Bachelor of Science

Records and Archives

Managament

Indigenous Knowledge
Systems

Module RAM 310/ LIS 303

Published by: The Zimbabwe Open University

P.O. Box MP1119

Mount Pleasant

Harare, ZIMBABWE

The Zimbabwe Open University is a distance teaching and open

learning institution.

Year: 2011

Cover design: B. Pillay

Layout: S. Mapfumo

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© Zimbabwe Open University. All rights reserved. No part of this

publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or
transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical,
photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of
the Zimbabwe Open University.
Authors: C.T. Chisita
Masters Degree in Library and Information Science (NUST)
Bachelor of Arts,English and Communication Studies (ZOU)
Higher Diploma in Library and Information Science (Harare
Poly)
Further Education Teachers’Certificate (Harare Poly)
Diploma in Public Relations.

Content Reviewer: K. Chiwanza

MSc in Library and Information Science (NUST)
BA in Media Studies (ZOU)
National Diploma in Library and Information Science (Harare
Poly)
National Certificate in Library and Information Science (Harare
Poly)

Editor: B.K. Mutambanengwe

Master of Education in Administration Planning and Policy
Studies (ZOU)
Bachelor of Education (Home Economics) (UZ)
Secondary Teachers’ Certificate (Gweru Teachers’ College)
 To the student
The demand for skills and knowledge and interests. The combination of all these
the requirement to adjust and change with qualities inevitably facilitates the
changing technology, places on us a need production of learning materials that teach
to learn continually throughout life. As all successfully any student, anywhere and far
people need an education of one form or removed from the tutor in space and time.
another, it has been found that We emphasize that our learning materials
conventional education institutions cannot should enable you to solve both work-
cope with the demand for education of related problems and other life challenges.
this magnitude. It has, however, been
discovered that distance education and To avoid stereotyping and professional
open learning, now also exploiting e- narrowness, our teams of learning materials
learning technology, itself an offshoot of producers come from different universities
e-commerce, has become the most in and outside Zimbabwe, and from
effective way of transmitting these Commerce and Industry. This openness
appropriate skills and knowledge enables ZOU to produce materials that
required for national and international have a long shelf life and are sufficiently
development. comprehensive to cater for the needs of
all of you, our learners in different walks
Since attainment of independence in of life. You, the learner, have a large
1980, the Zimbabwe Government has number of optional courses to choose from
spearheaded the development of distance so that the knowledge and skills
education and open learning at tertiary developed suit the career path that you
level, resulting in the establishment of the choose. Thus, we strive to tailor-make
Zimbabwe Open University (ZOU) on 1 the learning materials so that they can suit
your personal and professional needs. In
March, 1999.
developing the ZOU learning materials, we
are guided by the desire to provide you,
ZOU is the first, leading, and currently the
the learner, with all the knowledge and skill
only university in Zimbabwe entirely
that will make you a better performer all
dedicated to teaching by distance
round, be this at certificate, diploma,
education and open learning. We are undergraduate or postgraduate level. We
determined to maintain our leading aim for products that will settle comfortably
position by both satisfying our clients and in the global village and competing
maintaining high academic standards. To successfully with anyone. Our target is,
achieve the leading position, we have therefore, to satisfy your quest for
adopted the course team approach to knowledge and skills through distance
producing the varied learning materials that education and open learning
will holistically shape you, the learner to
be an all-round performer in the field of
your own choice. Our course teams
comprise academics, technologists and
administrators of varied backgrounds,
training, skills, experiences and personal
Any course or programme launched by ZOU is prepared for the coming of Jesus Christ, it is my
conceived from the cross-pollination of ideas from hope as your Vice Chancellor that all of you, will
consumers of the product, chief among whom are experience unimpeded success in your educational
you, the students and your employers. We consult endeavours. We, on our part, shall continually
you and listen to your critical analysis of the strive to improve the learning materials through
concepts and how they are presented. We also evaluation, transformation of delivery
consult other academics from universities the world methodologies, adjustments and sometimes
over and other international bodies whose complete overhauls of both the materials and
reputation in distance education and open learning organizational structures and culture that are
is of a very high calibre. We carry out pilot studies central to providing you with the high quality
of the course outlines, the content and the education that you deserve. Note that your needs,
programme component. We are only too glad to the learner ‘s needs, occupy a central position
subject our learning materials to academic and within ZOU’s core activities.
professional criticism with the hope of improving
them all the time. We are determined to continue Best wishes and success in your studies.
improving by changing the learning materials to suit
the idiosyncratic needs of our learners, their
employers, research, economic circumstances,
technological development, changing times and
geographic location, in order to maintain our
leading position. We aim at giving you an
education that will work for you at any time _____________________
anywhere and in varying circumstances and that Dr. Primrose Kurasha
your performance should be second to none. Vice Chancellor

As a progressive university that is forward looking

and determined to be a successful part of the
twenty-first century, ZOU has started to introduce
e-learning materials that will enable you, our
students, to access any source of information,
anywhere in the world through internet and to
communicate, converse, discuss and collaborate
synchronously and asynchronously, with peers and
tutors whom you may never meet in life. It is our
intention to bring the computer, email, internet chat-
rooms, whiteboards and other modern methods
of delivering learning to all the doorsteps of our
learners, wherever they may be. For all these
developments and for the latest information on
what is taking place at ZOU, visit the ZOU website
at [Link]

Having worked as best we can to prepare your

learning path, hopefully like John the Baptist
 The Six Hour Tutorial Session At
The Zimbabwe Open University
A s you embark on your studies with the
Zimbabwe Open University (ZOU) by open
and distance learning, we need to advise you so
This is where the six hour tutorial comes in. For
it to work, you need to know that:
· There is insufficient time for the tutor
that you can make the best use of the learning
to lecture you
materials, your time and the tutors who are based
· Any ideas that you discuss in the
at your regional office.
tutorial, originate from your experience
as you work on the materials. All the
The most important point that you need to note is
issues raised above are a good source
that in distance education and open learning, there
of topics (as they pertain to your
are no lectures like those found in conventional
learning) for discussion during the
universities. Instead, you have learning packages
tutorial
that may comprise written modules, tapes, CDs,
· The answers come from you while the
DVDs and other referral materials for extra reading.
tutor’s task is to confirm, spur further
All these including radio, television, telephone, fax
discussion, clarify, explain, give
and email can be used to deliver learning to you.
additional information, guide the
As such, at the ZOU, we do not expect the tutor
discussion and help you put together
to lecture you when you meet him/her. We believe
full answers for each question that you
that that task is accomplished by the learning
bring
package that you receive at registration. What
· You must prepare for the tutorial by
then is the purpose of the six hour tutorial for each
bringing all the questions and answers
course on offer?
that you have found out on the topics
to the discussion
At the ZOU, as at any other distance and open
· For the tutor to help you effectively, give
learning university, you the student are at the centre
him/her the topics beforehand so that
of learning. After you receive the learning package,
in cases where information has to be
you study the tutorial letter and other guiding
gathered, there is sufficient time to do
documents before using the learning materials.
so. If the questions can get to the tutor
During the study, it is obvious that you will come
at least two weeks before the tutorial,
across concepts/ideas that may not be that easy
that will create enough time for
to understand or that are not so clearly explained.
thorough preparation.
You may also come across issues that you do not
agree with, that actually conflict with the practice
In the tutorial, you are expected and required to
that you are familiar with. In your discussion
take part all the time through contributing in
groups, your friends can bring ideas that are totally
every way possible. You can give your views,
different from yours and arguments may begin. You
even if they are wrong, (many students may hold
may also find that an idea is not clearly explained
the same wrong views and the discussion will
and you remain with more questions than answers.
help correct the errors), they still help you learn
You need someone to help you in such matters.
the correct thing as much as the correct ideas.
 The Six Hour Tutorial Session At The Zimbabwe Open University

You also need to be open-minded, frank, inquisitive learning package together with the sources to
and should leave no stone unturned as you analyze which you are referred. Fully-fledged lectures
ideas and seek clarification on any issues. It has can, therefore, be misleading as the tutor may
been found that those who take part in tutorials dwell on matters irrelevant to the ZOU course.
actively, do better in assignments and examinations
because their ideas are streamlined. Taking part Distance education, by its nature, keeps the tutor
properly means that you prepare for the tutorial and student separate. By introducing the six hour
beforehand by putting together relevant questions tutorial, ZOU hopes to help you come in touch
and their possible answers and those areas that with the physical being, who marks your
cause you confusion. assignments, assesses them, guides you on
preparing for writing examinations and
Only in cases where the information being assignments and who runs your general academic
discussed is not found in the learning package can affairs. This helps you to settle down in your
the tutor provide extra learning materials, but this course having been advised on how to go about
should not be the dominant feature of the six hour your learning. Personal human contact is,
tutorial. As stated, it should be rare because the therefore, upheld by the ZOU.
information needed for the course is found in the

The six hour tutorials should be so structured that the

tasks for each session are very clear. Work for each
session, as much as possible, follows the structure given
below.

Session I (Two Hours)

Session I should be held at the beginning of the semester. The
main aim of this session is to guide you, the student, on how
you are going to approach the course. During the session, you
will be given the overview of the course, how to tackle the
assignments, how to organize the logistics of the course and
formation of study groups that you will belong to. It is also during
this session that you will be advised on how to use your learning
materials effectively.
 The Six Hour Tutorial Session At The Zimbabwe Open University

Session II (Two Hours)

This session comes in the middle of the semester to respond
to the challenges, queries, experiences, uncertainties, and
ideas that you are facing as you go through the course. In this
session, difficult areas in the module are explained through the
combined effort of the students and the tutor. It should also give
direction and feedback where you have not done well in the
first assignment as well as reinforce those areas where
performance in the first assignment is good.

Session III (Two Hours)

The final session, Session III, comes towards the end of the
semester. In this session, you polish up any areas that you still
need clarification on. Your tutor gives you feedback on the
assignments so that you can use the experience for preparation
for the end of semester examination.

Note that in all the three sessions, you identify the areas
that your tutor should give help. You also take a very
important part in finding answers to the problems posed.
You are the most important part of the solutions to your
learning challenges.

Conclusion for this course, but also to prepare yourself to

contribute in the best way possible so that you
can maximally benefit from it. We also urge
In conclusion, we should be very clear that six you to avoid forcing the tutor to lecture you.
hours is too little for lectures and it is not
necessary, in view of the provision of fully self- BEST WISHES IN YOUR STUDIES.
contained learning materials in the package, to
turn the little time into lectures. We, therefore, ZOU
urge you not only to attend the six hour tutorials
Contents

Overview _________________________________________________________________ 1

Unit One: Indigenous Knowledge: Towards a Framework for

Protection of Intellectual Property

1.1 ________ Introduction _____________________________________________________ 3

1.2 ________ Objectives _______________________________________________________ 4
1.3 ________ Indigenous Knowledge Systems ______________________________________ 4
1.4 ________ Comparison of Indigenous Knowledge and Western Scientific Knowledge ____ 5
__________ Activity 1.1 _______________________________________________________ 5
1.5 ________ Threats to Indigenous Knowledge ____________________________________ 5
1.6 ________ Intellectual Property Rights and Bio-piracy _____________________________ 6
1.7 ________ Demand For Herbal Medicines and Impact on Indigenous Resources _______ 8
1.8 ________ Plant at the Centre of Controversy: Bio-piracy in Africa ___________________ 14
__________ Activity 1.2 _______________________________________________________ 19
1.9 ________ Examples of Indigenous Plants used for Medicinal Purposes in Zimbabwe ___ 19
1.10 _______ Summary _______________________________________________________ 20
__________ References _______________________________________________________ 21

Unit Two: Vital to Document Traditional Knowledge

2.1 ________ Introduction ____________________________________________________ 23

2.2 ________ Objectives ______________________________________________________ 24
2.3 ________ Traditional Knowledge ____________________________________________ 24
2.4 ________ Indigenous Knowledge and Global Threats ____________________________ 25
2.5 ________ Indigenous People and Indigenous Knowledge _________________________ 26
2.6 ________ Formal Scientific Knowledge and its Failures. _________________________ 27
__________ 2.6.1 Examples Anthropogenic Environmental Disasters _________________ 28
2.7 ________ Value of Documenting Traditional Knowledge _________________________ 29
__________ Activity 2.1 ______________________________________________________ 32
2.8 ________ Ancestral Knowledge as Indigenous Knowledge ________________________ 32
2.9 ________ Knowledge and the Three Levels of Existence _________________________ 34
2.10 _______ Indigenous Knowledge and De-contextualisation _______________________ 34
__________ Activity 2.2 ______________________________________________________ 35
2.11 _______ Summary ______________________________________________________ 35
__________ References ______________________________________________________ 36
Unit Three: Traditional Knowledge and Traditional Cultural
Expressions: Challenges and Opportunities

3.1 ________ Introduction ____________________________________________________ 37

3.2 ________ Objectives ______________________________________________________ 38
3.3 ________ Nature of Intellectual Property and Traditional Cultural Expressions ______ 38
3.4 ________ Definition of Traditional Cultural Expressions and Traditional Knowledge __ 39
3.5 ________ Characteristics of Traditional Cultural Expressions _____________________ 39
__________ Activity 3.1 ______________________________________________________ 40
3.6 ________ Protecting Traditional Cultural Expressions (TCE) _____________________ 40
3.7 ________ World Intellectual Property Organisation (WIPO) ______________________ 44
3.8 ________ Traditional Cultural Expressions(TCE’s) in Archives ___________________ 45
3.9 ________ Traditional Cultural Expressions and Digital Revolution _________________ 46
3.10 _______ New Roles for Archives and Related Institutions with Regards to the
__________ Management of Traditional Cultural Expressions ______________________ 47
__________ Activity 3.2 ______________________________________________________ 47
3.11 _______ WIPO Response to the Challenges of Archiving Traditional Cultural _________
__________ Expressions _____________________________________________________ 48
3.12 _______ The Liberal Archive ______________________________________________ 48
3.13 _______ The Colonial Archive _____________________________________________ 49
3.14 _______ Summary _______________________________________________________ 49
__________ References ______________________________________________________ 50

Unit Four: Knowledge Sharing in the Context of Information Science

4.1 ________ Introduction _____________________________________________________ 51

4.2. _______ Objectives ______________________________________________________ 52
4.3 ________ Knowledge Management and Knowledge Sharing ______________________ 52
4.4 ________ General Practices in Knowledge Management __________________________ 53
4.5 ________ Knowledge Sharing and Communication _____________________________ 53
__________ Activity 4.1 ______________________________________________________ 55
4.6 ________ Orally Transferred Knowledge and Organisational Memories ____________ 55
__________ Activity 4.2 ______________________________________________________ 57
4.7 ________ Knowledge Sharing Processes ______________________________________ 58
__________ 4.7.1 Four Step Process ____________________________________________ 58
4.8 ________ Knowledge Management (KM) Strategy ______________________________ 64
4.9 ________ Knowledge Management (KM) in Practice ____________________________ 65
4.10 _______ The Knowledge Culture ___________________________________________ 66
4.11 _______ Major Elements of a Knowledge Culture _____________________________ 66
4.12 _______ Summary _______________________________________________________ 67
__________ References ______________________________________________________ 68
Unit Five: Indigenous Knowledge and Development

5.1 ________ Introduction ____________________________________________________ 69

5.2 ________ Objectives ______________________________________________________ 70
5.3 ________ Challenges and Opportunities of Using Indigenous Knowledge in Development70
5.4 ________ International Law and Regulation of Traditional Knowledge _____________ 70
5.5 ________ Convention on Biological Diversity and Traditional Knowledge ____________ 71
__________ Activity 5.1 ______________________________________________________ 73
5.6 ________ Bonn Guidelines on Access to Genetic Resources and Fair and Equitable Sharing
__________ of the Benefits Arising out of Utilisation of Indigenous Resources ________ 73
5.7 ________ Summary _______________________________________________________ 74
__________ References ______________________________________________________ 75

Unit Six: The Role of Higher Technical Education Institutions in

Promoting Local Content Development in Zimbabwe: Need
for a Rethink.

