MODULE ELECTROMAGNETISM

Course Title: ELECTRICITY and MAGNETISM

Course Number: Sci 115
Total Learning Time: 6 hours (Week 15-17)

Learning outcomes
At the end of this module, the students must have:

1. described how magnetism is use to generate electricity

2. explained the operation of motor, generator and transformer
3. described how AC and DC generators convert mechanical energy into electrical energy
described how the left-hand rule for generators can be used to determine the polarity of induced
voltage
4. described the differences between step-up and step-down transformers
5. described how the ratio of the voltage, current, and number of turns is related with a transformer

Of

overview

Electromagnetism is a branch of Physics, which deals with the electromagnetic force that occurs between
electrically charged particles. The electromagnetic force is one of the four fundamental forces and exhibits
electromagnetic fields such as magnetic fields, electric fields, and light. It is the basic reason electrons bound to the
nucleus and responsible for the complete structure of the nucleus.

Electromagnetism is one of the fundamental forces of nature. Early on, electricity and magnetism were studied
separately and regarded as separate phenomena. Hans Christian Ørsted discovered that the two were related – electric
currents give rise to magnetism. Michael Faraday discovered the converse, that magnetism could induce electric currents,
and James Clerk Maxwell put the whole thing together in a unified theory of electromagnetism. Maxwell's equations
further indicated that electromagnetic waves existed, and the experiments of Heinrich Hertz confirmed this, making radio
possible. Maxwell also postulated, correctly, that light was a form of electromagnetic wave, thus making all of optics a
branch of electromagnetism. Radio waves differ from light only in that the wavelength of the former is much longer than
the latter. Albert Einstein showed that the magnetic field arises through the relativistic motion of the electric field and
thus magnetism is merely a side effect of electricity. The modern theoretical treatment of electromagnetism is as a
quantum field in quantum electrodynamics

Indicative content

AC/DC
Motors
Generators
Transformers
Faraday’s Law
What is Electromagnetism?

Electromagnetism was first discovered in 1819 when a Danish scientist noticed the needle of a magnetic
compass moved when placed close to an electric wire. Electromagnetism is the force behind light waves, is the
source of energy that holds atoms together, and also generates magnetic fields from electric currents.

All matter has an electric charge which can either be positive or negative. But if the net charge is zero,
then it is referred to as neutral. Like charges repel while opposite charges attract. These electric forces bring and
hold atoms together. When atoms gain a positive or negative charge through the transfer of electrons, a
measurable electric field will form. If those electrically charged particles start to move, the field will become a
flowing electric current and form a magnetic field around it.

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Electromagnetism is a process where a magnetic field is created by introducing the current in the
conductor. When a conductor is electrically charged it generates magnetic lines of force of conductor. For
example, if current i.e., positive charges moving in a wire, it produces the magnetic field along the wire, and the
direction of magnetic lines and force can be determined using Right-hand Rule.

 How Electric Current in a Wire Creates a Magnetic Field

An electric current produces magnetic fields. A current-

carrying wire also creates magnetic fields that are represented by
circular loops around the wire. An electric current, or the electrical
charge in motion inside the wire, creates these circular loop magnetic
fields. The magnetic field is strongest in the area closest to the wire
and its direction depends on the movement of the current that
produces the field. The wire acts like a magnet so increasing the
amount of current in the wire increases the strength of the magnetic
field.

A current-carrying wire generating circular loops magnetic fields.

FLEMING’S HAND RULE

 Fleming’s Right-Hand Rule.

Fleming’s right-hand rule is used to determine the direction of induced current in the conductor when it
moves in a region of the magnetic field. British physicist John Ambrose Fleming proposed this rule in the late
1800s. Applying the right-hand rule, stretch the thumb and the index and middle fingers so that they are
perpendicular to each other. If the index finger indicates the direction of the magnetic field and the thumb shows
the direction of the motion of the conductor, then the second or middle finger will show the direction of the
induced current. The right-hand rule is applicable to positive charges and to the theoretical flow of current. The
theoretical flow of current is similar to the conventional current which flows from positive to the negative end.

