CELL DIVISION, GENETICS AND EVOLUTION

Living things arise from other living things through reproduction. Children tend to resemble their parents and
this occurs through genetics.
Genetics is defined as a branch of science dealing with the study of heredity or inheritance. Heredity refers to
the process by characters are passed from parents to children (also called offspring or progeny). Such
characters are also called traits. In humans, characters like hair texture, height; skin colour, body build and hair
colour are inheritable characters.

Genetic materials
The nucleus contains the genetic material of the cell. The genetic material of the cell consists of
Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) which makes up chromosomes and genes. Nucleic acids are very large
molecules (polymers) built from smaller ones (monomers).The monomers are called nucleotides. The
nucleotide consists of a phosphate group, a sugar with five carbon atoms (pentose sugar) and an organic base
containing nitrogen. Two pentose sugars are involved in the structure of nucleic acids namely ribose and
deoxyribose. If the nucleic acid has deoxyribose, it is called deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA).If it has ribose in it,
it is called ribonucleic acid (RNA). There are five organic bases namely:
i) Adenine (A)
ii) Cytosine(C)
iii) Guanine (G)
iv) Thymine (T)
v) Uracil (U)
The nucleotides found in DNA will be any one of A, C, G or T. In RNA, the Thymine is replaced by Uracil.

Cell division
This is the division of the parent cell’s nucleus and cytoplasm to form daughter cells. i.e process by which new
cells (called daughter cells) arise from already existing cells.
The production of new cells is responsible for processes such as growth, reproduction, wound healing, tissue
repair, moulting.
The two types of cell division are Mitosis and Meiosis.

Mitosis
This is a type of cell division which gives rise to two daughter cells each having exactly the same number of
chromosomes as the parent cell. It takes place in five stages namely:
i) Interphase
ii) Prophase
iii) Metaphase
iv) Anaphase
v) Telophase

The major features (steps taken) of mitosis are:

i) Duplication of chromosomes
ii) Division of the cytoplasm and nucleus
iii) Formation of two daughter cells
iv) Preservation of the chromosome number

1. Interphase
This is the longest stage of mitosis and it’s also referred to as the resting stage of the parent cell. It is the
preparatory stage of cell division with the following distinguishing features:
 Chromosomes are thin and invisible

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 The genetic material (DNA) replicates (doubles) and therefore, chromosomes also replicate.
 A large store of energy is built up
 Formation of new cytoplasmic organelles e.g. mitochondria, ribosomes, chloroplasts etc
 Centrioles replicate (each daughter cell finally takes one)

2. Prophase
a) Early prophase
 Chromosomes condense (thicken) and shorten and become visible
 Each chromosome is seen to consist of a pair of chromatids lying parallel to each other and associated at
the centromere

b) Late prophase
 Formation of spindle fibers made of protein. These grow out of the Centrioles now lying opposite and
form the poles, the middle of which is called the equator
 Nucleolus disappears
 Nuclear membrane breaks down. This is the last feature of this phase.

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3. Metaphase
 Chromosomes move to the central plane of the cell and arrange themselves at the spindle equator
 Chromosomes become attached to the spindle fibers by their centromeres
 Sister chromatids become oriented towards opposite poles
 Homologous chromosomes do not associate.

4. Anaphase
This is the fourth stage of mitosis, and during this stage, the following changes occur:
 The daughter chromosomes moving towards the opposite poles due to the pulling action of the spindle
fibres, using energy in form of ATP.
 This stage ends when the daughter chromosomes have reached the opposite poles.

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 5. Telophase
 This is the last stage of mitosis, and the following changes during this stage.-
 The cell membrane starts to constrict in the middle of the cell.
 The spindle fibers shrink and disappear
 The chromatids unwind into long, thin and coiled chromatins.
 The stage ends with complete division of the parent cell into two daughter cells each with the same
number of chromosomes as the parent cell.

Significance of mitosis
1. Because it occurs in somatic or body cells, it is important for growth as it increases the number of new
cells.
2. It is the basis of sexual reproduction.
3. It ensures that each cell in the body is generally identical even after a tissue is injured.
4. It helps in the repairing and healing of the worn-out and damaged tissues.