6.1 ________ Introduction ____________________________________________________ 77

6.2 ________ Objectives ______________________________________________________ 78
6.3 ________ Paradigmatic shift in Knowledge Production for Local Content ___________ 78
6.4 ________ Higher Education and Knowledge Production _________________________ 78
6.5 ________ Information and Communication Technologies (ICT’s) and Local Content ____
__________ Development ____________________________________________________ 79
6.6 ________ Definition of Local Content ________________________________________ 80
6.7 ________ Colonialism and Local Content _____________________________________ 81
__________ Activity 6.1 _______________________________________________________ 81
6.8 ________ Local Content and Culture __________________________________________ 81
6.9 ________ International Programmes to Promote Local Content ___________________ 82
6.10 _______ United Nations Economic Commission for Africa ______________________ 83
6.11 _______ World Summit of Information Society _______________________________ 83
6.12 _______ African Union and the Lagos Plan of Action ___________________________ 84
__________ Activity 6.2 ______________________________________________________ 85
6.13 _______ Institutional Repositories as Reservoirs of Local Content ________________ 85
6.14 _______ Functions of Institutional Repositories _______________________________ 86
6.15 _______ Six Roles of Librarians in an Institutional Repository Environment ________ 86
6.16 _______ Use of Open Institutional Repositories? _____________________________ 87
6.17 _______ Higher Education and Knowledge Management ________________________ 87
6.18 _______ Responding to Local Needs ________________________________________ 88
6.19 _______ Use of ICT’s in Local Content Development ___________________________ 89
6.20 _______ Challenges Confronting Local Content Development. ___________________ 90
6.21 _______ Summary ________________________________________________________ 91
__________ References ______________________________________________________ 92
Unit Seven: Repackaging Traditional Knowledge

7.1 ________ Introduction ____________________________________________________ 95

7.2 ________ Objectives ______________________________________________________ 96
7.3 ________ African Initiatives Towards the Legal Protection of Indigenous Knowledge __ 96
7.4 ________ Communal Ownership of Traditional Knowledge ________________________
__________ and Piracy ______________________________________________________ 97
7.5 ________ Women and the Preservation of Traditional Knowledge __________________ 98
7.6 ________ Why Traditional Knowledge is Lowly Appreciated? _____________________ 99
7.7 ________ Way Forward ____________________________________________________ 100
__________ Activity 7.1 ______________________________________________________ 101
7.8 ________ Role of Libraries and Related Institutions in Promoting Local Content _____ 101
7.9 ________ Summary _______________________________________________________ 102
__________ References ______________________________________________________ 103

Unit Eight: Dimensions of Traditional Knowledge

8.1 ________ Introduction ____________________________________________________ 105

8.2 ________ Objectives ______________________________________________________ 106
8.3 ________ Traditional Knowledge as Representative of Indigenous Peoples’ Culture ___ 106
__________ Activity 8.1 ______________________________________________________ 107
8.4 ________ Legal Protection of Traditional Knowledge ___________________________ 107
8.5 ________ Challenges of Repackaging Traditional Knowledge _____________________ 108
8.6 ________ Summary _______________________________________________________ 109
__________ References ______________________________________________________ 110

Unit Nine: Role of Libraries in Promoting the Dissemination and

Documentation of Indigenous Agricultural Information

9.1 ________ Introduction ____________________________________________________ 111

9.2 ________ Objectives ______________________________________________________ 112
9.3 ________ Endorsing Indigenous Knowledge ___________________________________ 112
9.4 ________ Indigenous Knowledge: Convergence or Divergence? ___________________ 113
__________ Activity 9.1 ______________________________________________________ 114
9.5 ________ Libraries and Related Institutions: Access to Indigenous Knowledge ________ 114
9.6 ________ Avoidance Taboos and Sustainable Development _______________________ 116
9.7 ________ Permaculture and Agricultural Production ____________________________ 117
9.8 ________ Traditional Religion ______________________________________________ 117
9.9 ________ Libraries and Access to Agricultural Information: ________________________
__________ Need for a Fundamental Rethink ____________________________________ 118
 9.10 _______ Libraries as Cultural Institutions ____________________________________ 119
9.11 _______ Access to Indigenous Knowledge : Academic Institutions as Engines for ______
__________ Knowledge Production ____________________________________________ 120
__________ Activity 9.2 ______________________________________________________ 121
9.12 _______ Libraries and Information Repackaging ______________________________ 121
9.13 _______ Summary _______________________________________________________ 122
__________ References ______________________________________________________ 123

Unit Ten: African Thoughts and Cultural Development: Integrating

Traditions and Modern Science

10.1 _______ Introduction ____________________________________________________ 125

10.2 _______ Objectives ______________________________________________________ 126
10.3 _______ Basis of African Scholarship _______________________________________ 126
10.4 _______ Environmental Knowledge and Indigenous Knowledge Systems ___________ 127
10.5 _______ Promoting Non-Formal and Formal Knowledge as Tools for Development. _ 128
__________ Activity 10.1 _____________________________________________________ 130
10.6 _______ Integrating Traditional Knowledge into Modern Science _________________ 130
10.7 _______ Summary _______________________________________________________ 130
__________ References ______________________________________________________ 131
Blank page
Module Overview

T he purpose of the module is to enable you to:

 communicate indigenous knowledge systems

 understand new approaches to the importance of indigenous knowledge
 understand indigenous knowledge systems in the context of intellectual
property rights
 explain the binary tension between formal and informal knowledge systems.
 analyse the impact of local and international laws dealing with indigenous
knowledge
 evaluate the legal and ethical framework governing production,
organisation, dissemination and use of indigenous knowledge.
 understand and communicate concepts such as tacit and explicit knowledge
in the context of traditional knowledge systems.
 Validate indigenous knowledge
Indigenous Knowledge Systems Module RAM 310/LIS 303

Expected outcomes

You should be able to:

 communicate indigenous knowledge systems and their importance to

indigenous people
 identify various indigenous trees in Zimbabwe
 discuss and evaluate various indigenous medicine in Zimbabwe
 analyse the legal instruments that govern indigenous knowledge
 describe processes of repackaging indigenous knowledge
 relate indigenous knowledge to local content development in the context
of Africa’s drive towards a knowledge economy
 create local content using Information and Communication Technologies
 validate indigenous knowledge
Unit 1 of the module introduces you to Indigenous Knowledge Systems and
threats to indigenous knowledge. Unit 2 outlines the importance to document
traditional knowledge. Unit 3 focuses on the traditional knowledge and
traditional cultural expressions, their challenges and opportunities. Unit 4
emphasises on knowledge sharing in the context of information science. Unit
5 looks at the indigenous knowledge and development, and the benefits arising
from the utilisation of indigenous resources. Unit 6 focuses on the role of
Higher Technical Education Institutions in promoting local content development
in Zimbabwe. Unit 7 discusses on the repackaging of traditional knowledge
and the role of women in the preservation of traditional knowledge. Unit 8
focuses on the dimensions of traditional knowledge as a representative of
indigenous peoples’ culture, including legal protection of traditional knowledge.
Unit 9 outlines the roles of libraries in promoting the dimensions and
documentation of indigenous agricultural information, and lastly Unit 10 recaps
on the African thoughts and cultural development and integration of traditions
and modern sciences.

2 Zimbabwe Open University

 Unit One

Indigenous Knowledge:
Towards a Framework for
Protection of Intellectual
Property
1.1 Introduction

T his unit explores indigenous or traditional knowledge in the context of

intellectual property rights. It begins by defining the concept of indigenous
knowledge and highlights the many dimensions through which such knowledge
manifests itself. The unit also explores the challenges of managing indigenous
knowledge in the context of globalisation, intellectual and bio-piracy among
other threats.
Indigenous Knowledge Systems Module RAM 310/LIS 303

1.2 Objectives
By the end of the Unit you should be able to:
 analyse how indigenous knowledge affects the lives of local people
 identify the various types of indigenous trees in Zimbabwe and other
plants
 investigate the extent to which indigenous knowledge is under threat
 evaluate strategies that are in place to protect indigenous knowledge

1.3 Indigenous Knowledge Systems

Mugabe (1998) defines Indigenous Knowledge as knowledge that is held
and made use of by people who regard themselves indigenous to a particular
place. This is based on a combination of cultural uniqueness and prior territorial
occupancy relative to a more recently arrived population with its own distinct
and subsequently dominant culture. In general knowledge encompasses explicit
and tacit or experiential knowledge. The former refers to information and
skills that are easily communicated, documented and conveyed to others or
the knowledge that is collected, stored, distributed and shared primarily either
as print or electronic documents, while the latter is experiential and intuitive. It
is the subjective and experience based knowledge that cannot be easily
expressed in words and sentences, for example, beliefs, images, intuition,
mental models arts and crafts. The author further views that traditional
knowledge encompasses both tacit and explicit knowledge and practices.
Greaves (1996) defines indigenous knowledge as

“... something more than matter of fact-information. Rather, it is

invested with a sacred quality and systematic unity, supplying the
foundation on which the members of a traditional community sense their
communitas, personal identity, and ancestral anchorage…”

Betsie (2007) notes that indigenous knowledge is part and parcel of the culture
and history of any local community and that, for any development programme
to occur, people must build on from what local people know. Nyumba (2006)
notes that as African people our lives are greatly affected by indigenous
knowledge, for example, we rely on it for medicinal and herbal needs, food
supply, conflict resolution and spiritual growth. Indigenous knowledge is indeed
the cornerstone for building our own identity and ensuring coherence of social
structures within communities.

4 Zimbabwe Open University

Unit 1 Indigenous Knowledge: Towards a Framework for Protection of Intellectual Property

1.4 Comparison of Indigenous Knowledge and

Western Scientific Knowledge

Comparison Indigenous Knowledge Western Scientific

Knowledge
Relationship Subordinate Dominant

Dominant mode Intuitive (holistic) Analytical (reductionist)

of thinking
Communication Oral (storytelling, subjective Literate/didactic
experiential) (academic, objective,
positivist)
Data creation Slow/inconclusive Fast/selective
Prediction Short-term cycles Short-term linear
(recognize the onset of (poor long-term analysis)
long-term cycles)
Explanation Spiritual (the inexplicable) Scientific inquiry
(hypothesis, laws)

Activity 1.1

?
1. Analyze the similarities of indigenous and modern knowledge systems.
2. Suggest strategies that can be used to popularize science through
indigenous knowledge.
3. Prepare a list of plants from your own local area that have a medicinal
value and suggest ways through which these can be patented.

1.5 Threats to Indigenous Knowledge

Sithole (2006) notes that since indigenous knowledge is mostly stored in
people’s minds and passed on through generations by word of mouth rather
than in written form, it is vulnerable to rapid change. There are a number of
factors that contribute to the loss of indigenous knowledge, for example,
development processes like rural/urban migration and changes to population
structure as a result of famine, epidemics, displacement or war may all
contribute to loss of indigenous knowledge. Nyumba (2006) notes that
indigenous knowledge is under threat from modern technology because

Zimbabwe Open University 5

Indigenous Knowledge Systems Module RAM 310/LIS 303

even in remote areas the powers that push global or just non-local content,
such as, radio and television broadcasting, advertising, among others are much
stronger than those pushing local content. World Bank, (1998) notes that
indigenous knowledge faces extinction unless it is properly documented and
disseminated

The World Intellectual Property Organisation argues that there is need to

protect indigenous traditional knowledge from exploitation for financial gains
by third parties. Hountondji (2002:3) argues that the Western society
accumulates data relating to non-Western societies and appropriates their
knowledge systems. An IFLANET (2004) report also voiced its concern on
the vulnerability of indigenous knowledge because, by nature, it is exploitable
and continues to be exploited for financial gain by multinational and international
drug companies. Mugabe (1998) adds further weight to IFLANET’s concerns
by stating that plant derived prescription drugs in the United States of America
are derived from forty (40) species of which fifty percent are from the tropics.

1.6 Intellectual Property Rights and Bio-piracy

In Africa, more than eighty percent (80) per cent of the continent’s population
relies on plant and animal-based medicine to meet its health care requirements.
For the most part the plants and animals used in traditional medicine are
collected from the wild, and in many cases, demand exceeds supply. As Africa’s
population grows, demand for traditional medicines will increase and pressure
on natural resources will become greater than ever. Throughout Africa, many
health-oriented ministries are now encouraging the use of local medicinal plants,
and have established departments of traditional pharmacopoeia within the
ministries to implement this policy. The need to protect indigenous knowledge
arises from the fact that drug companies make financial gains as well as exploit
the medicinal properties in plants used by indigenous traditional people to
treat various illnesses such as cancer and yet there is no recognition given.

In Zimbabwe the colonial period era was characterised by huge disparities,

for example, huge amounts of funds were allocated to the allopathic medical
sector and no budgetary provisions were made for the traditional medical
sector. Zimbabwe’s independence in 1980 marked a paradigmatic shift in the
long warpath between allopathic and traditional medicine, when, Minister of
Health, Doctor Herbert Ushewokunze launched “The Zimbabwe National
Traditional Healers Association” (ZINATHA was to promote indigenous
medicine. The Zimbabwe National Traditional Healers Association (ZINATHA)

6 Zimbabwe Open University

Unit 1 Indigenous Knowledge: Towards a Framework for Protection of Intellectual Property

aims to promote traditional medicine and practice, promote research into

traditional medicine and methods of healing, promote training in the art of
herbal and spiritual healing, supervise the practice of traditional medicine and
prevent abuse and quackery, and cooperate with the Ministry of Health and
to establish better working relations between traditional and allopathic
practitioners.

