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Mathematics for Mechanical and Construction Engineering

Chapter 20
LO2 Apply Techniques to Manipulate Complex Numbers
and Series

 Complex Numbers

20.1 Introduction
The solution of the quadratic equation 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0 may be obtained by using the
quadratic formula:

−𝑏 ± √𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐
𝑥=
2𝑎
Hence the solutions of 2𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 3 = 0 are

−1 ± √12 − 4 × 2 × (−3) −1 ± √25 1 5

𝑥= = =− ±
2×2 4 4 4
i.e. 𝑥 = 1 or 𝑥 = −1.5
However, a problem exists if (𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐) in the quadratic formula results in a negative number,
since we cannot obtain in real terms the square root of a negative number. The only numbers
we have met to date have been real numbers. These are either integers (such as +1, +5, -7, etc.)
4 7 1
or rational numbers (such as 1 or 4.000, − 9 or −0.77̇, 2 or 0.500, etc.) or irrational numbers
(such as 𝜋 = 3.141 592 … , √3 = 1.732 …, etc.).
If 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 5 = 0 then

2 ± √(−2)2 − 4 × 1 × 5 2 ± √−16
𝑥= =
2×1 2
In order to deal with such a problem as determining √−16 the concept of complex numbers
has been evolved.

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20.2 Definition of a Complex Number

(a) Imaginary Number

Let b and c be real numbers. An imaginary number is written in the form jb or jc (i.e. 𝑗 × 𝑏 or
𝑗 × 𝑐) where operator j is defined by the following two rules:
i) For addition 𝑗𝑏 + 𝑗𝑐 = 𝑗(𝑏 + 𝑐) (1)
ii) For multiplication 𝑗𝑏 × 𝑗𝑐 = −𝑏𝑐 (2)
i.e. 𝑗 2 𝑏𝑐 = −𝑏𝑐
Thus 𝑗 2 = −1

Or 𝑗 = √−1

It is immaterial whether the operator j is placed in front of or after the number, i.e. j4 = 4j, and
so on. An imaginary number j3 means (√−1) × 3 and –j2 means −(√−1) × 2 or

(−2) × (√−1).

Similarly, from equation (1) j2 + j5 = j7 and j5 – j2 = j3

(b) Complex Numbers

2±√−16
From section 20.1, 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 5 = 0 and 𝑥 = .
2

√−16 can be split into √−1 × √16, i.e. 𝑗√16 or ±𝑗4

2±𝑗4
Hence 𝑥= = 1 ± 𝑗2
2

i.e. 𝑥 = 1 + 𝑗2 or 𝑥 = 1 − 𝑗2
The solutions of the quadratic equation 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 5 = 0 are of the form 𝑎 + 𝑗𝑏, where ‘a’ is
a real number and ‘jb’ an imaginary number. Numbers in the form 𝑎 + 𝑗𝑏 are called complex
numbers. Hence 1 + 𝑗2, 5 − 𝑗7, −2 + 𝑗3 and −𝜋 + 𝑗√2 are all examples of complex numbers.
In algebra, if a quantity x is added to a quantity 3y the result is written as x + 3y since x and y
are separate quantities. Similarly, it is important to appreciate that real and imaginary numbers
are different types of numbers and must be kept separate.
When imaginary numbers were first introduced the symbol i (i.e. the first letter of the word
imaginary) was used to indicate √−1 and this symbol is still used in pure mathematics.
However, in engineering, the symbol i indicates electric current, and to avoid any possible
confusion the next letter in the alphabet, i.e. j, is used to represent √−1.

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20.3 The Argand diagram

A complex number can be represented pictorially on rectangular or Cartesian axes. The
horizontal (or x) axis is used to represent the real axis and the vertical (or y) axis is used to
represent the imaginary axis. Such a diagram is called an Argand diagram (named after an
eighteenth-century French mathematician) and is shown in the following figure.

A complex number of the form a + jb is called a Cartesian complex number.

