Physical Layer and Media

Part 2
Digital Transmission

By
Prof. Soumik Kumar Kundu
Asst. Prof., ECE Dept.
 Digital Transmission
Line Coding
Line coding is the process of converting digital data to digital signals.

Line Coding Schemes

Unipolar Scheme
In a unipolar scheme, all signal levels are positioned on one side
of the time axis, either entirely above or entirely below it.
Non-Return-to-Zero (NRZ)
• In a traditional unipolar NRZ (Non-Return-to-Zero) scheme, a positive
voltage represents bit 1, and zero voltage represents bit 0.
• The signal remains constant throughout the bit duration, not returning
to zero in the middle.
Polar Schemes
In polar schemes, voltages appear on both sides of the time axis. For
instance, the voltage level for 0 might be positive, while the voltage level for
1 could be negative.

Non-Return-to-Zero (NRZ)
• In polar NRZ encoding,
two voltage levels are
used.
• There are two types:
NRZ-L (NRZ-Level),
where the voltage level
indicates the bit value,
and NRZ-I (NRZ-Invert),
where a change in voltage
indicates a bit value of 1,
and no change indicates a
bit value of 0.
• NRZ-L and NRZ-I both have an average signal rate of N/2 Bd
• NRZ-L and NRZ-I both have a DC component problem.

Return to Zero (RZ)

• In RZ, the signal changes not between bits but during the bit.
• The primary drawback of RZ encoding is that it needs two signal
changes to encode a bit, which results in higher bandwidth usage.
Biphase: Manchester and Differential Manchester
• Manchester encoding combines RZ and NRZ-L, dividing each
bit into two halves with a voltage transition in the middle for
synchronization.
• Differential Manchester combines RZ and NRZ-I, with a
transition in the middle of each bit and bit values determined at
the start: a transition for 0 and no transition for 1.
• In Manchester and differential Manchester encoding, the
transition at the middle of the bit is used for synchronization.
Bipolar Schemes
In bipolar encoding, three voltage levels are utilized: positive, zero, and
negative.

AMI and Pseudoternary

• AMI (Alternate Mark Inversion) is a bipolar encoding scheme where
binary 0 is represented by zero voltage, and binary 1 is represented
by alternating positive and negative voltages.
• Pseudoternary is a variation where binary 1 is zero voltage, and
binary 0 is alternating positive and negative voltages.
Multilevel Schemes
• To increase data speed or reduce bandwidth, various encoding
schemes have been developed.
• These schemes aim to increase bits per baud by encoding m data
elements into n signal elements. With L signal levels, Ln signal
patterns can be produced.
• Ex. 2B1Q, 8B6T etc.
 Analog-to-Digital Conversion
Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)
PCM is the most common technique to convert an analog signal into digital
data. A PCM encoder typically involves three main processes:
[Link]: The analog signal is sampled at regular intervals to create a
series of pulses.
[Link]: Each pulse is assigned a discrete value from a range of
possible values.
[Link]: The quantized values are then converted into a binary format
for digital representation.
Sampling
• Ideal Sampling: Pulses from the analog signal are sampled directly. This
method is theoretical and difficult to implement in practice.
• Natural Sampling: A high-speed switch is activated for a short duration
during sampling, resulting in samples that retain the shape of the analog
signal.
• Sample and Hold: The most common method, where a circuit creates
flat-top samples by holding the sampled value for a period.
Sampling Rate: According to the Nyquist theorem, the sampling rate must
be at least 2 times the highest frequency contained in the signal.
Quantization
• We assume that the original analog signal has instantaneous
amplitudes between Vmin and Vmax.
• We divide the range into L zones, each of height Δ(delta).
𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝑉𝑚𝑖𝑛
∆=
𝐿
• We assign quantized values of 0 to L - I to the midpoint of each zone.
• We approximate the value of the sample amplitude to the quantized
values.
Quantization Levels
• Number of Levels (L): Depends on
the amplitude range of the analog
signal and the required accuracy.
• Few Amplitude Values: Fewer
levels needed.
• Many Amplitude Values (e.g.,
voice): More levels needed.
• Audio Digitizing: Typically, L=256.
• Video Digitizing: Typically,
thousands of levels.
Quantization Error:
• Definition: The error created
during the quantization process.
• Cause: Approximation of real
input values to the nearest
middle value of the quantization
zone.
• Impact: No error if the input
value is at the middle of the zone;
otherwise, there is an error.
Maximum Data Rate of a Channel
Nyquist Theorem: Nmax​=2 × B × log2L
Assumptions:
Channel: Low-pass with bandwidth B.
Digital Signal: Has L levels (each level is a signal element).
Filter: Digital signal passed through a low-pass filter to cut off
frequencies above B Hz.
Analog Treatment: Resulting signal treated as an analog signal,
sampled at 2×B samples per second, and quantized using L levels.
Resulting Bit Rate: N=2 × B × log2L
Note: This is the maximum bandwidth; if the case factor c increases,
the data rate is reduced.
Delta Modulation (DM)
Modulator

Purpose: Converts an analog signal into a stream of bits.

Process:
Delta (Δ): Records small positive or negative changes.
Positive Delta: Records a 1.
Negative Delta: Records a 0.
Base Signal: A reference signal resembling a staircase is built.
Comparison:
At each sampling interval, the analog signal is compared with the
last value of the staircase signal.
Next Bit:
If the analog signal's amplitude is larger, the next bit is 1.
If smaller, the next bit is 0.
Staircase Adjustment:
If the next bit is 1, the staircase signal moves up.
If the next bit is 0, it moves down.
Delay Unit: Holds the staircase function between comparisons.
Demodulator

•Purpose: Converts digital data back into an analog signal.

•Process:
• Staircase Maker & Delay Unit: Used to recreate the analog signal
from digital data.
• Low-Pass Filter: The recreated analog signal is passed through this
filter for smoothing.
 TRANSMISSION MODES

Data
Transmission

Serial Parallel

Asynchronous Synchronous Isochronous

Parallel Transmission
•Concept: Binary data is organized into groups of n bits and sent
simultaneously.
•Mechanism:
• Uses n wires to send n bits at one time.
• Each bit has its own wire, allowing all n bits to be transmitted with
each clock tick.
• Typically, wires are bundled in a cable with connectors at each end.
•Advantage:
• Speed: Increases transfer speed by a factor of n over serial
transmission.
•Disadvantage:
• Cost: Requires n communication lines, making it expensive.
• Distance: Usually limited to short distances due to cost.
Serial Transmission
• Asynchronous Transmission
 In asynchronous transmission, a start bit (0) is sent at the beginning of
each byte, followed by one or more stop bits (1s) at the end. There can
also be a gap between each byte.

 In this context, "asynchronous" refers to the byte level, meaning that

each byte is transmitted independently. However, the individual bits
within each byte are synchronized, maintaining consistent durations.
Serial Transmission
• Synchronous Transmission
 In synchronous transmission, bits are sent consecutively without any
start or stop bits or gaps. The receiver is responsible for grouping the
bits correctly.

 The advantage of synchronous transmission is speed.