The thumb pointing upwards indicates the direction of

the current by convection that is opposite to the actual flow of
the current. The curled fingers around the wire show the direction
of the magnetic field.

 Flemings Left Hand Rule

Fleming’s Left-Hand Rule illustrates what happens when charged particles such as electrons in a current
enter a magnetic field. To demonstrate left-hand rule, hold on to an object that represents the wire. If the
forefinger represents the direction of the field and the second finger represents that of the current, then thumb
gives the direction of the force.
A magnetic field is produced by an electric current flowing
through a conductor. A force is exerted as well by this magnetic field
on the magnet that is placed in the surroundings of the conductor.
French scientist Andre Marie Ampere discovered that an equal and
opposite force is exerted by the magnet on the current-carrying
conductor. Various experiments showed that the direction of the
force exerted is reversed when the direction of the current through
the wire is reversed. Thus, the direction of the force on the wire
depends on the direction of the current and the magnetic field. When
the direction of the current is at a right angle to the direction of the
field, the magnitude of the force is at the highest. In such conditions,
we can use a simple rule such as the Left-Hand Rule to find the
direction of the force on the wire.
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ALTERNATING CURRENT (AC) &

DIRECT CURRENT (DC)

One of the major distinctions in the type of current flow in a circuit is whether the current is an alternating
current, AC, or direct current, DC.

AC & DC electricity are both widely used in electrical and electronic circuits, each being used for different
purposes. Both AC and DC have their own characteristics and provide different advantages that can be used in different
situation.

Alternating Current

Alternating current, AC is different to direct current. As the name implies, it flows first in one direction and
then the other.
The graph shows the current waveform varying as a sine
wave, with the current first moving in one direction and then the
other.

Often it is more usual to see the voltage variations.

Again for an alternating waveform the voltage will vary positive
and negative.

It can be seen for both current and voltage that the

waveform varies becoming, in this example, first positive and
then negative.

The sine wave is easy to present and understand, but a wide variety of other waveforms can also constitute an
alternating waveform with alternating current.

There are a few salient points about alternating waveforms. The first is the time period for the waveform. This is
the time from a point on one cycle of the waveform to the identical pint on the next cycle. Often the peak is the easiest to
see as shown, but any point may be taken - for example when a particular voltage is reached in a given direction - this
may a voltage trigger point, etc. Zero crossings are another easy point to identify.

Another point about an alternating waveform is its frequency. This is the number of times a given point on the
waveform is seen within a second and it is measured in Hertz, Hz where 1Hz is one cycle per second. The example shown
has a frequency of 3 Hz as three cycles are seen within a second.

 Applications of AC

Alternating current tends to be used for power distribution. It has the advantage that it can easily be converted
to other voltages using a simple transformer - transformers do not work with direct current. If power is distributed at a
high voltage then the losses are much lower. Take the example of a 250 volt supply carrying 4 amps and a 1 Ω wire
resistance. As power, watts = volts x amps, the power being carried is 1000 watts. The power loss is I2 x R = 16
watts.

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If a voltage line is carrying 4 amps but has a voltage of 250 000,

volts, i.e. 250 kV, and the line is carrying 4 amps, then the power loss is
still the same, but the overall transmission system is carrying 1 MW and
16 watts is an almost negligible loss.

It is for this reason that high voltages are used for power
transmission, and then reduced to a relatively safe level for use within
domestic and commercial properties.

In view of the fact that alternating current is used for the supply
system, it is also used in motors, for heating and for many other items
without the need for it to be converted to direct current.

Direct Current

As the name implies direct current, DC is a form of electricity that flows in one direction – it is direct and
this gives it its name.
The characteristic of direct current, DC can be shown on a
graph. Here the current can be seen to be seen to be either positive or
negative only.