20.4 Operations involving Cartesian complex numbers

(a) Addition and Subtraction
Let two complex numbers be represented by 𝑍1 = 𝑎 + 𝑗𝑏 and 𝑍2 = 𝑐 + 𝑗𝑑. Two complex
numbers are added/subtracted by adding/subtracting separately the two real parts and the two
imaginary parts. Hence
𝑍1 + 𝑍2 = (𝑎 + 𝑗𝑏) + (𝑐 + 𝑗𝑑)
= (𝑎 + 𝑐) + 𝑗(𝑏 + 𝑑)
And
𝑍1 − 𝑍2 = (𝑎 + 𝑗𝑏) − (𝑐 + 𝑗𝑑)
= (𝑎 − 𝑐) + 𝑗(𝑏 − 𝑑)

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Thus, if 𝑍1 = 3 + 𝑗2 and 𝑍2 = 2 − 𝑗4 then

𝑍1 + 𝑍2 = (3 + 𝑗2) + (2 − 𝑗4) = 3 + 2 + 𝑗2 − 𝑗4 = 5 − 𝑗2
And
𝑍1 − 𝑍2 = (3 + 𝑗2) − (2 − 𝑗4) = 3 − 2 + 𝑗2 + 𝑗4 = 1 + 𝑗6
The addition and subtraction of complex numbers may be achieved graphically as shown in the
Argand diagram in the following figure.

(b) Multiplication
Two complex numbers are multiplied by assuming that all quantities involved are real and then,
by using 𝑗 2 = −1, expressing the product in the form 𝑎 + 𝑗𝑏. Hence
(𝑎 + 𝑗𝑏)(𝑐 + 𝑗𝑑) = 𝑎𝑐 + 𝑎(𝑗𝑑) + (𝑗𝑏)𝑐 + (𝑗𝑏)(𝑗𝑑)
= 𝑎𝑐 + 𝑗𝑎𝑑 + 𝑗𝑏𝑐 + 𝑗 2 𝑏𝑑
But 𝑗 2 = −1, thus
(𝑎 + 𝑗𝑏)(𝑐 + 𝑗𝑑) = (𝑎𝑐 − 𝑏𝑑) + 𝑗(𝑎𝑑 + 𝑏𝑐)
If 𝑍1 = 3 + 𝑗2 and 𝑍2 = 2 − 𝑗4 then
𝑍1 × 𝑍2 = (3 + 𝑗2)(2 − 𝑗4) = 6 − 𝑗12 + 𝑗4 − 𝑗 2 8 = 14 − 𝑗8

(c) Complex Conjugate

The complex conjugate of a complex number is obtained by changing the sign of the imaginary
part. Hence 𝑎 + 𝑗𝑏 is the complex conjugate of 𝑎 − 𝑗𝑏 and −2 + 𝑗 is the complex conjugate of
−2 − 𝑗. (Note that only the sign of the imaginary part is changed.)

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The product of a complex number Z and its complex conjugate 𝑍̅ is always a real number, and
this is an important property used when dividing complex numbers. Thus, if
𝑍 = 𝑎 + 𝑗𝑏 then 𝑍̅ = 𝑎 − 𝑗𝑏
And 𝑍𝑍̅ = (𝑎 + 𝑗𝑏)(𝑎 − 𝑗𝑏) = 𝑎2 − 𝑗𝑎𝑏 + 𝑗𝑎𝑏 − (𝑗𝑏)2
= 𝑎2 − 𝑗 2 𝑏 2 = 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 (i.e. a real number)
Similarly, if
𝑍 = 1 + 𝑗2 then 𝑍̅ = 1 − 𝑗2
And 𝑍𝑍̅ = (1 + 𝑗2)(1 − 𝑗2) = 1 − 𝑗2 + 𝑗2 − 4𝑗 2 = 1 + 4 = 5