Munodawafa (2011) a lecturer from African University conducted a study on

“Anti-microbial and PhytochemicalScreening of some of Zimbabwe’s
medicinal plants” inorder to assess the healing properties of plants. The
scientific study was done in collaboration with traditional healers from
Manicaland and Matabeleland and a botanist from the National Botanical
[Link] researchers made use of the bark of twelve m ed i c i n a l
plants, namely; Annona (Muroro), Clausena anisata (Muvhengahonhye),
Docomanomala (Chifumuro) Erythtrinaabyssinica (Munhimbitimbi) Ziziphus
mucronata (Muchecheni), Ximenia caffra (Munhengeni), Lanneaedulis
(Mutsombori), Pterocarpus angolensis (Mubvaropa) Vangeueria Infausta
(Mutsviru), Ximenia caffra (Munhengeni).The researchers tested for anti-
microbial activity against four bacteria and two fungal species through the use
of agar diffusion method. The largest zones of inhibition resulted from the
plant extract Pterocarpus annglonsis (Mubvamaropa root against Escherichia
coli. The researcher found out that the larger the zone of inhibition, the more
potent the traditional medicine. Some of the plants investigated included
Clausena anasita, Rutaceaee (Muvhengahonye) used to treat diabetes,
rheumatism, migrane headaches and worms and the use of Dicoma anamola,
Aseraceae (Chifumuro)used to treat stomach pain, colic, diarrhea, syphyilis,
gonorrhoea, sore throats and coughs and colds..Munodawafa notes that if a
plant contains saponins it can be speculated that it can be used as a
laxative”…to induce bowl movement or to relieve constipation”. The
researcher noted that each plant under investigation contained metabolites,
for example, they applied plant extracts on micro-organism associated with
Gonorrhoea and it was proved that the growth of micro-organisms was
subdued. This validated that the claims made by traditional healers with regards
to the plants was [Link] next stage of the research is to test the plants
extracts on mice and later efficacy on humans

Plants continue to provide most of the rural population of Africa with ingredients
for traditional medicines. Throughout the continent, for many generations, small
plots of land near the homesteads have been used as home gardens. Because
these gardens serve a family’s own needs, they contain a whole range of
plants that provide food and medicine. Africa has a history of conserving bio-

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diversity in medicinal plants for at least two reasons: traditional practices

surrounding their use reflect local knowledge and wisdom, and the plants are
readily available and relatively cheap being either easy to gather in the wild, or
simple to cultivate in home gardens. Herbalists have preserved traditional
knowledge and practices of herbal medicine, often using it in combination
with spiritual powers. Certain families keep their recipes secret.

Hopper (2002:3) argues that the drug companies are exploiting the collective
knowledge of indigenous traditional people for the benefit of a few. Sahai
(2002) further notes that diverse forms of indigenous knowledge have been
plundered or pirated by researchers and commercial enterprises without any
financial benefit accruing on the part of the creators or possesors. It is argued
that the creators and possessors of indigenous knowledge should be
compensated for ownership or possession of knowledge according to
Simeone (2004). Matonho (2006) notes that even though African countries,
especially those in the Southern part have accede to two or more regional
or international laws, in the form of, treaties, protocols, or agreements on
intellectual properties rights (IPR) it appears there is no clear cut policy on
IPR in most African countries. Intellectual property rights encourage an inventor
to disclose his or her invention to the general public and thereby promote
progress.

1.7 Demand For Herbal Medicines and Impact on

Indigenous Resources
Case Study I

Jordan (2008:30) noted that South Africa had made a break-through by earning
a worldwide patent agreement from a Malaria Fighting plant “Asteraceae”.
This smelly plant is said to hold the key to a new class of anti-malarial drugs.
The successful patenting of “Asteraceae” reflects government commitment
to unlock great potential of indigenous knowledge systems. The South African
Medical Research Council was going further to apply for patent protection in
the use of the plant’s chemical properties to develop antimalarial drugs in
other countries like USA, India and Brazil.

“ ... we discovered new molecules and we are really hoping that because
these molecules are different from the current (anti) malarial drugs, we have
, they wont have the same problems that the current drugs have .....”

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Figure 1.1 Asteraceae Plant

Asteraceae plant is one of the herbal plants that has been patented because
of its high chemical qualities useful in treating malaria. Indigenous people
have used this plant to treat malaria for centuries prior to colonialism. It is also
called Compositae, the aster, daisy, or composite family of the flowering-
plant order Asterales. The plant has more than 1,600 genera and almost
24,000 species of herbs, shrubs, and trees distributed throughout the world.

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Generally the demand for herbal medicines is increasing at a geometric pace

as reflected by the rise of global market for indigenous knowledge. Mugabe
(1998) also echoes similar sentiments

“biotechnology, pharmaceutical and human health care industries have

increased their interest in natural products as sources of biochemical
compounds for drug, chemical and agro-products development…. of the 119
drugs developed fro higher plants and on the world market today, it is estimated
that 74% were discovered from a pool of traditional herbal medicine…”

Indigenous traditional knowledge needs to be protected in order to allow

developing countries to benefit from the huge amounts of money that developed
countries derive from the exploitation of indigenous knowledge as a commercial
commodity. In South Africa there have been recent discoveries of a plant
thought to boost immune system, delaying full-blown HIV/AIDS. A wild shrub
“Sutherlandia” that is common in gardens across the country is about to be
tested as a medicine on people living with HIV/AIDS. The plant is thought to
boost immune systems to delay the progression of full-blown Aids and is well
known medicine among traditional healers.

This really is a break-through because it is the first time a South African

traditional medicine has received national health authority approval for testing
on people with HIV/AIDS, and researchers hope it might help prolong the
healthy period before antiretroviral treatment. The trial is being conducted in
conjunction with the American National Institute of Health. This is in line with
the new mode (2) of knowledge production that calls for inter-institutional
and inter-disciplinary collaborations.

The red-flowering Sutherlandia has finally been given the thumbs up by the
Medicines Control Council and will be dispensed to test groups of HIV
positive people in South Africa, in a carefully managed trial. The plant has
already been successfully tested in phase one clinical trials conducted on HIV-
negative people, showing no adverse health side effects. “Sutherlandia
frutescens”or simply Sutherlandia, as it is known too, comes from the dry
areas of Southern Africa, and has been found growing from Western Cape
along the west coast as far north as Namibia and into Botswana. The herb,
which is a member of the pea and bean family (Fabaceae) is said to also
grow in the western Karoo up to Eastern Cape it has become very rare in the
wild due to over-collecting.

Sutherlandia has also been cultivated as an ornamental flower for gardens

because of its pretty red blooms and strange inflated pods. “Sutherlandia

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frutescens” sub-species “Microphylla” has been the subject of clinical

research trials to study its immune-boosting properties and to look into its use
as a potential herbal remedy for HIV/AIDS. The British Broadcasting
Corporation (BBC) at one point with commented on this research and
encouraged governments and private sector to partner in order to bring
research to fruition.

“Sutherlandia frutescens” has greater potential as a remedy because of its

immune boosting qualities but it has its controversies, for example, it has come
under fire from some quarters for alleged toxicity. Questions have also been
raised over the involvement of senior political figures in lucrative herbal medicine
trade. The Treatment Action Campaign’s (TAC) Rebecca Hodes expressed
concern that such trials have the potential to conflate so called- immune-
boosting supplements and evidence-based biomedical interventions. She said
the hype around immune boosters might overshadow the crucial importance
of antiretroviral therapy.

Nevertheless, the new phase two trial, to be conducted in several South African
hospitals, is big news among the research community. Professor Quinton
Johnson, head of the South African Herbal Science and Medicine Institute at
the University of the Western Cape, noted that clinical trials of traditional
medicine were the best way to confirm or deny the alleged health benefits of
substances used daily by many South Africans. He further noted that such
initiatives were new and that it had taken more than three years to get approval.

A local consortium that includes the Medical Research Council (MRC) and
the powerful American National Institute of Health, which three years ago,
will conduct the trial jointly pledged R20-million towards the study of South
African National traditional medicine. Initial toxicity studies of Sutherlandia
on non-human primates have already been carried out by the MRC. It has
also conducted several observational studies of traditional healers who have
used the plant to treat HIV/AIDS patients.

Tests have shown that Sutherlandia, also known as kankerbossie or unwele,

may be useful in the fight against other conditions such as hypertension and
heart diseases.

Researchers have found disease-fighting chemicals in local plants, but South

Africa has yet to develop a single human health medicine due to the massive
cost involved. By contrast, foreign companies have developed several
medicines based on active ingredients discovered in South African plants.

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MRC President, Professor Anthony Mbewu, said South Africa was

progressing towards its own drug development. This will help to promote
local content and empowerment of indigenous South Africans using indigenous
resources. There has been a paradigm shift because in the past if people
found a chemical in a plant, they sold it and licensed it to an overseas
pharmaceutical company. This was due to lack of knowledge on the value of
indigenous resources as intellectual capital. There is need for governments to
create the legal framework that protects indigenous resources from plunder
by multinational companies without any benefit to the local people.

Case Study 2 State Intervention

In 2007 the government steeped in to save the plant “Perlagonium” after

foreign companies pirated the plant by harvesting tons for production and
processing. The plant is also known as “Umckabaloaba” or “Klawerbossie”
and it commonly grows in dry arid areas of the Eastern Cape. The plant is rich
in phytochemicals, vitamins, minerals and amino acids that enhance the body’s
functioning and protects it against diseases. Scientifically it has been proved
that treatment with Pelargonium rapidly improves the typical symptoms
associated with infections such as cough, fever, sore throat, fatigue and
weakness. Pelargonium is a by-product of the root of the “Pelargonium
sidoides” which is found in abundance in South Africa and has been used in
traditional medicine since early times. It has been successfully used for the
treatment of chronic respiratory illnesses such as bronchitis and pneumonia.

Pelargonium is a member of the geranium family. The patenting of such

herbal plants by multinational companies has stirred controversy because
traditional healers also claimed that they have been using the plant for centuries
and have questioned the intransigence of drug companies claims for legal
ownership.

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Figure 1.2 Umckabaloaba Plant

Pelargonium is indigenous to various parts of southern Africa, and commonly

found in Southern Africa including South Africa. It is often referred to called
geranium as it falls within the plant family Geraniaceae, although more correctly,
it is referred to as Pelargonium. This specific species has great importance in
the perfume industry and its foliage is distilled for its scent.

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Figure1.3 Pelargonium Plant

Pelargonium plant is Geranium is a genus of 422 species of flowering

annual biennial, and perennial plants that are commonly known as the
cranesbills. The plant is found throughout the temperate regions of the world
and the mountains of the tropics, but mostly in the eastern part of the
Mediterranean region. This plant is drought resistant because it can grow
anywhere other than water-logged areas.

1.8 Plant at the Centre of Controversy: Bio-piracy in

Africa
‘Pelargonium sidoides’ traditionally known as “Umckaloaba” known in the
Western Scientific Paradigm as, is an herb traditionally used by the Zulu,
Basuto, Xhosa, and Mfengi tribes that inhabit the Eastern Cape, Free State,
and Guateng Provinces of modern South Africa. The plant is geranium like
and has heart shaped leaves and a blackish purple flower; its roots contain

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medicinal properties. Umckaloaba is known to remedy respiratory diseases

like tuberculosis, tonsillitis, sore throat, and the common cold. It also has
healing effects for dysentery, diarrhea, gonorrhea, and herpes. Booby Jordan
(2007) noted that three foreign owned drug companies were cited as culprits
, these are German firms, ISO Arzneitmittel, Schwabe and South African
Parceval Pharmaceuticals which has a legal permit to harvest the plant. Extracts
from the plant are sold overseas as “ Umckaloaba” and “Umcka”.

Figure 1.4 Umcka Cold Care Medicine

Umcka also known as “ Pelargonium sidoides” has been repackaged into

a medicinal cure for throat, sinus and bronchial irritations. This reflects the
great potential of indigenous knowledge and indigenous plants in socio-
economic development in Africa.

This has led to calls for reforming the patent law after traditional leaders called
for legal protection. The South African Traditional Healers Organisation and
environmental lobbyists ( African Centre for Bi-diversity) called on Government
to revoke patents rights of those accused of bio-piracy. Communities want to
reclaim the communal ownership of these resources so that they can directly
benefit. The problems of the current laws in South Africa is that foreign
companies are obliged by law to enter into community sharing agreements
with communities if they develop medicines from traditional knowledge. It is

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assumed that foreign companies have snapped hundreds of patents despite

protests from communities. The African Centre for Bio-diversity argues that
the plant was discovered in 1897 by a white man who had sought advice of
the Basotho people. The plant was then tested in Europe and after studies
some of the biological properties were patented by Arzneimittel in 2002.

Case Study 3 Hoodia Plant

Figure 1.5 Hoodia Plant

The Hoodia plant is a genus of 13 species in the flowering plant family

Apocynaceae, under the subfamily Asclepiadoideae. These plants are
protected plants, commonly found in the Namib Desert, ranging from Central
Namibia to southern Angola, especially in plains and rocky areas.

Fitzmaurice (2008) notes that the Hoodia case is classic example of the
complexities of dealing with traditional knowledge with regards to equal, fair
and intellectual property [Link] Gordonii was discovered and used
by the San tribe from the Kalahari desert South Africa, since prehistoric times
and they used it as an appetite suppressant according to Fitzmaurice(2008).
They chewed the bitter Hoodia plant twice a day to suppress hunger and
thirst during long hunting trips. “Hoordia Gordonii” looks like an ordinary
cactus with thin, thorny fingers and it grows about 20 inches tall in the reddish
sands of Southern Africa’s Kalahari Desert. In powder form, the appearance
is green to brown in color and has a bitter taste.

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This plant contains the miracle molecule p57 that was recently translated into
a obesity cure. Hoodia is a genus of succulent plants in the family
Apocynaceae. There are about 20 species in this family but “cactus” like
Hoodia Gordonii is the one that contains the natural appetite suppressant. It
can also be used to maintain a high energy level. The plant was first discovered
in the semi-deserts of Southern Africa namely Botswana, Namibia Angola
and South Africa. It produces odiferous flowers that attract flies, and this
results in pollination.

An advert for the repackaged Hoodia Gordinnii

We supply 100% pure wild harvested South African Hoodia Goldoni

powder in 500 mg capsules.