In plants, mitosis occurs in.

 Meristematic (growing) tissues at the tips of the roots and shoots
 Cambium tissues.
 Buds

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In animals, mitosis occurs in.
 The somatic cells e.g. bone cells, malpighian layer of the epidermis of the skin

Meiosis (reduction division)

This is the process where by four daughter cells are formed, each with half the number of chromosomes as the
parent cell. In other words, meiosis is the process of formation of 4 haploid daughter cells from a parent cell.
The term haploid is denoted by (n) and is the condition, whereby each formed daughter cell, has half the
number of chromosomes as that of the parent cell. Like mitosis, meiosis is composed of 5 stages i.e. Interphase,
Metaphase, Anaphase and Telophase. Meiosis however is divided into the first stage i.e. Meiosis I/first meiotic
division and the second stage i.e. Meiosis II/second meiotic division.

Meiosis I
This consist of
 Interphase
 Prophase I
 Metaphase I
 Anaphase I
 Telophase I

Interphase
This is the first stage of meiosis I. The features of this stage are the same as those of Interphase of mitosis and
these include:
 Replication of DNA chromosomes and cell organelles.
 Formation of energy in form ATP.
 Chromosomes are in long, thin, coiled form called chromatins

Prophase I
 During this stage the chromatins, thicken, shorten, and become visible chromosomes.
 The homologous chromosomes come close to each and become spiraled together and form a bivalent, a
pair of homologous chromosomes closely spiraled together.
 The process of formation of the bivalent is called synapsis.

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Diagram showing a bivalent

 Afterwards, the homologous chromosomes slightly separate and remain in contact at a position called
chiasma (plural chiasmata).
 Portions of non-sister chromatids of both chromosomes break at the chiasmata and become exchanged, a
process known as crossing over.
 Crossing over is the exchange of genetic material between two non-sister chromatids of homologous
chromosomes. Crossing over enhances gene mixing and hence leads to genetic variation (differences).

Diagram showing crossing over

The Centrioles migrate towards opposite poles and start manufacturing spindle fibres. The nucleolus shrinks
and disappears. The nuclear membrane also shrinks.

Metaphase I
 The nuclear membrane continues to shrink and eventually disappears.
 The spindle fibers become fully formed.
 Homologous chromosomes assemble on the spindles fibers, while in association.
 Homologous chromosomes slightly separate from each other, and project themselves towards the opposite
poles.

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Late Metaphase I
 Homologous chromosomes project/point towards opposite poles.

Anaphase I
 The homologous chromosomes start to move and migrate towards the opposite poles.

Telophase I
 The cell membrane begins to constrict in the middle of the cell
 Spindle fibers disappear
 Nucleolus and nuclear membrane reappear.
 Chromosomes become thin, long and coiled chromatins
 The cell membrane further constricts until the cell divides into 2 daughter cells, each with half the number
of chromosomes to that of the parent cell

Late telophase I
Each formed daughter cell undergoes the second meiotic division leading to formation of 4 daughter cells each
with half the number of chromosomes of the parent cell.
Note: The changes Meiosis II are the same as those of mitosis.
Significance of meiosis

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1. Because meiosis occurs in reproductive cells, it(meiosis) is important for gamete formation
2. Meiosis, by leading to formation of haploid gametes helps in formation of diploid organisms via fertilization
in every generation
3. During crossing over, there is gene mixing which can lead to genetic variation
4. Genetic variation among organisms due to crossing over can lead to evolution
5. By forming gametes, meiosis serves as a basis for sexual reproduction

Where does meiosis occur?