 Applications of DC

Direct current, DC is used in very many areas:

 Batteries:
Batteries, both non-rechargeable and re-chargeable can only supply direct current. The rechargeable
batteries also need recharging using direct current.

 Electronic equipment:
All equipment likes computers, radios, mobile phones, and in fact all electronic equipment uses direct
current to power the electronic circuits. Bipolar transistors, FETs and the integrated circuits that use these
components all need direct current to power them and will damaged if a reverse polarity is supplied. Although
many of these items are powered by AC mains, there is a unit called a power supply within the unit that converts
the incoming AC to direct current with the right voltage(s) within the electronic item.

 Some electrical equipment:

Although a lot of electrical equipment uses AC, some uses direct current.

 Solar panels:
Solar panels used for generating electricity produce direct current directly from the solar panels
themselves. When used with AC mains to feed into the mains or supply local AC power for AC supplies, a unit
known as an inverter is required to enable the direct current, DC from the solar panels to be converted to [Link]
change in the magnetic field of a coil of wire will cause an emf to be induced in the coil. This emf induced is

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called induced emf and if the conductor circuit is closed, the current will also circulate through the circuit and this
current is called induced current.

MOTORS

One of the important applications of electromagnetism is the electric motor. An electric motor converts electrical
energy into physical movement. Electric motors generate magnetic fields with electric current through a coil. The
magnetic field then causes a force with a magnet that causes movement or spinning that runs the motor. Electric motors
are used in all sorts of applications. There are even several electric motors inside your computer including one to turn the
fan, one to open and shut the CDROM drive, and one to operate the hard drive.

An electric motor is an electrical machine that converts electrical energy into mechanical energy. Most electric
motors operate through the interaction between the motor's magnetic field and electric current in a wire winding to
generate force in the form of torque applied on the motor's shaft. Electric motors can be powered by direct current (DC)
sources, such as from batteries, motor vehicles or rectifiers, or by alternating current (AC) sources, such as a power grid,
inverters or electrical generators. An electric generator is mechanically identical to an electric motor, but operates with a
reversed flow of power, converting mechanical energy into electrical energy.

Electric motors may be classified by considerations such as power source type, internal construction, application
and type of motion output. In addition to AC versus DC types, motors may be brushed or brushless, may be of various
phase (see single-phase, two-phase, or three-phase), and may be either air-cooled or liquid-cooled. General-purpose
motors with standard dimensions and characteristics provide convenient mechanical power for industrial use. The largest
electric motors are used for ship propulsion, pipeline compression and pumped-storage applications with ratings reaching
100 megawatts. Electric motors are found in industrial fans, blowers and pumps, machine tools, household appliances,
power tools and disk drives. Small motors may be found in electric watches.

In certain applications, such as in regenerative braking with traction motors, electric motors can be used in reverse
as generators to recover energy that might otherwise be lost as heat and friction.

 Components of Motors

1. Rotor
In an electric motor, the moving part is the rotor, which turns the shaft to deliver the mechanical power.
The rotor usually has conductors laid into it that carry currents, which interact with the magnetic field of the stator to
generate the forces that turn the shaft. Alternatively, some rotors carry permanent magnets, and the stator holds the
conductors.

2. Bearings
The rotor is supported by bearings, which allow the rotor to turn on its axis. The bearings are in turn
supported by the motor housing. The motor shaft extends through the bearings to the outside of the motor, where the
load is applied. Because the forces of the load are exerted beyond the outermost bearing, the load is said to be
overhung.[59]

3. Stator
The stator is the stationary part of the motor's electromagnetic circuit and usually consists of either
windings or permanent magnets. The stator core is made up of many thin metal sheets, called laminations.
Laminations are used to reduce energy losses that would result if a solid core were used. Resin-packed motors, used
in washing machines and air conditioners, use the damping properties of resin (plastic) to reduce noise and vibration.
These motors completely encapsulate the stator in plastic.