The way mother nature intended it to be. The exact way the San tribe collected
the plant food to eat and suppress the appetite. All we do is sun dry, turn it
into powder, irradiate, encapsulate and ship it worldwide.

Hoodia is widely used traditionally by the San people of Southern Africa as

an appetite suppressant and thirst quencher. The San Bushmen of the Kalahari
cut off a stem of the Hoodia plant about the length of a medium size cucumber
and nibble on it for a few hours. Some tribes in Namibia boil the Hoodia to
treat various ailments with the brew. It has also been used as a cure for severe
abdominal cramps, hemorrhoids, tuberculosis, indigestion, hypertension and
diabetes. The San refer to the plant as “Xhoba|”

In 2004 the Council for Scientific and industrial Research (CSIR) managed
to have the plant listed in Appendix 11 of the 1973 Convention on International
Trade in Endangered Species (CITES). The San later realized that CSIR
which is the largest Research Organisation in Africa had already obtained a
patent for the plant. CSIR agreed to share benefits with owners of traditional
knowledge but failed to do so until 2003 when the San Council of Elders and
CSIR entered into a legal cost benefit sharing arrangement. Such arrangement
is critical in developing fair and equitable bioprospecting in South Africa.

Although the genus Hoodia is widespread in Southern Africa, herbarium

records indicate that Hoodia Gordonii only occurs in South Africa and
Namibia. Any claims about other areas of distribution should be verified by a
competent.

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Figure 1.6 Aloe Vera from Southern Africa.

“Aloe Vera” or Gavakava in Shona is also known as the true or medicinal

aloe, belongs top the species of succulent plant in the genus. The plant is said
to have originated in North Africa .It is a drought resistant plant and is common
in arid regions of Africa and Asia

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Activity 1.2

?
1. Justify why the sui generis is widely preferred in terms Intellectual
Property Rights of bio-diversity.
2. Discuss how a sui generis legislation can be applied at both national
and regional level in Southern Africa with regards to the protection of
bio-diversity.
3. Prepare a list of twenty indigenous plants in Zimbabwe including the
English and Shona name, areas found and medicinal use.
4. Discuss the relationship between ex situ. Convention on
Biodiversity(CBD) and TRIPS with regards to exploitation of
traditional knowledge .
5. Analyse the Traditional Medical Practionners Act of Zimbabwe (1981)
with regards to illegal and unethical practices and the promotion of
traditional medical practice.

1.9 Examples of Indigenous Plants used for

Medicinal Purposes in Zimbabwe
1. Annona (Muroro),
2. Clausena anisata (Muvhengahonhye),
3. Docomanomala (Chifumuro)
4. Erythtrinaabyssinica (Munhimbitimbi)
5. Ziziphusmucronata (Muchecheni),
6. Ximenia caffra (Munhengeni),
7. Lanneaedulis (Mutsombori),
8. Pterocarpus angolensis (Mubvaropa)
9. Vangeueria Infausta (Mutsviru),
10. Ximenia caffra (Munhengeni).

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1.10 Summary
There is greater value in the indigenous resources of Africa and there is need
to strengthen the legal framework to protect such resources and ensure Africa
has a relatively rich body of indigenous knowledge and related technology.
This knowledge is embodied in the continent’s cultural and ecological diversities
and this knowledge and resources have been used for generations. Effective
utilisation of indigenous is critical for biodiversity conservation, sustainable
use and prospecting, increasing food production, combating HIV/AIDS, cancer
and other diseases and stemming environmental degradation.

Generally Africa is bound with a wealth of indigenous resources and there is

need for a legal framework to protect such resources. Universities, Colleges,
Government and Private sector should enter into partnership to sponsor
research on the effective utilisation and patenting of products derived from
indigenous resources. A catalogue or bibliographic list of literature relating to
such plant species should be established. The African Model law provides a
starting point as it provides a legal basis for the protection of Africa’s indigenous
resources. Indigenous resources are intertwined with indigenous knowledge
and there is need to protect both in order to save Africa’s cultural and biological
heritage. Juma and Serageldin(2007) notes that there is need to bring traditional
and modern knowledge in the drive to chart a new development paradigm for
Africa “...Every generation blends the new and the old, and thereby charts its
own path in development”

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References
Fitzmaurice, M (2008).”The dilemma of Traditional Knowledge”. in:
International Community Law Review Volume 10.
Gupta, [Link] al (2001). “Characteristics of isomenthone-rich somaclonal mutant
isolated in a geraniol-rich rose-scented geranium accession of
Pelargonium graveolens”. in:Flavour and Fragrance Journal 16 (5):
319–324.
Jordan, B. (2007) “Drug Companies looting South Africa’s bounty of medicinal
plants: State to protect shrubs and traditional healers rights”in: Sunday
Times 7 October, 2007.
Jordan, B.(2008:21 ) “Shrub to be tested on HIV–positive humans.”in: Sunday
Times , November 30.
Juma,C. and Serageldin, I.(2007) ‘Freedom to Innovate: Biotechnology in
Africa’s Development.” A report of the High-Level African Panell
on Modern [Link] Unnd NEPAD:Addis Ababa and
Pretoria.
Matonho, T.(2006:5) “Use of combined knowledge systems empower
communities to seek alternatives solutions to their problems through
discerning strengths and weaknesses Asess Knowledge that nurtured
Africa”.in:The Herald Tuesday 5 September, 2006.
Mbeki, T.(2005:66) “Africa: The role of Higher Education”.in: New Africa
April, 2005.
Tsiko, S.(2004:9) “Vital to document traditional knowledge”.in:The Herald,
Friday 26 November, 2004.
Traditional Medical Practionner Act of Zimbabwe (1981)

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 Unit Two

Vital to Document Traditional

Knowledge

2.1 Introduction

T his unit explores why it is critical to document indigenous knowledge. It

also investigates the global threats that undermine African traditional
knowledge systems. The unit also looks at the scepticism and controversies
that surround the initiative to document indigenous knowledge systems. The
unit further looks at justification for documenting indigenous knowledge.
Indigenous Knowledge Systems Module RAM 310/LIS 303

2.2 Objectives
 justify the documentation of indigenous knowledge
 suggest possible ways through which indigenous knowledge can be
preserved
 analyse the National Archives of Zimbabwe’s “Capturing a fading
memory” and discuss its strength and weaknesses of archiving
indigenous knowledge
 explore the legal and ethical consideration in documenting indigenous
knowledge.
 describe the roles of cultural institutions in protecting indigenous
knowledge and animal and plant species.
 analyse the National Archives of Zimbabwe’s role in archiving
indigenous knowledge.

2.3 Traditional Knowledge

The idea to documenting traditional knowledge is one potent means of protecting
it from extinction at a time when indigenous systems are being marginalized by
dominant societies resulting in assimilation and cultural genocide in the name
of globalisation. According to the latest United Nations Development
Programme (UNDP) (2004) Human Development Report, documenting
traditional knowledge is often essential for protecting it and diminishing
possibilities for uncompensated exploitation of knowledge. The findings of
the report indicate that traditional knowledge, innovations and practices of
indigenous people, developed over many generations and collectively owned
by the community, can have practical uses in agriculture, forestry, education,
food preparation and conservation and health. Researchers believe strongly
that traditional knowledge can contribute immensely to a society and bring to
both national and international debates valuable advice about the great issues
facing humanity in this millennium, for example, deviance, cancer, conflict,
social justice, equality and equity.

Tsiko (2006) notes that people in Africa have used traditional medicine and
traditional knowledge for their survival. There is need to re-package traditional
knowledge and create easier access to further research and sustainable
[Link] (2011) notes that Botswana has started to work on
Indigenous Knowledge Systems (IKS) policy. This has been achieved through
partnerships between Botswana Centre for Scientific Research (BCSR),
Indigenous Knowledge and innovation (CesrIKi) and the Ministry of
Infrastructure Science and Technology. This is inline with Gibbons’ theory of

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knowledge production whereby he talks of interdisciplinary and

interinstitutuional collaborations. There is need to create an inventory of
indigenous knowledge to protect such knowledge from piracy.

2.4 Indigenous Knowledge and Global Threats

Tsiko (2006) notes that Zimbabwe’s traditional knowledge systems, just like
in many other countries in Africa, has been bombarded with foreign goods,
ideas, people and capital from dominant cultures in the North threatening the
Southern African country’s diverse cultures in many ways. The dependency
syndrome characterised by the flow of investment and knowledge from the
North has led the abandonment of traditional values and practices and the
dismantling of the economic basis on which the survival of indigenous cultures
depend. From an Afrocentric perspective, this form of neo –colonial
imperialism threatens to wipe out everything that is African and traditional.
The young people of today are daily bombarded by technology that imbues
them with knowledge that denigrates non-indigenous culture and limits the
capacity of elders to pass on the cultural heritage. This is further hampered by
lack of intergenerational dialogue between the young and the old because of
modernization and individualism.

The World Conference on Science (2003) proposed a commitment to a ‘new

social contract’ between science and society. The idea is that there is need for
holistic attitudes that will determine whether development policies, while making
full use of modern science, will be sustainable. The realization of sustainable
development will mean reconciliation of modern science and tradition
knowledge. The reconciliation of modern science and traditional knowledge
are part of a broader strategy to transform the way people think with regards
to science from a scientific, political and cultural perspective.

Researchers in the latest Human Development Report (2010) say when such
global flows lead to cultural exclusion there is need for multi-cultural policies
to manage trade, immigration and investments in ways that recognize cultural
differences and identities. We are living in a global village but that does not
mean that cultural diversity should be lost because it is the Deoxyribonucleic
acid (DNA) that preserves the distinct identities of people as citizens of the
world.

It is argued that legal instruments, mechanisms, policies and institutions to

protect, promote and preserve tradition, cultural liberty and expand people’s

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lives and identities as unique are needed to enhance local or indigenous cultures
especially in the advent of globalisation. Developing countries need to maintain
a hold on their cultural identities as the world advances towards global culture.
Yahaya Ezemoo Ndu(2001) quotes Dr. Nnamdi Azikiwe from the book
“Renascent” highlighted the need for a cultural revolution as a way to regain
and protect socio-cultural indigenous heritage

“Africa will educate the Renascent African to be a Man. Tell him that he has
made definite contributions to history. Educate him to appreciate the fact that
iron was discovered by Africans; that the conception of one God was initiated
by Africans; that Africans ruled the world from 763 to 713 B.C.; that while
Europe slumbered during the dark ages, a great civilization flourished on the
banks of the Niger, extending from the salt mines of Taghaza in Morocco, to
Lake Chad right to the Atlantic; Narrate to him the lore of Ethiopia, Ghana,
Melle, Mellestine and Songhay”

Unfortunately, today’s debates about globalization and the loss of cultural

identity have often been argued in terms of upholding national sovereignty,
preserving the ancient heritage of indigenous people and safeguarding national
culture in the face of growing inflows of people, films, music and other goods.

2.5 Indigenous People and Indigenous Knowledge

An understanding of traditional knowledge and how it differs from non-
indigenous knowledge is an important basis for determining how to use it.
Knowing what it contains and how it is acquired and held is fundamental to
being able to make good use of the knowledge and to encourage all parties to
be aware of the added value its use will bring. The Director General of United
Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO)
(Mayor, 1994) notes that “… indigenous people of the world possess an
immense knowledge of the environment based on centuries of living close to
nature. Living in and from the and from the richness and variety of complex
ecosystems, they have an understanding of the functions of plants and
animals….Equally, people is knowledge and perceptions of the environment
and their relationship with it, are often important elements of cultural
ideology….”

Magga Henrik, the chairperson of the United Nations Permanent forum on

Indigenous People noted that indigenous peoples have dynamic living cultures
and seek their place in the modern world. It has been observed that at various

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international fora, development experts have supposedly articulated concern

over development practices that do not take into account the characteristics
of indigenous communities as groups, thus significantly undermining meaningful
ways of participatory development. Mbeki notes that for any meaningful
development to take place it must be indigenous grounded.

The United Nations Secretary General in (2010) noted with great appreciation
the need to value indigenous people and culture. The following speech was
presented at the opening session of the United Nations’ Permanent Forum on
Indigenous People (19th April, 2010)

“We have made significant progress on indigenous peoples’ issues at the United
Nations over the past forty years. Apart from the Declaration on the Rights of
Indigenous Peoples, other notable achievements include the establishment of
this Permanent Forum… the mandate of the Special Rapporteur… and the
Expert Mechanism on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples. .Indigenous issues
are more prominent on the international agenda than ever before. And yet…
we can not even begin to be content with our progress. The first-ever United
Nations report on the State of the World’s Indigenous Peoples in January set
out some alarming statistics. Indigenous peoples suffer high levels of poverty,
health problems, crime and human rights abuses all over the world. You make
up some five per cent of the world’s population – but one-third of the world’s
poorest. In some countries, an indigenous person is 600 times more likely to
contract tuberculosis than the general population. In others, an indigenous
child can expect to die twenty years earlier than his non-native compatriots.
Every day, indigenous communities face issues of violence, brutality and
dispossession. Indigenous cultures, languages and ways of life are under
constant threat from climate change, armed conflict, lack of educational
opportunities and discrimination...”

2.6 Formal Scientific Knowledge and its Failures.

It has been observed that many of the industrial processes and related
agricultural techniques associated with unsustainable patterns of growth tend
to be based, directly or indirectly, on the products of modern science, for
example, genetic engineering, use of fertilizers, use of nuclear energy resulting
in such catastrophes as Chernobyl, Hiroshima, Nagasaki, and Fukishima. On
the other hand traditional knowledge tends to be linked with lifestyles that
have survived successfully and relatively unaffected for centuries or sustainable
lifestyles. There is however some tension between the traditional knowledge

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and modern science considering the weaknesses of each system, for example,
destruction of forests due to overgrazing in North Africa and Middle East.

2.6.1 Examples Anthropogenic Environmental Disasters

Figure 2.1 Effects of Chernobyl Nuclear Disaster

The Chernobyl accident in 1986 was the result of a flawed reactor design that
was operated with inadequately trained personnel. The resulting steam
explosion and fires released at least 5% of the radioactive reactor core into
the atmosphere and downwind. UNSCEAR notes that the after effects of
this disaster include increased thyroid cancers thyroid cancers, and leukaemia
from birth defects causing cancer and heart diseases and mutations causing
missing limbs.

Overgrazing refers to the grazing plants before they have recovered from a
previous grazing. When a plant is grazed severely, it uses energy stored in its
roots to support [Link] this energy is used, the roots die back. The
dying of roots depends on the severity of grazing.