 In animals, Meiosis occurs in testes and ovaries
 In plants, Meiosis occurs in ovary and anther heads

Differences between meiosis and mitosis

MEIOSIS MITOSIS
1. Occurs in gamete producing cells occurs in somatic cells
2. Mainly for gamete formation Mainly for growth.
3. Four daughter cells are formed from the Two daughter cells are formed from the parent
parent cell cell
4. Each daughter cell has haploid (half) Each daughter cell has diploid (double) number
number of chromosomes of chromosomes.
5. Occurs in two phases i.e. meiosis I and Occurs in one phase only.
meiosis II
6. There are bivalents formed No bivalents formed.
7. Synapsis occurs Synapsis does not occur
8. Chiasmata are formed No chiasmata are formed.
9. There is crossing over No crossing over occurs.
10. Homologous chromosomes assemble on Homologous chromosomes assemble on the
the spindle with association. fibers without association.
11. Leads to genetic variation. No genetic variation occurs
12. Homologous chromosomes migrate to Sister chromatids migrate towards opposite
opposite poles during Anaphase I poles
13. Leads to evolution Does not lead to evolution.
14. Serves as a basis for sexual reproduction. Serves as a basis for asexual reproduction
15. Takes a long period of time. Take a short period of time.

Similarities between meiosis and mitosis.

1. They all involve Interphase, Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase and Telophase.
2. There is disappearance of the nucleus and nuclear membrane in both
3. They both involve use of energy
4. All involve formation of daughter cells from parent cells
5. They all involve division of the cell i.e. Karyokinesis and cytokines.
6. They involve formation of spindle fibers.
7. They all involve assembling of homologous chromosomes on the spindle fibers

Genetics
Genetics is the study of heredity, variation and resemblances among organisms of the same species. It depends
mainly upon genes and chromosomes.

Chromosomes
A chromosome is a thread-like long and coiled structure found in the nucleus of the cell on which the genes are
located or carried. Most chromosomes occur in pairs and each pair of such chromosomes which are similar in
structure but chemically different is known as a pair of homologous chromosomes.

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Genes
A gene is a basic unit of inheritance which serves as a section of a chromosome used to determine different
characters of an organism.

Variation
It refers to the differences amongst organisms of the same species due to the differences in the genes they
inherit and environment they survive in.

Types of variation
There are two types of variation namely.
a) Environmental variation.
b) Genetic variation.

Environmental variation
Refers to the differences among organisms of the same species due to the different factors of the environment
they are exposed to. For example: exposure of organisms to different temperatures, light, humidity, nutrients
e.g. loss of some parts through accidents, cutting off the horns of cows by man, lightening of the skin of ladies
using cosmetics. Such variations, because they are not genetically determined but environmentally influenced,
or acquired characters, cannot be inherited or passed on from the parents to their offspring.

Genetic variation
This refers to differences among organisms of the same species due to the differences in the genes they inherit
from their parents. For example, some individuals may appear short while other are tall because they inherited
different genes from their parents e.g. the short person inherited a gene for shortness, while the tall one
inherited a gene for tallness. Such variations can be inherited because they are genetically determined.

Types of genetic variation

There are two types of genetic variation.
i) Continuous variation.
ii) Discontinuous variation.

Continuous variation
This is a kind of variation whereby there is no clear-cut and sharp differences among organisms of the same
species over a given character. In other words, when a given character is considered, organisms tend to have
many intermediate grades of the same characters e.g. height, weight, intelligence, ear length, fertility, yielding
of milk, skin colour, number of grains on a maize cob.

Causes of variation
Variation is caused by changes in either the environment or genetic makeup of organisms
Environmental factors that result in variations in organism are:
1. Diet.
2. Altitude.
3. Light intensity.
4. Pathogens and diseases e.g. obesity
5. Temperature.
6. Social function.
7. Age.
Variations brought about by the environment are not passed from one generation to the next.

Genetic factors that cause variation

1. Crossing over between homologous chromosomes during prophase I of meiosis.

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 2. Mixing of two different parental genotype when sexual reproduction or cross fertilization occurs, when
gametes fuse, they do so independently of the genes they contain.
3. Incomplete dominance in organisms.
4. Epistasis caused by genes that suppress action of others in a population.
5. Mutation: these mainly cause discontinuous variation in a population.

Mutations
A mutation is any sudden change in the structure or amount of DNA of an organism i.e. a permanent change in
the genetic material. A mutation can occur as a result of changes in individual genes or changes in chromosome
structure or number. Most mutations are harmful or at least of no immediate advantage, as the organism is
already adapted to the environment and any change would tend to upset this adaptation.

