to a student to be successful, because if he or she is not good at one

language area he can succeed in another. Using all language elements might seem

obvious; however, it often is not in fact.

2. Another important thing is to teach in an explicit way because Special

Need students can have problems with understanding and using foreign language

patterns properly without explicit explanation. Explicit teaching involves directing

student attention in a structured environment. Topics and contents are broken

down into small parts and taught individually; topics are taught in a logical order

and students are directed by the teacher. "Another important characteristic of

explicit teaching involves modelling skills and behaviours and modelling

thinking. This involves the teacher thinking out loud when working

3. No matter which book a teacher uses, it is recommended to carefully

analyse each unit in it. English language books are usually organised according to

topics. As struggling foreign language students need to be taught simpler

structures before more complex ones, a teacher often has to rearrange the

sequencing of the book and adapt it to the actual needs of the students in the class.
2.4 Learning disabilities and the teachers’ role

Teachers are among those responsible for educating children, including

children with learning disabilities. Yet, it is never an easy task to provide them

with help or to distinguish between their needs. Crombie even questions the

benefits of teaching foreign languages to students who has not yet mastered basic

knowledge in their own native language, especially those students with learning

disabilities. Still, however, she admits that getting acquainted with another

language can in fact result in helping the students understand the structure of their

own language better (Crombie part. 1).

Obviously, learning disabled student need a support. Teachers‟

encouragement and professional help, appropriate curriculum, organization,

syllabus, evaluation system, cooperation among teachers, administrators and

parents, positive school atmosphere-these are just some of the ways to success

(Ortiz; Bartoňová 58).

All children can learn to an extent. The same counts for SLD students,

who can in fact be very successful in a learning process. As far as the foreign

language is concerned, the success may depend on the complexity of the

language, grammar, spelling, phonology, etc. On the other hand, the success does

not depend entirely on school and [Link] stresses that learning a foreign

language is:

... a lifelong endeavour, and in formal basic education there is an imperative need
to lay the
foundations – at least a key to the door, if not rooms in the house of language
itself. The prerequisite factor is “what works for this learner at this given time
and place”. This then leads us to address the time and place, and the social and
 professional variables which are influencing decision-making according to
principles of quality foreign language learning such as relevance, transparency
and reliability. (3)

Educators usually gain from a wide range of approaches, methods and

techniques, which are suggested to be successful in practice. As for language

teaching, communicative approach and learner-centred approach are regarded as

most useful.

Communicative approaches such as Krashen‟s Natural Approach and

Asher‟s TPR are reported to work well with learning disabilities students

(Bartoňová 106) for they are said to exhibit greater results than grammar based

approaches (Werstler 12). Students‟ autonomy is stressed here, as well as their

learning strategies and styles. For some a combination of communicative and

learner-cantered approaches is then considered to be the right choice

Additionally, multi-sensory techniques accompanied with interventionist

strategies like kinetic and mnemonic techniques are quite often mentioned as

being successful with learning disabilities. I agree with an opinion that the point is

to make language patterns explicit, to over-learn, slow the pace of presentation

and to “engage students by activating their personal strengths and interests and by

giving them individual space” (Marsh 21; Bartanova 104-107)