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Figure 2.3 Victims of the Bhopal Gas

The Bhopal Gas disaster happened in 1984 at the American-owned Union

Carbide Pesticide Plant three miles (4.8 km) from Bhopal. The disaster caused
a deadly cloud of lethal gas to float from the factory over Bhopal, which is
home to more than 900,000 people. Pandemonium and alarm broke out in
the city and surrounding areas as tens of thousands of people attempted to
escape. The after effects of the disaster include symptoms including swollen
eyes, frothing at the mouth and breathing difficulties.

2.7 Value of Documenting Traditional Knowledge

Zimbabwe is still grappling to document traditional knowledge and also to
formulate laws, to recognize its existence and the intellectual property rights.
Claude Mararike laments that not much is being done by Zimbabweans to
document traditional knowledge. There is a growing awareness of the value
of traditional knowledge as it applies generally in the whole range of social
practices required to promote sustainable development. He attributes the failure
to document this valuable knowledge to lack of appreciation, total disorientation
of the mind resulting in some kind of intellectual inertia on the part of the

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intellectuals amongst the indigenous Zimbabweans. Mararike takes an

Afrocentric perspective as he argues that development can only take place if
Africans stand on their own platforms, using their own knowledge systems
and putting on indigenous intellectual costumes to demystify science and
technology.

This view is further acknowledged by Professor Chavhunduka who strongly

calls for greater participation by all stakeholders in the creation of a national
repository of indigenous knowledge. He calls for collaboration between Higher
and tertiary institutions, government, communities and other stakeholders to
contribute towards the promotion of indigenous knowledge as an alternative
to development.

Waite (2000) notes that Africans continued to use indigenous healers and
traditional medicine , even though traditional though everything indigenous
was being maligned and abused by colonial [Link] who were
the harbingers of colonialism strongly opposed traditional medicine be
enforcing strong measures against traditional medicine such as using education
to undermine the legitimacy of traditional medicine, insulting or denigrating
patients who used traditional medicine and organising their own racially biased
professional association to censure colleagues who referred patients to
traditional healers. Africans could be fired for missing work on the pretext
that they had gone to traditional healers but those who could produce certificates
from doctors or letters confirming that they were being attended to by Western
Doctors were accepted. In the 1970’s there was an attempt to initiate
discussion in colonial Zimbabwe’s parliament on traditional medicine t
encourage the wholesale mobilisation of local scientific resources and personnel
to study and create an independent supply of medicine using indigenous
medicinal plants. Chavunduka (1986) states that despite the colonial onslaught
on traditional medicine, Africans continued to make greater use of indigenous
healers and indigenous medicine.

After independence the government passed the Traditional Medical

Practitioners Council Act of 1981 (79) and this complemented the initiatives
of the World Health Organisation (WHO) which had passed a declaration
calling on countries to promote the role of traditional practitioners in the health
care systems of developing countries and to allocate more financial support
for the development of traditional medical systems. The board also urged the
medical profession not to undervalue the traditional medical system. The World
Health Organisation (WHO) also encouraged governments in developing
countries to enact laws to legally recognise traditional health systems as is the
case in Sri Lanka, India, and China. It also advocated for the utilization of

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indigenous medicinal plants and remedies used by traditional practitioners to

effectively treat patients.

Professor Chavunduka (2000) is quoted in the herald stating that through his
organisation, the Zimbabwe National Traditional Healers’ Association
(ZINATHA) progress had been made to draft laws that protect indigenous
knowledge, for example, Traditional Medical Practitioners Council Act
of 1981 (79).This is a highly all-inclusive piece of legislation relating to the
practice of traditional medicine that has been enacted anywhere in the world.
The act stipulates that, the practice of traditional medicine encompasses
treatment, identification, analysis, or diagnosis, without the application of
operative surgery or any illness of the body or mind by traditional methods.
The act recognises the traditional practionner as encompassing the following
practices and persons:

 Herbal gardens
 Traditional Medicine manufactures
 Traditional Psychiatrists
 Faith Healers
 Prophets
 Met physicists
 Bone setters
 Diviners
 Spirit Mediums
 Traditional Birth Attendants
 Traditional medicine training schools
Traditional medicine centres, surgeries and clinics.

Zimbabwe National Traditional Healers Association (ZINATHA) has been

advocating for the setting up of a traditional medicines department to facilitate
research and development of patents on local herbs that have been found to
be useful in the treatment of various ailments and suppression and suppression
of HIV and Aids symptoms. The association estimates that about 80 percent
of Zimbabweans consult traditional healers, or alternatively faith healers, due
to the rising costs of treatment in conventional health institutions. In November
2003, Zimbabwe National Traditional Healers Association (ZINATHA) and
the Ministry of Environment and Tourism embarked on a US$1000 000 million
traditional medicine project under which a variety of local traditional plants

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were tested for the treatment of various ailments including opportunistic

infections among HIV and Aids patients. But lack of funds still stalls several
projects that aim to document and protect traditional knowledge. He Professor
highlighted the need for government and educational institutions to take the
lead in the drive to protect local knowledge.

“We have to convince our Government of the importance of putting aside funds
for research, sustained research and not just a one-off thing by indigenous
people... to do research on how that knowledge can be applied and used for the
benefit of the people.”

The protection of traditional knowledge also faces challenge when it comes

to patenting intellectual property rights. Foreign researchers can appropriate
traditional knowledge and apply for a patent, claiming to have invented a new
product since traditional knowledge has attributes of communal ownership
and sometimes, and spiritual significance.

There is a lot that needs to be done in terms of protecting knowledge and

medicines. Knowledge is a contested territory and anything that is done in
Africa; Europe will not recognize that it originated from the continent.

Activity 2.1

?
1. Discuss at least five examples of explicit sui generis protection of
indigenous knowledge with reference to Africa.
2. Analyse five strategies that can be applied in documenting indigenous
knowledge

2.8 Ancestral Knowledge as Indigenous Knowledge

Payyappallimana (2009)notes that ancestral knowledge offers answers to
humankind’s essential questions on being and living. In India they use a herb
known as “Ayurveda” or ‘eagle twiner” to treat snake poisons. The knowledge
is beautifully embedded in Indian mythology whereby the eagle is portrayed
as saviour against voracious snakes. The same plant is also used in Sri Lanka
to treat snake bites. It is assumed that through out there are over 500 species
of the same genus around the universe and this includes Africa, Asia, Latin
America and parts of [Link] Myth of the eagle with slight variations cuts
across cultures from Babylonians, to Albanians and Aztecs. In India it is noted
that 8000 Medicinal plants of the 18000 higher plants (angiosperms) are

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currently being used for treating various illnesses by around 4, 460 ethnic
groups in the world.

Figure 2.4 The Ayurveda plant

The Ayurveda medical system has played an important role in the medical
care of the people of India and Sri Lanka since the 5th century BC. Before
the introduction of western medicine in 1505 AD it was the main health care
system in the country. The Government of Sri Lanka by the introduction of
the Indigenous Medicine Ordinance in 1941 and the Ayurveda Act of 1961
encouraged and helped the development of ayurveda. There are many
traditional systems of snakebite management practiced in the country.

Traditional knowledge in other areas of human endeavour like agriculture,

architecture, biodiversity or healthy care has examples of similarities among
different cultures. India makes up one sixth of the world’s population and it
harbours ten percent of the world’s 20 biodiversity hotspots. This reflects the
diversity of knowledge around the worlds in varied micro-climates, bio-
geographical zones and eco –cultural systems. “...Dialects and traditions
change every twelve miles [19.3 km...” Apart from the eco-system and ethnic
community –specific, oral folk stream, traditional knowledge has stood the
test of time through surviving the past four to five millennia and currently it is
available in texts of Chinese Medicine, Vrikshayurveda or traditional
agricultural and Mirigayurrveda or veterinary care among others.

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2.9 Knowledge and the Three Levels of Existence

The Asiatic cultural and philosophic traditions view knowledge as existing at
three levels of existence of a human being;

1. The level relating to practical aspects (VYAVAHARA)-this is known

to almost all members of the community. We can call this the public
domain area but it changes and varies depending on the needs of the
needs of beings as well as time and space.
2. The mental level relating to methodological and scientific aspects
(SASTRA) -these also vary depending on time and context.
3. Inner-self whereby one becomes one with the object (TATTVA) -this
is the wisdom of essential nature and it does not change.

2.10 Indigenous Knowledge and De-

contextualisation
Bebbington ([Link]) (1993) notes that indigenous knowledge tends to be deeply
embedded within the society in which it has been developed and this is a
drawback for development practice because it makes the broader application
of indigenous knowledge difficult between different geographical, cultural and
economic settings. This clarifies the difference between Western Scientific
knowledge which thrives on abstract formulation and separation from the
lives of the investigated. Ellen and Harris (2000) point out that there are serious
problems in applying indigenous knowledge out of context because it will not
work. It is the local embeddedness that gives indigenous knowledge relevance,
applicability, practicality and power. This implies that indigenous knowledge
can lose its value and efficacy if it becomes depersonalised or used out of
context. Hobbs (1990) notes that among the Bedouin society conservation of
vegetation is a product of the bonds developed over time between individuals,
families and lineages.

The application of indigenous knowledge from one context to another carries

with it risks of failure because knowledge is developed by local people through
a real understanding of the environment and this makes it possible to transfer
it to other [Link] and Mwambazi(1996) argue that it is not proper
to packaged , generalised or scientized because such approaches disregards
the special character of local needs as well as the reality of socio-economic
and historical situation in which the indigenous technology should be

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Unit 2 Vital to Document Traditional Knowledge

[Link](2001) echoes similar sentiments that globalisation of

indigenous knowledge as a planning tool will result in the detachment of the
local knowledge from its cultural, livelihood and community context. Therefore
there is need to explore the consequences of institutionalisation of indigenous
knowledge in a global context.

Activity 2.2

?
1. Using the Afro-centric perspective analyse the value intuition as a mode
of indigenous knowledge.
2. Prepare a proposal for funding research in indigenous medicinal
remedies.

2.11 Summary
The documentation of indigenous knowledge is critical as a way to preserve it
for future generations. However it should be noted that there are shortfalls in
the process of transfer indigenous knowledge outside its socio-economic and
geographic context. Overally it is a fact that a knowledge system is most often
specific to a particular physical, economic, and cultural environment and it is
difficult to transfer location-specific knowledge from one place to another.
The documentation of indigenous knowledge should be done in with due
consideration of the legal and ethical challenges that emanate from dealing
with knowledge that is communally owned.

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References
Azikiwe, N. (1968) Renascent Africa. London: Frank Cass & Company
Limited.
Bebbington, A.(1993:274)”Modernisation from below:An Alternative
indigenous development?” in:Economic Geography ,Vol. 69.
Chavunduka, G.L.(1978)Traditional healers and the Shona patient.
Gewu:Mambo Press.
Ellen,R. ([Link])(2000) Indigenous environmental knowledge and its
[Link]:Harwood Academic Publishers.
Eyzaguirre,P.B.(2001)”Global recognition of indigenous knowledge:Is this the
latest phase of globalisation?” in:Indigenous Knowledge and
Development Monitor [Link] Effects of the Chernobyl Accident
and Special Health Care Programmes. Report of the UN Chernobyl
Forum, Expert Group “Health” (2006). New York: World Health
Organization, 2006.
Hobbs,J.(1990) Bedouin life in the Egyptian [Link]:The American
University of Cairo.
Human Development Report (2004) Cultural liberty in today’s diverse
world. New York: UNDP.
McKinney, M.L. and Schoch, R.M.(2003) Environmental Science: Systems
and [Link]: Jones and Bartlett Publishers.
Mosarwe, Q. (2011) “Traditional Indigenous Knowledge System Study”
launched in The Gazette, 11 June, 2011.
Sikana, P. And Mwambazi, T.(1996) Environmental Change and livelihood
responses ;Shifting agricultural practices in the lakes depression
zone of Northern.
Tsiko, S. (2004:9) “Vital to document traditional knowledge.” in: The Herald,
Friday 26 November, 2004.
Waite, G. (2000) “Traditional medicine and the Quest for National Identity in
Zimbabwe.” in: Zambezia, XXV11 (11).
Zambia IN:Reij, C([Link]) (eds) “Sustaining the Soil: Indigenous soil and
water conservation in Africa.”London:Earthscan Publications.

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 Unit Three

Traditional Knowledge and

Traditional Cultural
Expressions: Challenges and
Opportunities
3.1 Introduction

T his unit focuses on challenges and opportunities of managing traditional

knowledge and traditional cultural expressions. The unit begins by
exploring the nature of traditional knowledge cultural expressions. It also
highlights the challenges of protecting intellectual cultural expressions in the
context of globalisation. The unit brings into lime light the nature of intangible
intellectual assets.
Indigenous Knowledge Systems Module RAM 310/LIS 303

3.2 Objectives
By the end of the unit, you should be able to:
 distinguish between tangible and intangible intellectual assets
 evaluate the main characteristics of intangible traditional cultural
expressions
 suggest ways of archiving traditional cultural expressions in the digital
world

3.3 Nature of Intellectual Property and Traditional

Cultural Expressions
Mugabe (2009) states that intellectual property refers to the creations of the
mind, for example, inventions, literary and artistic work, symbols, names,
images and designs used in industry and commerce. It is divided into two
namely: industrial property which includes inventions or patents, trademarks,
industrial designs, geographic indications of source and copyright, which
includes literary and artistic works such as novels, poems and plays, films,
musical works, artistic works such as drawings, painting, photographs and
sculptors and architectural designs and intangible assets that include human
knowledge and ideas. Traditional cultural expressions are also “Shared-cultural
knowledge” which refers to the knowledge that is specific to a cultural group.
This knowledge is identifiable with the culture and can be assumed to be
owned by that cultural group, for example, folktales, stories, proverbs and
riddles, arts and crafts patterns and artefacts. The issue of ownership of this
kind of knowledge is a contentious one and at the core of it is the concern for
the commercial exploitation that sometimes occurs.

Hester and Litowitz define intellectual property as a concept that encompasses

four separate and distinct types of intangible property namely patents,
trademarks, copyrights and trade secrets. Verzan (2009) defines intellectual
property as creations and innovations or the results of creative intellectual
activity, for example, inventions, designs, literary and artistic works, symbols,
names, images and performance. The intellectual property regime consists of
laws that establish private property rights in order to facilitate easier or
systematic control over access, use, embezzlement and exploitation and the
provision of incentives to encourage or motivate creators to do more. Acharya
(1992) lamented that there is need to do more to promote indigenous peoples
rights to intellectual ownership over there indigenous or traditional resources

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Unit 3 Traditional Knowledge and Traditional Cultural Expressions: Challenges and Opportunities

“Indigenous knowledge has always been an open treasure box for the unfettered
appropriation of items of value to Western civilisation.....indigenous people
have never been accorded similar rights over there cultural knowledge....”