Types of mutations
There are two types of mutations

1. Gene or point mutations which occur as a result of an error in copying the sequence of bases during
replication of DNA strands.
2. Chromosome mutations which occur as a result of changes in the structure of chromosomes.

Causes of mutations
Mutations occur naturally at a low rate. However the rate of occurrence of mutations is increased by substances
called mutagenic agents like:

i. Ionizing radiation e.g. x-rays, γ (gamma) rays and ultra violet rays. These radiations carry enormous
amounts of energy which cause changes in DNA
ii. High fluctuations in temperature.
iii. Mutagenic chemicals like nitrous acid, mustard gas, colchicine.
iv. Certain particles like particles like β- particles.
Examples of conditions in man that arise due to mutations are:
i. Sickle cell
ii. Haemophilia/Bleeder’s disease
iii. Albinism
Despite their harmful effects, mutations are essential for evolution since they are the ultimate source of genetic
variation.

Properties of mutations
i. They arise spontaneously in nature i.e. on their own.
ii. Most mutations are disadvantageous to the organisms.
iii. They are not directed by the environment though mutagenic agents can cause them artificially and can
accelerate their rate.
iv. They can be reversed although reversal is rare. Therefore, mutations are almost always permanent.
v. They are rare but persistent and can occur in any cell at any time
vi. They do not occur slowly but gradually but occur in a single abrupt stage.
vii. They occur randomly in nature as far as advantage or disadvantage to the organism is concerned.

Terminologies used in genetics

i) Locus: Is the position on the chromosome where a gene is located.
ii) Alles: Are alternate forms of a gene having the same position on a pair of chromosomes and affecting
the same character. Alleles are represented by letters e.g. WW, Ww, TT, Tt, Tt
iii) Dominant allele: It is the allele which fully expresses the character it determines in both homozygous
and heterozygous state. Such dominant alleles are represented by capital letters e.g. T, W, P, B, D.

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iv) Recessive allele: This is an allele, which expresses the character it determines in homozygous state only
but cannot express it, in heterozygous state. Recessive alleles are represented by small letters e.g d, t, b,
e, etc.
v) Homozygous: This is the condition when the two alleles of the gene pair are similar e.g BB, bb, TT etc.
vi) Heterozygous: This is the state when two alleles forming a gene pair are different e.g Tt, Bb, Dd, Ee
etc.
vii) Hybrid: This is the offspring obtained from crossing of two unrelated parents of a particular species.
viii) Hybrid vigor: This is the situation when the hybrid inherits only the desirable or good characters from
the two unrelated parents.
ix) Genotype: This is the genetic constitution or make up of organisms e.g AA, Aa, etc.
x) Phenotype: This is the out ward expression of a character determined by a particular genotype e.g being
light –skinned or brown-haired etc.
xi) Backcross: This is the mating of an offspring with one of its parents.
xi) Test Cross: This is a type of a backcross which involves crossing an offspring having a dominant
character with its recessive parent in order to determine or test the genotype of that offspring.

Mendel’s experiment about inheritance

Gregor Mendel carried out an experiment to determine the nature of inheritance of characters from parents to
their offspring. He did his experiment using the garden pea known as Pisum sativum. Mendel succeeded in
carrying out his experiment by doing the following:
i) He chose to studying a single character at a time e.g. height alone, weight alone, stem length alone etc.
He then chose to study two characters at a time e.g color of pods and stem height. The type of
inheritance which involves considering a single pair of a character at a time is known as Monohybrid
inheritance.
ii) He quantified his results by counting the number of offspring, bearing each character considered.
iii) Each character he chose was fully expressed in two clearly contrasting forms.
The type of inheritance which involves considering 2 pairs of contrasting characters at a time is known as
Dihybrid inheritance.

Mendel’s procedure
 For each character, Mendel chose a garden pea plant that was true-breeding. A true or pure breed is the
one which continues to show a particular trait or character in all the several successive generations of
self-fertilization.
 He made one plant of the garden pea act as the female by removing the stamens and protected the
female plant by covering the stigma with a polythene paper to prevent pollen from landing on the
stigma.