4. Air gap
The distance between the rotor and stator is called the air gap. The air gap has important effects, and is
generally as small as possible, as a large gap has a strong negative effect on performance. It is the main source of the
low power factor at which motors operate. The magnetizing current increases with the air gap. For this reason, the air
gap should be minimal. Very small gaps may pose mechanical problems in addition to noise and losses.

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5. Windings
Windings are wires that are laid in coils, usually wrapped around a laminated soft iron magnetic core so
as to form magnetic poles when energized with current.

Electric machines come in two basic magnet field pole configurations: salient- and nonsalient-pole
configurations. In the salient-pole machine the pole's magnetic field is produced by a winding wound around the pole
below the pole face. In the nonsalient-pole, or distributed field, or round-rotor, machine, the winding is distributed in
pole face slots. A shaded-pole motor has a winding around part of the pole that delays the phase of the magnetic field
for that pole.

Some motors have conductors that consist of thicker metal, such as bars or sheets of metal, usually
copper, alternatively aluminum. These are usually powered by electromagnetic induction.

6. Commutator
A commutator is a mechanism used to switch the input of most DC machines and certain AC machines.
It consists of slip-ring segments insulated from each other and from the shaft. The motor's armature current is
supplied through stationary brushes in contact with the revolving commutator, which causes required current reversal,
and applies power to the machine in an optimal manner as the rotor rotates from pole to pole.[62][63] In absence of
such current reversal, the motor would brake to a stop. In light of improved technologies in the electronic-controller,
sensorless-control, induction-motor, and permanent-magnet-motor fields, externally-commutated induction and
permanent-magnet motors are displacing electromechanically-commutated motors.

7. Motor supply and control

 Motor supply
A DC motor is usually supplied through a slip ring commutator as described above. AC motors'
commutation can be achieved using either a slip ring commutator or external commutation, can be fixed-speed or
variable-speed control type, and can be synchronous or asynchronous type. Universal motors can run on either
AC or DC.

 Motor control
DC motors can be operated at variable speeds by adjusting the DC voltage applied to the terminals or by
using pulse-width modulation (PWM).

AC motors operated at a fixed speed are generally powered directly from the grid or through motor soft
starters. AC motors operated at variable speeds are powered with various power inverter, variable-frequency drive or
electronic commutator technologies.

The term electronic commutator is usually associated with self-commutated brushless DC motor and
switched reluctance motor applications.

GENERATORS

Electric generators convert mechanical energy into electrical energy using induction. As a coil of wire is
spun between two opposite magnets, an electric current is generated that can be used to power electronic devices.
Generators can get their power from a wide variety of sources. Two popular electric generators of renewable energy
include hydropower and wind power.

AC Generator

How is an alternating current produced in a generator? The induced current in a generator flows toward
one contact ring and away from the other. But as the armature turns and the direction of the conductor changes
with respect to the flux, the direction of the induced current reverses. The reversal of the current direction for
every turn of the armature causes the flow of the current to fluctuate from zero to a maximum, the back to zero
and to another maximum.

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In figure 20, conductor A on one side of the rotating armature cuts the magnetic lines of force as it moves
downward. Applying the right-hand rule, the induced current would flow out of the page. The symbol •, which
resembles the tip of an arrow, signifies that the direction is out of the page. Meanwhile conductor B on the other
side of the rotating armature cuts the magnetic lines of force as it moves upward. This motion induces a current
that flows into the page. The symbol x , which resembles the tail of an arrow, signifies that the direction is into
the page. At this stage the induced currents in A and B are at their maximum values.

In figure 20b, both conductors A and B

are moving in a direction which is parallel to the
magnetic lines of flux. Since no flux lines are being cut,
no current is induced in the circuit. The current has
changed from a maximum in Figure 20a to zero in
Figure 20b.