3.4 Definition of Traditional Cultural Expressions

and Traditional Knowledge
Wendland (2007) states that traditional cultural expressions or folklores of
conversation are tangible and intangible forms in which traditional knowledge
and culture are expressed communicated and manifested for example,
traditional songs and dances, performances, crafts, names among others. On
the other hand traditional knowledge refers to the content of knowhow
developed and transmitted through traditional intergenerational means.
Traditional cultural expressions encompass the varied forms through which
traditional culture is expressed, appear or is manifested, for example, the
various forms of the art of conversation in the form of myths, legends, tales,
poetry, riddles, proverbs and also other cultural expressions like jewellery,
handicrafts, designs, instruments, architectural forms and many others. Such
products are a result of fluid creative intellectual activity and are handed down
from one generation to another through oral traditions. These cultural artefacts,
whether tangible or intangible, reflect a community’s heritage, history and values.
They are a society’s intellectual and cultural capital as they bring financial
benefits to their creators, practitioners and custodians and help to preserve
the traditional life of a community.

3.5 Characteristics of Traditional Cultural

Expressions
Traditional cultural expressions are fundamental to the cultural and social
identities of indigenous and local communities, they embody know-how and
skills, and they transmit core values and beliefs. Their protection is correlated
to the promotion of creativity, enhanced cultural diversity and the preservation
of cultural heritage. The following points help to illustrate the characteristics of
Traditional Cultural Expressions (TCE).
1. Handed from one generation to another orally
2. Reflective of a common cultural and social identity
3. Consists of characteristic elements of communal heritage

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4. Communally owned
5. Created as instruments for religious and cultural expressions
6. Constantly evolving and developing and being constantly recreated

Activity 3.1

?
1. With reference to Zimbabwe’s Traditional cultural Expressions (TCE’s)
discuss strategies that can be employed to promote local cultural capital.
2. Analyse the challenges and opportunities for promoting indigenous
cultural expressions in Zimbabwe.
3. Discuss how Zimbabwe’s art of conversation can be packaged as a
marketable traditional cultural expression

3.6 Protecting Traditional Cultural Expressions

(TCE)
The concepts of preservation and safeguarding refer to the identification,
documentation, transmission, revitalisation and promotion of cultural heritage
in order to ensure its maintenance and viability so that traditional knowledge
and traditional cultural expressions do not disappear, become lost or debased.
The preservation and safeguarding of cultural heritage and the promotion of
cultural diversity are key objectives of regional and international organisations,
for example, the United Nations (UN), African Union (AU), Southern African
Development Community (SADC) and other policies, protocols and practices
meant to strengthen careful management of indigenous knowledge and
traditional cultural expressions of indigenous people and communities. Laws
are used to prevent unauthorised or inappropriate use of traditional cultural
expressions by third parties. The World Intellectual Property Organisation
(WIPO) framework protects traditional cultural expressions with the main
aim to realise, economic and moral control over intangible creativity to facilitate
exploitation by traditional cultural expressions holders, prevention of unwanted
use and commercialisation by others, remuneration for third party uses and
acknowledgement of source.

Many countries have promulgated copyright laws to protect traditional cultural

expressions, for example, in Zimbabwe we have the Copyright and
Neighbouring Rights Act which makes it a crime to pirate other people’s
intellectual property. The main idea behind the copyright protection is to uphold
the economic and moral rights of authors so that the rights owner will derive

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Unit 3 Traditional Knowledge and Traditional Cultural Expressions: Challenges and Opportunities

financial rewards from the use of his works by others or to allow the rights
owner to monopolise the commercial use of a work or their use in an
unwarranted manner that will disadvantage the originator. The Patent Act also
helps to protect inventions and innovations, for example, the use of trademarks,
geographical indicators, industrial designs which protect the established
reputation, distinctiveness and goodwill. Generally, intellectual property laws
as they exist are inadequate to provide protection for the underlying and pre-
existing cultural heritage and traditional culture.

Verzan (2009) notes that archives, libraries and related cultural institutions
play a decisive role in the process of preserving and conserving as well as
providing access to the vital cultural heritage of indigenous people and traditional
communities. Programmes aimed at preservation and conservation of cultural
heritage should take cognisance of the intellectual property rights and interests
of the indigenous people and traditional communities and traditional cultural
expressions of such communities. The proper management of indigenous
people’s traditional knowledge and traditional cultural expressions should be
done in cognisance of the indigenous people’s rights to intellectual property.

Manhongo (2011) states that the government of Zimbabwe , the media and
communities have been called upon by United Nations Educational, Scientific
and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO) to assist in safeguarding local culture
so that the country will not lose its intangible cultural heritage. Intangible cultural
heritage includes oral traditions, performing arts, social practices, rituals,
knowledge and practices concerning nature and universe and skills involved
in the production of crafts. The world over, cultural groups are playing a
critical role in the preservation and conservation of intangible heritage. The
media can play a critical role in promoting intangible heritage, for example,
Mbende Jerusalem, Marimba, Muchongoyo and jiti have gained popularity
through coverage by the media. Zimbabwe has quite a substantial amount of
intangible assets that were pillaged during colonialism and these should be
returned home for a cultural revolution and for posterity.

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Figure 3.1 Traditional Mbira Players Preparing for a Dance

Mbira dance is the quintessential ritual dance in Zimbabwe. Ritual dances

enforce and affirm the belief system of Zimbabwe. Such dances are religious
in nature and designated for specific occasions that accelerate and make
possible the most powerful expression of Zimbabweans. They serve the
community as visual, spiritual and dynamic manifestation of the cosmology of
the people.

Figure 3.2 Traditional dance in Zimbabwe

Zimbabwe has a multitude of traditional dances which reflect the ethnic diversity
of the country’s cultural heritage.

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Unit 3 Traditional Knowledge and Traditional Cultural Expressions: Challenges and Opportunities

Figure 3.3 Traditional dance of the Bana

The Bana tribe are chiefly located in the Gemu Gofa province, which is east
of the Omo River and north of Lake Turkana in Ethiopia. This area, called the
Lower Omo region, has remained one of the most inaccessible and least
developed part of East Africa. Here they are performing a ritual dance which
is religious in nature and is designated for specific occasions that expedite and
facilitate ancestral reverence.

Figure [Link] Traditional Dance of Zimbabwe

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Indigenous Knowledge Systems Module RAM 310/LIS 303

Zimbabwe is cultural rich terms of traditional cultural dances. In Zimbabwe,

dancing is an important aspect of the culture, tradition, spirituality and history.
There are many dances that reflect the culture of the people, although the
dances may have changed throughout the years. These dances, for example,
jiti, mbakumba, mbende among others reflect the wealthy Ethnic diversity
of Zimbabwe.

Figure 3.5 Thabisong Dance Group from South Africa

Thabisong Dance Group is a globetrotting assembly that has managed to thrill

big crowds in Africa and beyond. The group performs a multitude of South
African traditional dances.

3.7 World Intellectual Property Organisation (WIPO)

The activities of the World Intellectual Property Organisation (WIPO) in
examining the relationship between Intellectual Property and the protection,

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Unit 3 Traditional Knowledge and Traditional Cultural Expressions: Challenges and Opportunities

promotion, preservation and conservation of traditional cultural expressions

began in the Nineteenth Century and gained momentum in the second half of
the Twentieth Century in 1967. The Bernie Convention for the Protection of
Literary and Artistic Works has, on several occasions, been amended to cater
for the international protection of unpublished and often or anonymous works.
The institution has a knowledge division that takes care for the protection of
traditional knowledge and traditional cultural expressions against
misappropriation, misuse or abuse, intellectual control and benefits and
ownership rights. World Intellectual Property Organisation (WIPO) provides
for the negotiation of legal instruments for the protection of indigenous
knowledge and traditional cultural expressions (TCE’s). World Intellectual
Property Organisation (WIPO) also conducts capacity building activities
through education and training workshops, symposia, conferences and
seminars as well as awareness or social advocacy workshops.

3.8 Traditional Cultural Expressions(TCE’s) in

Archives
Traditional cultural expressions in archives include invaluable records of ancient
traditions and customs and community narratives or histories that are integral
to indigenous people and communities’ identity and continuity. There are
challenges that confront those who manage such resources, for example,
intellectual property issues and the issue of access to audio-visual and sound
archives vis- a- vis access. Archivists and other related information
professionals will find themselves confronted with an ethical and legal dilemma
with regards to copyright and related rights. There is growing concern from
indigenous and traditional communities that those responsible for managing
indigenous knowledge and traditional cultural expressions do not take
cognisance of the rights and interests of those who generate and own such
intellectual and cultural capital, for example, they argue that documenting and
displaying a traditional song or a tribal symbol may make such artefacts
vulnerable to misappropriation and possible misuse or debasement. We strongly
object to the notion that it constitutes a raw material or commercial resource
for the knowledge-based economy of the Information Society.

There is growing criticism and condemnation of the conception that genetic

information of humans and other life forms should be used as a resource for
commercial use and economic development. Indigenous groups are beginning
to question the privatization and commoditization of indigenous knowledge

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Indigenous Knowledge Systems Module RAM 310/LIS 303

and natural resources as it will undermine the political, social, economic, and
cultural integrity of indigenous cultures.

However, traditional cultural expressions holding cultural institutions like

archives, libraries and museums have a mandate to preserve sensitivities and
underlying rights of indigenous people and traditional communities but they
do not have control over intellectual property rights. The traditional and cultural
artefacts, whether tangible or intangible, are documented by external
researchers without the informed consent of communities concerned, and as
a result researchers who create or develop the film own the intellectual property
rights, sound recording or photogragh. Verzan (2009) argues that it is those
who create the traditional cultural artefact, for example, the film or sound
recording, that end up with copyrights or related rights over the form of the
recording.

The issue of intellectual property rights is quite complex, because while

traditional cultural expressions maybe perceived as being in the public domain
according to international Intellectual Property Rights Convention, but their
documentation may generate new rights, for example, a traditional song may
fall in the public domain according to intellectual property rights, recording
the song will create new rights to the one who will record the song.

3.9 Traditional Cultural Expressions and Digital

Revolution
The digital revolution in the form of digital technologies and the Internet provide
greater opportunities for the promotion, preservation, revitalisation,
dissemination and protection of traditional cultural expressions thus enabling
communities to pass on their cultural heritage to future generations. Technology
helps to preserve and conserve traditional cultural expressions that are
endangered by erosion or disappearance. The digitisation, dissemination and
circulation of traditional cultural expressions (TCE’s) can create problems as
regards to how access of traditional cultural expressions (TCE’s) to the
communities concerned will be facilitated. There is growing concern over
issues regarding access to traditional cultural expressions because digitisation
can result in unauthorised disclosure or access or commercial exploitation of
sensitive material, for example, there are reports that in the 1990’s music
from Ghana, Solomon Islands and African Sandawe and Hadza people was
fused with techno house music to create a new brand or genre, resulting in
huge profits for those who pirate such traditional cultural expressions at the

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expense of the authentic creators and owners of the genre the indigenous
people.

3.10 New Roles for Archives and Related Institutions

with Regards to the Management of Traditional
Cultural Expressions
Versan (2009) states that the role of sound and audo-visual archives is being
evaluated and the nature of their collections being reassessed. There is a
growing awareness among communities and researchers that traditional cultural
expressions need to be properly managed without compromising or
undermining the intellectual property rights of those who create and own
traditional cultural expressions. Wendland (2008) notes that in order to better
serve the interests of those communities that produce and own traditional
cultural expressions there is need to turn archives into platforms for clarifying
intellectual property issues that shroud the management of cultural artefacts in
a dynamic digitally driven information economy by focusing on changing modes
of conduct through development of best practices, for example, the use of
intellectual property protocols and policies to safeguarding, access to and
ownership of traditional cultural expressions. It is believed that such practices
will help to encourage ethical conduct and collaborations based on mutual
symbiotic relationships resulting in creativity, community development, archival
services and scientific and educational opportunities.

Activity 3.2
?
1. Discuss the legal and ethical challenges of protecting indigenous cultural
expressions in Africa
2. Analyse at least two regional and two international protocols relating
to the protection of indigenous cultural expressions
3. Analyse five ways through which the digital revolution has affected the
way Archives manage traditional cultural expressions.
4. Discuss the challenges African archivists face in the drive to digitise
traditional cultural expressions.

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3.11 WIPO Response to the Challenges of Archiving

Traditional Cultural Expressions
The rapid changes in the world of archives and related institutions have given
rise to the establishment of creative heritage project that focuses on the legal
protection of traditional cultural expressions and defines the role of cultural
institutions in the management of such artefacts. The project aims to develop
resources for the strategic management of intellectual property rights and
interests by collecting institutions with regards to recording, documenting and
digitisation and disseminating traditional cultural expressions. The resources
available include surveys on practical experiences with intellectual property in
the archival practices of institutions and indigenous and local communities,
searchable databases of codes and policies and practices and publications
for archives, museums, and libraries. The project also provides training in
documentation, recording and digitisation of intangible cultural artefacts for
indigenous and local communities and staff who manage cultural centres.

3.12 The Liberal Archive

Joyce (1999:35) views the archive as a political technology of liberal
governmentality and this implies that the archive provides an intrinsic instrument
in helping to render readings of social life and social conditions, for example,
readings that are intrinsic to how governments conceptualise subjects and
there needs and then develop strategies to realise these ends. The author
views the archive as a public space that affords the individual freedom to
navigate such a space. Osborne (1999:55) views the archives as a source of
ethical and epistemological credibility and this is reflected by its authenticity,
identity and evidence and how these relate to the ideas of representation,
interpretation and reason. Osborne (1999:55) uses the concept of “objective
knowledge” by likening the analytical space created by the very existence of
the archive to the space that the laboratory creates for the natural scientist.
This implies that things that are housed, recorded, administered or even
accessed in the archive are also objects that belong to a third world beyond
both the physical world and the knowing or subjective experience. The author
further states that the archives have a degree of autonomy because it produces
its own effects.