His results
 For each pair of contrasting characters, Mendel studied, he obtained the same results e.g. when he
crossed pure breeding tall plant with the pure breeding short stemmed plant, the first generation of the
offspring produced known as the filial one generation (F1) were all tall.

 When the F1 offspring were selfed, the offspring of the second generation (F2), were some tall stemmed
and others short-stemmed in a ratio of 3:1 (i.e. 3 tall: 1 short). He named this ratio of F2 offspring (i.e.
3:1) as monohybrid ratio.
From his findings, he concluded that:

 The characters are determined by genes occurring in pairs.

 The gene for tallness is dominant to that gene determining shortness of stems in the garden pea plant.
From the observation Mendel put up two laws of inheritance.

First law of Mendel (i.e. Law of independent assortment)

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It states that: Each of the two alleles of one gene may combine randomly with either of the two alleles of
another gene. According to inheritance using garden pea, Mendel showed his findings by the genetic cross
below:
Let the gene for tallness be T and
Let the gene for shortness be t

Parental phenotypes: Tall-stemmed garden pea x short-stemmed garden pea.

Test cross

This is a type of backcross, which involves crossing an offspring having a dominant character with its recessive
parent in order to test the genotype of the offspring.

 Assuming that the gene determining brown skin color B is dominant to the gene b for a dark skin color.

 The F2 offspring to be brown skinned must possess either genotype BB or Bb. Though the offspring
appear brown skinned, their genotypes remain unknown i.e. could be due to possession of BB genotype
or Bb genotypes.

 When the offspring which is brown skinned with genotype Bb (i.e. heterozygous brown) is crossed with
a homozygous dark skinned parent, some of the offspring will be brown-skinned and others dark
skinned in a ratio of 1:1

 That ratio indicates that though the offspring were truly brown they had a recessive allele for dark skin
color as shown below.

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  This indicates that the offspring though brown-skinned have a recessive gene for dark-skin colour i.e.
they are heterozygous brown, with genotype Bb.

 If however the brown skinned offspring of F2 is crossed with the recessive dark parent and all the
offspring produced are brown-skinned then the offspring was homozygous brown with a genotype BB as
shown below.

Incomplete dominance
This is the type of inheritance where among the two alleles forming a gene pair neither of them dominates the
other but contribute equally to determine a particular character e.g.
E.g when a red cow is crossed with a white bull, the offspring are neither red nor white but have an intermediate
color between the two i.e. Roan offspring. This means that the gene for red coat is co-dominant to the gene for
white coat.

Let the gene for red coat be R

Let the gene for white coat be W.

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When the F1 roan offspring are selfed, the F2 offspring will be red, roan and white in the ratio 1 red: 2 roan: 1
white as shown below:

Multiple Alleles
These are alleles which occur in groups of more than two to determine a particular character e.g. blood group is
determined by the three alleles namely A, B and O. Inheritance of blood groups is determined by the multiple
alleles A,B and O. there are 4 types of blood groups i.e. A,B, AB and O.

 Allele O is recessive to both alleles A and B while allele A is co-dominant to alleles B.

 Blood group A is determined by genotype AA or AO

 Blood group B is determined by genotype BB or BO

 Blood group AB is determined by genotype AB

 Blood group O is determined by genotype OO

There is a possibility that when a father of blood group B is crossed with a mother of blood group A their
offspring can have all the four blood group i.e. A, B, AB, O as shown below.

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Sex determination in man
In human body cells there are 46 chromosomes which exist in 23 pairs of homologous chromosomes of the 23
pairs; one pair known as sex chromosomes which carry genes determining sex. Those sex chromosomes are X
and Y chromosomes. The remaining 22 pairs of chromosomes are called autosomes.
For an individual to be born a boy, must possess XY pair of sex chromosomes hence the male sex is called
homogametic sex. For an individual to be born a girl, must possess XX pair of sex chromosomes hence the
female sex is called homogametic sex.
A female child results from fusion of the sperm cell carrying X chromosome with an ovum carrying X
chromosome. A male child results from fusion of the sperm cell carrying Y-chromosome with the ovum
carrying X-chromosome. The chance of a baby girl or a boy to be born is ½ as shown below.