In Figure 20c, conductor B is moving down and

an induced current is directed out of the page.
Conductor A, now on the other side, is moving upward
with an induced current directed into the page. The
induced current has increased from zero to its maximum
again. The directions of the currents in conductors A
and B are now reversed. From the above discussion, you
can now see why the induced current through the closed
Figure 20. The induced emf when magnetic lines of force circuit fluctuates and why the induced emf alternates in
are cut. polarity. A current that flows in one direction during a
part of a turn of a loop, and moves in the opposite
direction during the rest of the turn is called an
alternating current
DC Generator

A DC generator is evry similar to an AC generator except that the contact rings are replaced by split-ring
commutators at the terminals of the armature. A commutator is a ring in the middle with each half connected to one
end of the armature terminals. The current induced in the armature is still an alternating current but the split ring
makes the current flow into external circuit in only one direction. The current in a DC generator also pulsates like that
of an AC
generator. To get a more constant flow of the induced current, more sets of coils are wound around the armature with
each coil attached to a different apir of commutator halves.
The two brushes are so placed that they are always in contact
with successive pairs of commutator halves.

Some cars used to have a DC generator because a

discharged battery cannot be recharged with an AC generator.
Modern cars now use AC generators with a special device
called a rectifier. A rectifier consists of diode which allow
current to flow through them in only one direction and filter out
the opposing current produced.

Figure 21. DC generator. The pair of split rings

is fixed and
TRANSFORMERS alternately contacts opposite sides of the coil
carrying current from the armature, Hence,
the current flows in only one direction.

Another important application of Faraday’s Law of Induction is the transformer, invented by Nikola Tesla. In this
device, alternating current, which changes direction many times per second, is sent through a coil wrapped around a
magnetic core. This produces a changing magnetic field in the core, which in turn induces a current in second coil
wrapped around a different part of the same magnetic core.

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The ratio of the number of turns in the coils determines the ratio of the voltage between the input and output
current. For instance, if we take a transformer with 100 turns on the input side and 50 turns on the output side, and we
input an alternating current at 220 volts, the output will be 110 volts. According to Hyperphysics, a transformer cannot
increase power, which is the product of voltage and current, so if the voltage is raised, the current is proportionally
lowered and vice versa. In our example, an input of 220 volts at 10 amps, or 2,200 watts, would produce an output of 110
volts at 20 amps, again, 2,200 watts. In practice, transformers are never perfectly efficient, but a well-designed
transformer typically has a power loss of only a few percent, according to the University of Texas.

Transformers make possible the electric grid we depend on for our industrial and technological society. Cross-
country transmission lines operate at hundreds of thousands of volts in order to transmit more power within the current-
carrying limits of the wires. This voltage is stepped down repeatedly using transformers at distribution substations until it
reaches your house, where it is finally stepped down to 220 and 110 volts that can run your electric stove and computer.

A transformer is a device which can increase or decrease the emf input. It consists of an iron core, the primary
coil into which the AC is applied, and the secondary coil from which transformed AC power is delivered. The primary
and secondary coils are insulated from each other and coiled around the same iron core. The electrical energy in the
primary coil is transferred to the secondary coil through the magnetic field around the core. As current from an AC
generator is fed into the primary coil, the fluctuation of the current from zero to a maximum induces a reverse current in
the secondary coil. Since both coils are wound around the same core, there is a continuous magnetic flux in both the
primary and secondary coils. Both coils therefore carry the same emf per turn, and this makes the ratio of the secondary
emf to the primary emf equal to the ratio of the secondary to primary turns. That is, V =N
p p
Vs Ns
where Vp and Vs are the primary and secondary coil terminal voltages; Np and Ns are the numbers of turns in the primary
and secondary coils. A well-designed transformer is 99% efficient and very little energy is lost, so

power input = power output

VpIp = VsIs then, Is = Np

Ip Ns

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