The archives are viewed as a centre for interpretation because it provides a

way of relating to the oral and written past. Archives are also viewed as part
of the social –political processes. The relationship between the archive and its

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constituents “the archive is there to serve memory, to be useful-but its ultimate

ends are necessarily indeterminate. Material is deposited for many purposes,
but one of its potentialities is that it awaits a constituency or a public whose
limits are of a necessity unknown”

3.13 The Colonial Archive

Colonial archives were used as instruments to further the interests of those
who wielded power “Colonial archives were both sites of the imaginary and
institutions that fashioned histories as they concealed, revealed and reproduced
the power of the state”. These Archives preserved history and knowledge
from the perspectives of the colonisers, for example, the local people were
mere objects of history and not the makers of history. Archives of the colonial
era represented the cultural interests of the colonisers. They represented the
interests of the ruling colonial aristocracy, for example, they canonised the
architects of colonialism and imperialism as heroes and heroines and makers
and shapers of history. Stoler and Dirks (2001) suggest that archives hold a
position as political technologies in how we make meaning of the past, of
subjects, of social organisation and representations of relations between
ourselves.

3.14 Summary
Intellectual property is indeed a tool for control and it helps in recognising
rights and also abridging them. Intellectual property relates to property and
this implies the commoditisation of knowledge. There is need to evaluate
intellectual property laws in facilitating commoditisation and the development
of new markets It is useful to provide a legal framework for the protection of
knowledge that would otherwise be stolen and used by multinational and
transnational companies and individuals without giving due recognition to those
who communally own it. Intellectual property rights are restrictive and whoever
has such rights will use them to restrict others. Archives, libraries, museums
and related institutions have a critical role in promoting the traditional cultural
expressions through conscientising society on Intellectual property rights.

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References
Besen,S.M. and Raskind, L.J.(1991) "An introduction to the laws and
economics of Intellectual Property”.in:Journal of Economic
[Link].5(1)p.3-28.
Dirks, N. (2001) Castes of mind:Colonialism and the making of modern
[Link]:Princeton University Press.
Hountioji, P.J.(2002) “Knowledge appropriation in post colonial context.”in
:Odora Hoppers, C.A.(ed)Indigenous knowledge and the integration
of knowledge systems: Towards a philosophy of
[Link], South Africa:New Africa Books .
IFLANET,(2004) "IFLA statement on indingenous traditional knowledge”
[Internet]Available [Link] Accessed 10
September , 2009.
Joyce, P.(1999:35) “The politics of liberal Archives”.in:History of Human
[Link].12, No.2.
Mugabe,J.(1998) “Intellectual property protection and traditional knowledge:
An exploration in international policy:discourse.”[Internet]Available:http
//[Link]/tk/en/hr/paneldiscussion/papers/pdf/Mugabe. Accessed
9 September,2009..
Osborne,T.(1999:55) The Ordinariness of the [Link]:History of the
Human [Link].12 No.2.
Sahai,S.(2002) “Protection of indigenous knowledge and possible benefits
of sharing benefits with local communities”[Internet]Available from http
// [Link]./OKN/docs/Indigenous%[Link].
Accessed November , 2008.
Vezina,B.(2010) “Archiving Traditional Cultures: Intelllectual Property
Implications” in International Association of Sound and Audio-
Visual Archives(IAASA) No.35.
Wendland, W.(2007) “Intellectual Property and Traditional Cultural
expressions and Traditional knowledge: Key Issues.”[Internet] Available
[Link] [Link]
Accessed 3 April, 2011.
Wendland, W. (2007) “Libraries Intellectual Property and Traditional Cultural
Expressions: Balancing Access and Control.”Available [Link]
tce/wp-content/uploads/2008/10/wendland keynote american library
[Link] 12 November, 2008.

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 Unit Four

Knowledge Sharing in the

Context of Information Science

4.1 Introduction

T he unit explores the concept of knowledge sharing as to apply to

knowledge management. The unit also highlights the general practices in
knowledge management. The unit further explores the objectives of knowledge
sharing in formal and informal organisations. The unit will also explain the
value of knowledge repositories in the context of knowledge management.
The unit will explore the concept of knowledge sharing with regards to shared
knowledge.
Indigenous Knowledge Systems Module RAM 310/LIS 303

4.2. Objectives
By the end of the unit you should be able to:
 define the concept of knowledge sharing in the context of knowledge
management
 relate information Science to knowledge management
 identify and describe an organisation’s knowledge assets
 discuss the challenges of sharing traditional knowledge with reference
top knowledge sharing
 justify the value of knowledge repositories inn the management of both
informal and non-formal scientific knowledge
 suggest strategies for knowledge transfer to promote value added
production

4.3 Knowledge Management and Knowledge

Sharing
Druicker (1970) noted that the greatest task of the new millennium will be
directed towards making knowledge more productive just as how manual
work was more productive in the Twentieth Century. Knowledge management
refers to a broad collection of organizational practices and approaches related
to generating, capturing, disseminating know how and other content relevant
to the organisation’s business. It involves strategies to leverage organizational
intellectual assets to achieve organizational goals.

There are numerous benefits that accrue from knowledge sharing in both formal
and informal organisations. Organisations should thus create and sustain a
culture of sharing and this requires strategies to transform institutions into
learning organisations whereby the dictum “Learning from the cradle to
the grave will apply”. Knowledge sharing results in the production of a
wide range of solutions to deal effectively with organisational issues, the ability
to manage change is enhanced as knowledge is packaged for easy access
and retrieval and understanding, likelihood of repeated mistakes is reduced,
precious knowledge is not lost when personnel leave, tangible intellectual assets
of the organisation are leveraged through organisational Memories and
organisational goals are realised.

An organization’s knowledge takes numerous forms, for example, the

information and learning that employees acquire through carrying out their
jobs, as well as the unique skills and capabilities embodied in the work force

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that give a company a competitive advantage. It can also take the form of
databases, reports, manuals along with intellectual property like patents,
copyrights, trademarks, trade secrets that the company possesses. Lemieux
and Dalkir (2006) note that Knowledge Management (KM) is considered in
both the popular and academic literature to be a discipline that is applicable
in profit settings even though KM strategies and techniques are not valuable
to the corporate sector only but are equally valuable and effective in less
traditional settings. It is argued that KM has a critical role to play in both
profit and non-profit since both organisations have more or less similar
concerns with regards to increasing productivity, improving quality of services
and products and exploiting and developing the knowledge possessed by
there workforce.

4.4 General Practices in Knowledge Management

Knowledge Managements a formal, directed process of figuring out the type
of information an organisation has that can benefit others in the company and
then developing ways of making it easily accessible.

 Creating repositories of information reflecting best practices

 Setting up networks for transferring information between employees
who interact with clients and those who create an organisation’s products
and services
 Creating formal procedures to ensure that lessons learned in the course
of a project is passed on to those doing similar tasks
 Drawing on informal networks of people who have been at the
organisation for a long time

4.5 Knowledge Sharing and Communication

One of the most important elements of successful KM is effective
communication since this is the basis of information sharing. The principle of
knowledge sharing can only be realized if there are adequate methods of
communication as well as a supportive culture with an inclination towards
both verbal and non–verbal communication. Keong and Al-Hawamdeh (2002)
noted that face-to–face communication can be either mediated or unmediated
by technology. Unmediated face–to-face methods include meetings,
presentations and discussions, while mediated methods include, telephone,

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groupware, e-mail, skype among others. In traditional organisations

communication is done through unmediated technology, for example face to
face meetings.

Unmediated face-to- face methods are less practical and less effective because
board members and staff have busy schedules, making discussions difficult.
This type of communication requires coincidence of time and location. Verbal
communication is disadvantageous in that not everyone gets the information
at the same time. However the development of a mediated channel of
communication in the form of an online space for discussions can complement
the verbal communication. Many open –source, easy to manage technologies
offer options for discussion forums and document sharing. Online environments
allow a number of people to have discussions and work on documents
irrespective of time and place.

Preference for informal verbal communication is attributed to the lack of

knowledge capture. Pomian (1996) notes that orally transferred knowledge
has a small audience; the length of access is restricted to the human mind; and
the knowledge can become modified over time. Organisation that relies on
individual memories is likely to distort and decay quickly. Written knowledge,
on the other hand, has a larger potential audience and stability over time and
access can persist with archiving according to Walsh and Ungson (1991).
Beazley ([Link]) state that the primary asset of an organisation is its potential
knowledge and its loss results in considerable duplication of effort. “…to
other extent that critical operational knowledge has not been preserved
between employee generations, each generation must start over by creating
its own knowledge base”.

Operational Knowledge that has not been formalized and organized will not
be useful for the future. Cross and Baird (2000) state that the frequent turnover
among employees and board members results in loss of valuable knowledge.
Individual knowledge is fragile and insecure as compared to organizational
knowledge. Knowledge capture and codification should not be viewed as an
overburdening activity but rather as activity that will improve performance.
This does not imply that the organisation should prioritize on knowledge worth
capturing and integrating into the knowledge base. Knowledge management
helps to overcome problems of information overload and this is why it is
essential to concentrate on knowledge that helps in enhancing the learning
and progress of an organisation.

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Unit 4 Knowledge Sharing in the Context of Information Science

It is important to improve methods of recording knowledge and information.

The use of templates can be used and these are useful because they enable
people to be more concise and incorporate documentation into their routine.
The use of templates can be extended to other activities that can benefit from
knowledge capture and codification. Employees can document best practices
and experiences and these can be passed on to other generations.

Activity 4.1
?
1. With regards to tacit or experiential knowledge analyse the concept of
knowledge sharing in formal organisations.
2. Discuss the value of communication in Knowledge management for
corporate growth.
3. Distinguish between mediated and unmediated communication in the
context of Knowledge Management (KM)

4.6 Orally Transferred Knowledge and

Organisational Memories
Preference for informal verbal communication is attributed to the lack of
knowledge capture. Pomian (1996) notes that orally transferred knowledge
has a small audience; the length of access is restricted to the human mind; and
the knowledge can become modified over time. Organisation that relies on
individual memories is likely to distort and decay quickly. Written knowledge,
on the other hand, has a larger potential audience and stability over time and
access can persist with archiving according to Walsh and Ungson (1991).
Beazley ([Link]) states that the primary asset of an organisation is its potential
knowledge and its loss results in considerable duplication of effort. “…to
other extent that critical operational knowledge has not been preserved
between employee generations, each generation must start over by creating
its own knowledge base”

Operational Knowledge that has not been formalized and organized will not
be useful for the future. Cross and Baird (2000) states that the frequent turnover
among employees and board members results in loss of valuable knowledge.
Individual knowledge is fragile and insecure as compared to organizational
knowledge. Knowledge capture and codification should not be viewed as an
overburdening activity but rather as activity that will improve performance.
This will require the organisation to capture both tacit or experiential and

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explicit knowledge that helps in promoting the learning and success of the
organisation. This does not imply that the organisation should prioritize on
knowledge worth capturing and integrating into the knowledge base but
knowledge that adds value to the organisation. Knowledge management help
to overcome problems of information overload and this is why it is essential to
concentrate on knowledge that helps in enhancing the learning and progress
of an organisation.

It is important to improve methods of recording knowledge and information.

The use of templates can be used and these are useful because they enable
people to be more concise and incorporate documentation into their routine.
The use of templates can be extended to other activities that can benefit from
knowledge capture and codification. Employees can document best practices
and experiences and these can be passed on to other generations.

Organizational or collective knowledge refers to the stored information from

an organisations history representing its collective memory and can affect the
future of an organisation. Walsh and Ungson (1991) note that the ability to
review past decisions and actions can add value to decision making in the
present. This is attributed to the low level of knowledge capture and
codification. This results in the problem of knowledge continuity. The concept
of organizational memory involves capture, codification, transfer, context,
storage and reuse of knowledge. Context refers to the addition of contextual
information to the knowledge that is being captured and stored. Context refers
to the epistemological aspects of knowledge as it deals with the “why?” and
“how?” aspect of knowledge management. Walsh and Ungson (1991) argue
that context in information is an aspect that distorts and decays easily or
fossilizes if left to individual memories because knowledge of the context of a
previous decision helps to solve current problems. It is assumed that people
are not comfortable in accessing knowledge from a collective memory if it is
not properly preserved, organised and accessible. The key feature of a thriving
organizational memory is reuse and this helps to distinguish archives from
organizational memory. When no one knows about or reuses knowledge no
matter how contextualized, it will not be an organizational memory. Stein (1995)
notes that “ An organisation that maintains but does not use its knowledge
base…is dysfunctional for the simple reason that it is wasting organizational
resources and missing opportunities to learn from experience”

Methods of contextualization require high ease of use and integration into

current work processes and this can be achieved through embedding context
capturing fields in templates. The issue of storage can be dealt with effectively
through the formulation of retention policies that will control what is kept and

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what will be preserved since not everything can be preserved. Reuse of

knowledge can be enhanced by reducing the amount of information users
must sift through to get to critical knowledge and this implies that there should
be a criterion that helps to identify critical knowledge and separate it from that
which is not critical. It is also possible to control amount of critical knowledge
through periodically summarizing existing knowledge, for, example, main points
can be extracted from the board’s meeting minutes for the whole year and
then a summary of the institutional boards decision and activities can be created.
There is need for staff and board members to appreciate learning from the
past, for example, reusing best practices and learning from the mistakes of the
past and avoiding the pitfalls of trying to reinvent the wheel.

Activity 4.2

?
1. Discuss the concept of organisational memory and clarify how it has
helped to sustain corporate growth
2. Analyse the main components of an institutional repository.
3. With reference to knowledge management critique Peter Senge ‘s
theory of ‘Learning organisation’
4. Discuss the value of organisational narratives in promoting knowledge
generation and coordination.

4.7 Knowledge Sharing Processes

The knowledge sharing process is facilitated through internal and external
networks. The process involves a series of steps which include the following:

4.7.1 Four Step Process

The process of building a knowledge-sharing plan includes:
 Identifying business needs.
 Understanding and matching knowledge sharing activities to needs.
 Selecting appropriate tools
 Modelling knowledge sharing behaviour.

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Throughout, the four steps must be supported by ongoing communication

about the business impact, to reinforce the process.

Step 1: Start with Business Needs

The plan must start with an analysis of business needs and be designed to
measure impact on those needs, even if only anecdotally. How do you identify
those business needs that might be enabled or supported by knowledge sharing
activities? Begin with the assumption that the activities of business in each
functional area are, fundamentally, either to come up with new ideas or to
improve implementation and process. Business consultant, Laurie Kauffman,
suggests that business needs can arise in the gap between the status quo and
the activities of generating ideas or a more effective process. Clearly, the
most important business needs tie to the organisation’s strategic and financial
objectives. Kaufmann (2004) points out that in order to identify these gaps,
one needs to understand what different departments actually do and how
their work supports the financial health of an organisation as a whole.”

One technique for this is to survey the landscape of existing activities and
interview executives or designees. Of course, each functional group in the
organisation has a strategic plan, which lays out its objectives, with significant
links to the corporate strategy. Understanding a strategic plan is the most
immediate way to identify areas of business need. It is vital to note that requests
for information coming to the information centre, on topics such as the existence
and utility of technologies, market intelligence, and customer and competitor
research, may already highlight some of the key gaps. Therefore, the information
centre, by virtue of its role as the point of its contact for many functional areas
in the organisation, is uniquely positioned to spot emerging business needs at
an early stage.