Twins
These are two individuals born around the same time to one mother as a result of the same pregnancy. There are
2 main types of twins which include:
i. Identical or monozygotic twins
ii. Fraternal or dizygotic twins

Identical or Monozygotic twins

These are twins which develop from one egg fertilized by one sperm cell but the zygote later separates into two
thereby developing into two babies. Such twins are closely similar because they have the same genetic
material. They also have the same sex.

Fraternal or Dizygotic twins

These are non - identical twins resulting from fusion of two different ova fertilized by two different sperm cells.
Such twins can be of the same or different sex. They differ genetically because they arise from different genetic
material.

Sex linked genes

These are genes that are carried together with genes that control the sex of individuals.

Sex linked characters

These are characters determined by genes located and transmitted along with the sex chromosomes. The sex
chromosomes are only located on the X chromosome and not on the Y chromosome. Sex- linked genes occur in
recessive form and develop as a result of mutation of the normal genes. Most of the sex- linked characters
which arise due to sex-linked genes are unfavourable i.e. diseases/disorders. Such characters include:
 Haemophilia i.e. failure of normal blood clotting
 Colour blindness; failure of an individual to identify or distinguish the primary colours e.g. red, blue and
green.
 Muscular dystrophy

Inheritance of haemophilia
Example: When a non-haemophiliac man marries a carrier woman of haemophilia.
Let the gene for haemophilia be h and the gene for non-haemophilia or normal condition be H.

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Sickle cell anaemia
Sickle cell anaemia is a condition which exists during low oxygen tension/level which makes the red blood cells
change from the normal biconcave disc shape to a sickle shape thereby reducing the amount of oxygen
transported by blood to the body tissues. Sickle cell disease is controlled by incompletely dominant alleles that
affect haemoglobin (Hb).People having the sickle cell trait are known not to suffer from malaria.
Let allele for normal Red Blood Cell be A
Let allele for sickle shaped Red Blood Cell be s

Individuals with the genotype HbAHbA are normal, those with the HbSHbS genotype have sickle cell disease and
those with the HbAHbS genotype have sickle cell trait, a condition in which the red blood cells are sometimes
sickle- shaped. A couple with sickle trait will produce children with three possible phenotypes as illustrated
below:

Note:
The red blood cells in person suffering from sickle cell anaemia cannot pass through the small blood vessels
easily. The sickle-shaped cells either break down or they clog the blood vessels and then the individual suffers
from poor circulation, jaundice, episodic pain in the abdomen and joints, poor resistance to infection and
sometimes internal haemorrhaging /bleeding.

Sex-limited character, an observable feature appearing only in members of one sex of a given population of
organisms, although organisms of both sexes may have the genetic constitution that determines the trait. The
genes that control milk yield and quality in dairy cattle, for example, are present in both bulls and cows, but
their effects are expressed only in the female cattle. Premature baldness and type of beard growth are human
sex-limited characters. E.g beards, production of milk in male mammals, sexual dimorphism in the same species
of organisms

Evolution
This refers to the gradual process by which organisms change from simple to complex forms.

Origin of life
The exact origin of life is not known. However some theories have been put forward to explain the origin of
life.

Theories explaining the origin of life.

1. Steady state theory: This suggests that life has no origin and it has been existence since.
2. Spontaneous generation: This indicates that life arose from non-living matter on numerous occasions.

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 3. Cosmozoan theory: This suggests that life arrived on this planet from elsewhere.
4. Special creation: This indicates that life was created by a supernatural being at a particular time.
5. Biochemical evolution: This is the theory which is most accepted scientifically. It suggests that life arose
according to chemical and physical laws which lead to formation of certain macromolecules which make up
DNA and body cells.

