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Introduction
Name-rajat kumar
Class-12th sec-a
Roll no-21
Subject-Physics
Subject teacher-Mr. Avinash Singh
School-saint Theresa’s college

Certificate of Completion

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This is to certify that Rajat kumar, a student of Class XII, has
successfully completed the English Literature Project for the
academic year 2025-26
The project titled Electric Charges and Fields from the ISC
syllabus. The student has demonstrated commendable effort,
research, and literary understanding throughout the project.
This work has been submitted in partial fulfilment of the English
coursework requirements under the guidance of [Mr Avinash
Singh] at [Saint Theresa’s College].

Acknowledgement

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I would like to express my sincere gratitude to everyone who
supported me throughout the completion of this project.
First and foremost, I am deeply thankful to my Physics teacher,
[Mr Avinash Singh]and our respected Principal (Fr. John Paul
Bara) for their guidance, encouragement, and valuable insights
that helped me understand the depth and beauty of project. Their
support motivated me to research and interpret the poem with
greater clarity.
I would also like to thank my school, [Saint Theresa’s college],
for providing me with the opportunity and resources.
A heartfelt thank you to my parents and friends for their constant
encouragement and help during the project. Lastly, I acknowledge
the use of various online educational platforms and reference
materials that greatly enhanced my understanding.

Index
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[Link]:
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 All of us have the experience of seeing a spark or hearing a
crackle when we take off our synthetic clothes or sweater,
particularly in dry weather. Have you ever tried to find any
explanation for this phenomenon? Another common example of
electric discharge is the lightning that we see in the sky during
thunderstorms. We also experience a sensation of an electric
shock either while opening the door of a car or holding the iron
bar of a bus after sliding from our seat. The reason for these
experiences is discharge of electric charges through our body,
which were accumulated due to rubbing of insulating surfaces.
You might have also heard that this is due to generation of static
electricity. This is precisely the topic we are going to discuss in
this and the next chapter. Static means anything that does not
move or change with time. Electrostatics deals with the study of
forces, fields and potentials arising from static charges.

[Link] CHARGE
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Historically the credit of discovery of the fact that amber rubbed
with wool or silk cloth attracts light objects goes to Thales of
Miletus, Greece, around 600 BC. The name electricity is coined
from the Greek word ‘elektron’ meaning amber. Many such pairs
of materials were known which on rubbing could attract light
objects like straw, pith balls and bits of papers. It was observed
that if two glass rods rubbed with wool or silk cloth are brought
close to each other, they repel each other. The two strands of
wool or two pieces of silk cloth, with which the rods were
rubbed, also repel each other. However, the glass rod and wool
attracted each other. Similarly, two plastic rods rubbed with cat’s
fur repelled each other [Fig. 1.1(b)] but attracted the fur. On the
other hand, the plastic rod attracts the glass rod [Fig. 1.1(c)] and
repel the silk or wool with which the glass rod is rubbed. The
glass rod repels the fur.

We say that the bodies like glass or plastic rods, silk, fur and pith
balls are electrified. They acquire an electric charge on rubbing.
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There are two kinds of electrification and we find that (i) like
charges repel and (ii) unlike charges attract each other. The
property which differentiates the two kinds of charges is called
the polarity of charge. When a glass rod is rubbed with silk, the
rod acquires one kind of charge and the silk acquires the second
kind of charge. This is true for any pair of objects that are rubbed
to be electrified. Now if the electrified glass rod is brought in
contact with silk, with which it was rubbed, they no longer attract
each other. They also do not attract or repel other light objects as
they did on being electrified.

[Link]’S LAW
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The force of interaction of two stationary point charges
in vacuum is directly proportional to the product of these
charges and inversely proportional to the square of their
separation
F = kq1q2/r2 (1.1)
where k is a constant which depends on the system of
units. Its value in SI unit is
k = 9 × 109 Nm2C-2
The constant is often written in the form
k = 1/4πε0
where ε0 is called the permittivity constant which is
numerically equal to
εo = 8.85 × 10−12 C2 /Nm2
The coulomb force acts along the straight line joining the
points of location of the charges. This force is central and
spherically symmetric.
The vector form of Coulomb’s law is
F12 = (kq1q2/r2) r12 (1.2)
where r12 is the unit vector, directed from q1 to q2 and
F12 is the force on the charge q1 due to q2. Similarly
force on charge q2 due to q1 is F21 .
F21 = (kq1q2/r2) (-r12)
-Important points regarding Coulomb’s law
[Link] are assumed to be at rest.
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When charges are in motion they also produce and
experience magnetic forces.
[Link] are assumed to be on point particles.
Coulomb’s law cannot be applied directly to a finite charge
distribution.
There is an exception: when the charge is distributed
uniformly over a spherical surface, the force on a point
charge outside the surface may be computed from Coulomb’s
law by treating the charge on the sphere as if it were
concentrated at the centre. For charged body of finite size,
there is no well−defined value of the separation r, integration
is required.

Step-by-step Derivation:

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  From experiments, it is observed that the electrostatic
force is a central force (acts along the line joining the

F ∝ 1 / r²
charges) and follows an inverse-square law:

 The force is also proportional to the product of the

F ∝ q1 * q2
magnitudes of the charges:

F ∝ (q1 * q2) / r²
 Combining both relations:

 Introducing a constant of proportionality k:

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