(d) Division
Expressing one complex number divided by another, in the form 𝑎 + 𝑗𝑏 is accomplished by
multiplying the numerator and denominator by the complex conjugate of the denominator. This
has the effect of making the denominator a real number. Hence, for example,
2 + 𝑗4 2 + 𝑗4 3 + 𝑗4 6 + 𝑗8 + 𝑗12 + 𝑗 2 16
= × =
3 − 𝑗4 3 − 𝑗4 3 + 𝑗4 9 + 𝑗12 − 𝑗12 − 𝑗 2 16
6 + 𝑗20 − 16 −10 + 𝑗20 10 𝑗20 2 4
= = =− + =− +𝑗
9 + 16 25 25 25 5 5
Or
−0.4 + 𝑗0.8

(e) Complex Equations

If two complex numbers are equal then their real parts are equal and their imaginary parts are
equal. Hence, if
𝑎 + 𝑗𝑏 = 𝑐 + 𝑗𝑑
Then
𝑎 = 𝑐 and 𝑏 = 𝑑
This is a useful property since equations having two unknown quantities can be solved from
one equation.

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Worked problems on operations involving Cartesian complex numbers

Problem 1. Solve the following quadratic equations:

a) 𝑥 2 + 9 = 0
b) 4𝑦 2 − 3𝑦 + 5 = 0
Answer:

Problem 2: Evaluate;
a) 𝑗3
b) 𝑗4
c) 𝑗5
d) 𝑗6
e) 𝑗7
3
f) 𝑗9

Answer:

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Problem 3. If 𝑍1 = 1 + 𝑗2, 𝑍2 = 2 − 𝑗3, 𝑍3 = −4 + 𝑗 and 𝑍4 = −3 − 𝑗2 evaluate in 𝑎 + 𝑗𝑏

form the following:
a) 𝑍1 + 𝑍2 − 𝑍3
b) 𝑍1 𝑍3
c) 𝑍2 𝑍3 𝑍4
𝑍
d) 𝑍2
4
𝑍1 −𝑍4
e) 𝑍2 +𝑍3

Answer:

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Problem 4. Solve the following complex equations:

a) 3(𝑎 + 𝑗𝑏) = 9 − 𝑗2
b) (2 + 𝑗)(−2 + 𝑗) = 𝑥 + 𝑗𝑦
c) (𝑎 − 𝑗2𝑏) + (𝑏 − 𝑗3𝑎) = 5 + 𝑗2
Answer:

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20.5 The polar form of a complex number

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20.6 Multiplication and division using complex numbers in polar form

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Worked problems on the polar form of complex numbers

Problem 1. Determine the modulus and argument of the complex number 𝑍 = −5 + 𝑗8 and
express Z in polar form.

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Problem 2. Convert 5∠ − 132𝑜 into 𝑎 + 𝑗𝑏 form correct to four significant figures.

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15∠30𝑜 ×8∠45𝑜
Problem 3. Evaluate a) and
4∠60𝑜
b)4∠30𝑜 + 3∠−60𝑜 − 5∠−135𝑜
giving answers in polar and in Cartesian forms, correct to three significant figures.

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Problem 4. Coplanar forces of (7 + 𝑗𝑥) newtons, (3 − 𝑗5) newtons and (𝑦 + 𝑗3) newtons
act on a body which is in equilibrium. Determine the values of the three forces, both in
rectangular and polar co-ordinate forms.
Answer

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Problem 5. The velocity of ship A is (4 − 𝑗5) knots and that of ship B is (−6 − 𝑗6) knots.
Find the magnitude and direction of the velocity of ship B relative to ship A.
Answer

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Problem 6. A projectile is given an initial velocity of 𝑢 = (21 + 𝑗8)𝑚/𝑠. Determine

a) The magnitude and direction of its velocity after 1.5 seconds and
b) The distance and direction relative to the origin after 1.5 seconds. (Take g as
1
9.81m/s2, velocity as 𝑣 = 𝑢 − 𝑗𝑔𝑡 and displacement as 𝑠 = 𝑢𝑡 − 𝑗 2 𝑔𝑡 2 , where t is
the time in seconds).
Answer

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