Mechanism of evolution/Theories of organic evolution

The main idea of organic evolution is that populations of living things undergo changes over generations.
Theories of organic evolution explain that the different species of organisms existing today arose from common
ancestors which were originally primitive but gradually underwent changes along different evolutionary lines in
different environments in order to survive in those environments. The trend of evolution therefore, is gradual
i.e. Changes from primitive forms of life to advanced forms of life.
There are two theories of organic evolution namely:

1. Lamarck’s theory of evolution based on inheritance of acquired characters through use and disuse.
2. Darwin’s theory of evolution based on natural selection.

Lamarck’s theory evolution/Lamarckism-Inheritance of acquired characters

This theory was put forward by a French biologist Jean Baptiste Lamarck in 1809. His theory resolves itself into
three factors namely:
i. Influence of the environment.
ii. Use and disuse of parts of body
iii. Inheritance of acquired characters.

Based on these propositions, Lamarck explained the long necks of modern giraffes in the following way:

Ancient giraffes were those living today. Lamarck argued that as the number of giraffes increased there was a
shortage of food in form of tree leaves. This forced them to stretch their necks to reach for leaves on higher
branches. The result of this was an elongation of the necks.

The offspring of these giraffes inherited the long necks, stretched even further and the process was repeated
until the present long necks were developed.

There’s evidence for the development of various parts of the body especially muscles when they are constantly
put into use e.g body builders.

However his third proposition has been proved totally wrong by genetic evidence that acquired characters
cannot be inherited. This theory is therefore not scientifically accurate. The most accurate theory of evolution
is Darwin’s theory. It’s explained by Charles Darwin using the theory of Natural Selection.

Definition of Natural Selection

This is the situation whereby organisms which are well adapted to the changes in the environment are naturally
favored and hence survive while the poorly adapted organisms are naturally selected against and hence die or
fail to reproduce. The well adapted and naturally favored organisms which survive the change in the
environment give birth to offspring and pass on those adaptive characters to their offspring.

In case of such populations of offspring being isolated and exposed to further changes in the environments, they
gradually undergo changes along different lines to fit or survive in the changing environment and give a rise to
new organisms following observations, which he later accounted for.

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Observation 1: Organisms of different species have the potential of giving birth to so many offspring but they
are not over populated.
Observation 2: There is variation/differences existing among organisms of the same species.
Observation 3: Offspring tend to resemble their parents in some characters.

Explanation of Darwin’s observation

Charles Darwin explained his observation by saying that, as the population of a particular species of organisms
increases, the basic resources of the environment e.g. food, shelter etc become limited in amount or number and
the organisms start competing for the few available resources. And since not all the offspring survive, there
must be a struggle for existence which causes some variations.

Since these organisms differ or vary, individuals with favorable variations and naturally favored survive and
pass on their favorable variations to successive generations.

Those organisms with unfavorable variations (poorly adapted to compete) and naturally not favored are selected
against and die or fail to reproduce. This regulates the population.
Incase of any further change in the environment, the offspring which isolated, can individually and differently
undergo gradual changes along their own lines and each one gives rise to new organisms which eventually
forms a new species.

Examples of cases of natural selection

 Resistance of bacteria to antibiotics e.g. microbes for gonorrhea to penicillin
 Resistance of insects to insecticide e.g DDT on mosquitoes and houseflies
 Existence of peppered moth called Biston betularia in Manchester, England.

The peppered moth exists in two forms i.e. the speckled white moth and the dark mutant form. Before 1945, the
speckled white moth had the highest population in different cites of England e.g Manchester, Birmingham etc
yet the dark mutant moth could easily be spotted against such a bark ground and eaten by the birds. This caused
the great decrease in the population of the dark mutant moth.

After 1945, there was an industrial revolution, which made the bark of trees appear black and also the death of
lichens due to soot, dust fumes and toxic gases from the industries. Against such a dark background the white
speckled form could easily be spotted and preyed upon by the birds, which made its population decrease so
greatly while the dark mutant moth could not easily be identified .This made its population increase.

Evidence for evolution

There is a lot of evidence h proposed to support the theory of evolution (i.e. to confirm that evolution took
place. Such evidence includes:
i) Comparative anatomy
ii) Embryology
iii) Taxonomy (classification of organisms)
iv) Paleontology
v) Biochemistry
vi) Geographical distribution of organisms.

1. Comparative anatomy
This involves comparing the structural make-up of different organisms. When different body structures are
compared, it is observed that some organisms possess basically similar structures which are serving different
functions. Such structures are known as homologous structures. In other words, homologous structures are
basically similar structures of different organisms modified to serve different functions.

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It is expected that the homologous structures were possessed by the ancestors from which modern organisms
arose but each ancestor underwent adaptive radiation which made the structure to be modified differently and
serve different functions. An example of a homologous structure is the penta dactyl limb.

A pentadactyl limb is the limb composed of five digits possessed by all vertebrates but was modified during
evolution to serve different functions. When structures of organisms are further compared, it is observed that
some of them basically differ but serving similar functions. Such structures are known as analogous structures.

Analogous structures cannot serve as evidence for evolution because by the virtue of their being structurally
different they do not originate from a common ancestor. They therefore arose due to convergent evolution, yet
the homologous structure structures arose due to divergent evolution. Examples of analogous structure include;
the wings of birds and wings of insects.

Adaptive radiation is the situation whereby ancestors undergo changes gradually along different evolutionary
lines as they become isolated from the original stock and give rise to new and different organisms from the
original stock which are well adapted to survive in that environment.
Vestigial structures
These are structures which once served a particular function but due to evolution in the changing environment,
the structures become reduced in size and rendered useless e.g the tail of man was reduced into a rudimentary
structure of small bones called the COCCYX due to the evolutionary change underwent by man.

2. Embryology
This is the study of the growth and development of the embryo of different organisms. The embryos are
compared in terms of their growth and developmental changes. It is observed that some organisms have similar
developmental changes which reveals that these organisms arose from common ancestors whose embryos also
had the same developmental changes e.g. embryos of all vertebrates and some invertebrates have the following;

i) Post anal tail.

ii) Three embryonic membranes i.e. chorion, amnion and allantois
iii) A dorsal nerve tube
iv) Gill clefts
v) A notochord etc.
All these show common ancestry of organisms with such changes.

3. Paleontology
This is the study of fossils. Fossils are remains of organisms that lived in the past and now are represented as
crystallized rock forms, or still exist in their original form within rocks. Fossils include entire organisms, hard
skeletal structures, impressions, and imprints.
When the fossils were compared within the different rock layers ranging from the oldest to the young rock
layer, it was observed that there is a great variety of more developed fossils than in the oldest rocks. This
suggests progressive evolutionary changes of the organisms from the oldest primitive ancestors to the more
developed organisms with time.

4. Taxonomy
Organisms are classified according to the similarities and differences among them. It is assumed that organisms
in the same group of classification are closely related while those in separate groups are distantly related. This
indicates that those in the group have an evolutionary relationship i.e. they arise from a common ancestor.
In other words, the similarities and differences between organisms may be explained as a result of progressive
adaptations by organisms within each group to particular environmental conditions over a period of time.

6. Biochemistry

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This is the study of chemicals of life. When the different organisms are compared, referring to their chemicals
of life, it is observed that different organisms have similar chemicals of life e.g most cells have mitochondria,
energy in form of ATP, DNA, hormones, and enzymes. Plant cells have chloroplasts, cell walls etc.

Possession of similar chemicals of life in different organisms suggests that such organisms arose from common
ancestors which underwent evolutionary changes along different lines and gave rise to different organisms
existing today.

7. Geographical distribution
Present day patterns of the distribution of plants and animals in certain parts of the world indicate an
evolutionary process. This due to the fact that organisms which are found in different and isolated places look
different e.g. Africa and South America have a similar climate but support different groups of animals and the
individual species are different.

Africa has elephants, lions, zebras, camels, gorillas, chimpanzees etc., while South America has long tailed
Monkeys, Llamas, puma, Jaguars. Australia has pouched mammals such the Kangaroos, koalas etc. It is
believed that the first mammals evolved at some point in Europe. As they increased in number, population
pressure caused groups of mammal to disperse in different directions.

Once isolated, each group evolved independently of the others into different species. This suggests that special
creation may not have taken place but organisms changed in form because of adaptation to different
environments.

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