Step 2: Understand Knowledge Sharing (KS) Activities

While the process of identifying business needs may already be an ongoing

part of managing an organisation’s ongoing information services, to move
forward with the plan, one needs to identify knowledge sharing activities that
can have an impact on those business needs. Many types of activities can
contribute to the cycle of knowledge transfer and reuse, for example, activities
that may already be in use in the organisation, as well as new concepts to the
organisation constituency. Let’s look at some examples:

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Communities of practice

You would think that people who can benefit from drawing on each other’s
expertise on the job would find each other naturally, but it is not the case. Due
to the highly distributed or global nature of so many organisations people do
not necessarily come into contact. A community of practice can help encourage
interactions among individuals who support a common project or initiative
even though they may be in different departments or organisations.

Leverage in/Leverage out

Although individual knowledge is an important asset, the best leverage is in

transferring knowledge or experience from one team to another. There are
greater opportunities for knowledge transfer when project teams are forming
or disbanding.

 Leverage in. Each time a new initiative is begun, employees should

seek out others in their organisation or in other relevant experience.
This ensures that the team gets to acquire and build on previous
experience.
 Leverage out. Each time an initiative is completed, employees document
or disseminate learning and experience so others can reuse it. This
guarantees that what went well- and, just as important, what did not is
common knowledge for the next project team.
Dixon (2000) notes the approach used in the United States (US) army called
“After Action Review.” An After Action Review (AAR) is a simple process
used by a team to capture the lessons learned from past successes and failures,
with the goal of improving future performance. It provides a team with an
opportunity for to reflect on a project, activity, event or task so that they can
do better the next time. It can also be employed in the course of a project to
learn while doing.

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Everyone involved in an action is gathered together immediately following

completion of an action, regardless of rank, and gives feedback on following
simple questions:
 What was intended?
 What actually happened?
 Why it happened?
 What were the lesions learnt?
The information generated through After Action Review (AAR) session is
recorded as the members brainstorm.

Research and reuse.

Here, the focus is on encouraging people to archive and share templates and
documents, as well as to reuse standardized formats. This may be aided by
reward or recognition system. People will also be motivated by experiencing
productivity, as they learn that what you put in, you often get back. Ultimately,
a document management system could be required, but this knowledge sharing
activity can get started simply by posting materials such as business plans,
reports, and presentations to a shared drive or intranet page.

Best practices and benchmarking.

Best practice conferences provide a focused opportunity for cross-functional

interaction and relationship building that often leads to less structured
knowledge sharing among the participants in the future. One goal is to
encourage participants to just pick up the phone and talk to each other. Such
events can centre on mining the lessons learned from a major initiative or
pulling together people in similar functional groups to share their best practices.

Benchmarking typical implies going outside the organisation to gain an

understanding of industry best practices. Often this is a research-driven effort
that can be guided by the information centre.

Knowledge councils

A knowledge council is a cross disciplinary group, typically, comprised of

fairly senior staff, whose purpose is to break down functional silos. This
approach marks a paradigm shift from individual insularity to collaborative
work. The objective is council members to identify links and connections
across the organisation that might not otherwise surface in daily interactions.
These groups can help with the process of identifying business needs,

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dissemination ideas, championing projects, and modelling knowledge sharing

behaviour. This activity is challenging because this role is no one’s primary job
and it is easy to loose momentum. Typically, it needs executive level sponsorship
to be effective.

Matching needs and activities

With a list of business needs, and a list of potential knowledge sharing activities
to choose from, as now illustrated in the Knowledge Sharing Circle (Figure
4.1), you have the information needed to pick a potential knowledge-sharing
project. Ask yourself where there is a match between a critical business need
and a knowledge sharing activity.

Some business needs can be met with very simple solutions, while others will
require an investment in additional resources. If you can identify a simple
project that can be achieved with available resources and has a potential to
have an impact on business, that is a great starting point. You may identify
other categories of activities that could be added to the Knowledge Sharing
Circle.

Step 3: Knowledge Sharing Tools

Now that the knowledge sharing objective has been identified, you are ready
for step three, selecting tools and technologies to support your project.
Sometimes a project can move forward without support from a technology
tool, but often knowledge sharing activities are enabled by software
applications. A few examples are:
 Web conferencing
 E-rooms
 Internets
 Inquiry tracking database
 Document management system
 Directory of internal experts
 Taxonomy
 Internal blogs and wikis
 Customer/ contact relationship management systems
These tools may already be available within your organisation, and it certainly
facilitates implementation if you choose a project that can rely on existing
technical infrastructure. If a new technology is required, successful
implementation will necessitate collaborating.

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Some items on the list, such as maintaining database of inquiries or searches,

can be handled just by the information centre. Effective deployment of other
tools will provide an opportunity to use your collaborative skills by working
with other departments within your organisation, such as:
 Human Resources, to create a directory of staff expertise
 Marketing to make an archive of product literature and organisational
documents
 Product development or research and development to make a collection
of project reports
 IT to create Web-enabled training materials
Select tools after defining the business needs and anticipated activities, but
remember that these tools are the means, not the starting point. If you start
implementing tools before you have a clear business need to address, the
implementation is likely to falter through lack of support and focus.

Step 4: Model Knowledge Sharing Behaviour

Now that the foundation is laid, the real opportunity is in taking on a project
that allows you to model knowledge sharing behaviour. It makes sense to
start something small, and build from there. After assessing your list of business
needs, choose a pilot project or the Information Centre (IC) which can
collaborate with other departments and where there is clearly defined functional
user or department who will benefit.

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Track Knowledge Identity

Knowledge Needed
Reuse Knowledge

Knowledge
Councils
Research &
Reuse Best Practices
And
Leverage in / benchmarking
Leverage Out
Communities
of Practice

Business
Needs

Transfer
Knowledge Knowledge
Capture Knowledge

Figure 4.1Knowledge Sharing Circle

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[Link] with [Link] [Link] [Link]

Business KS KS KS
Needs Activities Tools Behavior

Assess current Research best Select appropriate Implement IC

landscape practices technologies pilot
Base KS plan Define Recommend Identity
on key potential tools internal
business needs & activities
champions
objectives

Communicate business impact

Figure 4.2 The Process of Building a Knowledge Sharing Plan

4.8 Knowledge Management (KM) Strategy

Cohen (2006) states that for an organisation to realize its full potential it must
integrate the library into its knowledge management strategy. Azzarello (2004)
there is a correlationship between the library/information centre and
organizations research repository and also between the information
professionals and their ability to locate secondary research for reuse. It is
strongly recommended that organisations should have communities of practice
zones or architectural zones which will help to overcome problems of “infoglut”
and enhance ability to organize information systematically. These will include
social places for members to more often converge in sharing and learning to
realize organizational goals. These communities of practice contribute towards
the development of social capital, which is sine qua noine condition for
knowledge creation, sharing and use. Communities of practice do share
resources, they organise and acquire different types of data, and they are also

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able to make their findings known through the use of the electronic and print
media. In such social groups there are no hierarchies, ideas are freely
exchanged, content is formed as members meet in both formal and in informal
circumstances and community membership is fluid. It is through such social
groups makes it easier to share experiences and create an infrastructure for
discussions.

4.9 Knowledge Management (KM) in Practice

Information Management, knowledge management and strategic learning
converge in knowledge services enabling the highest level of service delivery
from information professionals. The natural building blocks of organizational
effectiveness rests on sound KM which contributes to towards high quality
research, strengthened contextual decision making and accelerated innovation.
In such an organisation the role of the information professional is strengthened
since one will be operating in an environment that acknowledges and provides
the basis for knowledge development and knowledge sharing (KD/KS).

In an Information/Knowledge driven culture the Information specialist works

as regular member of a learning team through working at all levels to ensure
that only the best applications are being used to manage organizational
information and that there is an appreciation of the need to share information/
knowledge to realize organizational goals. The information [professional also
works as a team player ensuring that information morphs into practical, useful,
and tangible knowledge for the success of the team in completing its work.
Organisations require a combined structure for managing knowledge and
information and knowledge related to previous projects and a commitment
towards strategic learning as a way to ensure success.

Prior knowledge is an asset that an organisation needs to value .This knowledge

can be structured or unstructured, for example:
 The former (Structured knowledge) refers to knowledge captured in
published documents, projects reports, organizational archives,
organizational narratives and so on.
 The latter (Unstructured knowledge) would exist in the form of informal
documents, digitized files, correspondence, memories of people who
worked on projects

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4.10 The Knowledge Culture

Rosenthal and Hatten (2001) define the knowledge culture as a “knowing
culture” whereby the role of knowledge as an organizational asset is recognized
and exploited and the successful implementation of knowledge services
solutions which result in organizational success. Knowledge workers and
information professionals learn to deal with structured and unstructured
knowledge which are both critical in boosting performance. It is assumed that
if information professionals and knowledge workers intend to move the
organization towards a knowledge culture they should consider the following
steps:

1. Define the change: There is need to be clear and precise as to what

the organisation desires to achieve with regards to the results and
activities that are prerequisite to the realization of the desired change.
2. Find your sponsor: You should ensure that you have a guarantee of
strong sponsorship for the change you wish to initiate. You need
leadership buy- in in the form of words and action ,an advocate , or a
champion or several to take a strong stance in support of change. The
champion will not only champion the cause but actively participate in
bringing the change.
3. Creating alliances and change agents: Strategic alliances are critical
in the shift towards a knowledge culture. There as need to utilize the
various definitions of KM that fit well with your situation and match
them with information management and strategic learning in knowledge
services as you work towards establishing a Knowledge Development
and Knowledge service environment. Create alliances with like minded
functional leaders and thought leaders in your organisation as you work
together as change agents.
4. Be wary of quick fixes and reactive responses: You need to have
a bigger picture of what is really needed to achieve a knowledge culture
because it is not about software and hardware alone but a number of
factors need to be taken into account.

4.11 Major Elements of a Knowledge Culture

 The commitment of leadership to invest time, money and effort in
embedding knowledge to permeate each and every aspect of the
organisation.

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 Systems and processes that support reward and develop knowledge

flow and creation and coordination through knowledge sharing and
cooperation.
 Tools and techniques to support networks for knowledge production,
organization, sharing and promotions
 Communication and internal marketing to sustain knowledge culture

4.12 Summary
Knowledge sharing is a critical component of Knowledge Management (KM)
because if knowledge is not shared it ceases to be knowledge. Formal
Organisations depend on knowledge as an input or ingredient to enhance
productivity. In knowledge driven economies knowledge is critical for the
realisation of organisational and individual goals. Learning organisations
prioritise the concept of continuous or life –long learning. It is imperative for
organisations to develop and sustain the concept of knowledge sharing and a
culture of knowledge management.

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References
Azzarello, .(2004)Introduction to Knowledge Management. Long Island
University, 2004.
Beazly, H., Boenisch,J. and Harden, D.(2003) “Knowledge continuity: The
new management function.” Journal of Organizational Excellence
22(3) 65-81.
Haugh, R. (2002) “ROI: Return on investment? Or relying on instinct?”
Hospitals and Health Networks,” Vol.76 (1) p.38.
Lemieux, S.A. and Dalkir, K.(2006).” Knowledge management in a non-
traditional setting;The case of a Nonprofit Artist
Organisation.”in:Information [Link].1. January, 2006.
McDermott,R(2002) “Measuring the impact of communities;How to draw
meaning from measures of communities of practice.”in:KM review,
Vol.5(2)26-29.
Senge, P., Kleiner, A., Roberts, C., Ross, R., Roth, G. and Smith, B. (1999)
The Dance of Change: The Challenges of Sustaining Momentum
in Learning Organizations. New York: Doubleday/Currency).
Skyrme, D.J.(2003).Knowledge Networking:Toolkit for the knowledge
based [Link]:Butterworth.
Stein, E.W. (1995) “Organizational memory: Review of Concepts and
recommendations for management”. International Journal of
Information Management Vol.15(1):17-32.
Walsh, James and Ungson,G.R.(1991) “Organisational Memory”.Academy
of Management Review, Vol.16(1):57-91.

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 Unit Five

Indigenous Knowledge and

Development

5.1 Introduction

T his unit explores the use of indigenous knowledge in the context of socio-
economic development. It also considers the aspect of Convention
Biological diversity (1992) with regards to management and utilisation of
traditional knowledge. The unit looks at indigenous knowledge as a tool for
development. The unit brings into perspectives the role of indigenous knowledge
in promoting sustainable development.
Indigenous Knowledge Systems Module RAM 310/LIS 303

5.2 Objectives
By the end of the unit, you should be able to:
 analyse at least local and international conventions relating to traditional
knowledge
 outline the main components of the Convention on Biological Diversity
(1992)
 describe the general considerations which should be taken into account
while conducting an impact assessment of traditional or indigenous
knowledge

5.3 Challenges and Opportunities of Using

Indigenous Knowledge in Development
The use of indigenous knowledge is critical in social-economic development
since it is now viewed as an alternative way of promoting development in
developing countries. Escobar (1995:98) notes that the remaking of
development must start by examining local constructions to the extent that
they are the life and history of the people.

5.4 International Law and Regulation of Traditional

Knowledge
At an international level, traditional knowledge is governed by the Convention
on Biological Diversity (1992). This is one of the most critical legal instruments
to protect indigenous knowledge. The Convention on Biological Diversity
secretariat encompasses both indigenous and knowledge systems of local
communities.

“…. refers to knowledge, innovations and practices of indigenous and local

communities around the world. Developed from experiences gained over
centuries and adapted to local culture and environment, traditional knowledge
is transmitted orally from generation to generation. It tends to be collectively
owned and takes the form of stories, songs, folklore, proverbs, cultural values,
beliefs, rituals, community laws, local language and agricultural practices,
including the development of plant species and animal breeds. Traditional
knowledge is of a practical nature………” Convention Biological Diversity (CBD
1992)

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When dealing with traditional knowledge the aspect of practicality is highly

empasised. Fiztmaurice (2008) states that it would be folly to view traditional
knowledge as a by-product of traditions only, because it is not separated
from the social dynamics of globalisation. The author further states that
traditional knowledge is anchored on the interaction between traditional and
non-traditional knowledge which implies that the terms of reference of such
knowledge is in a state of constant flux as it is continuously updated. However,
indigenous people feel that indigenous knowledge has a limiting effect on their
lifestyles without room to move or progress from the shackles of history.

5.5 Convention on Biological Diversity and

Traditional Knowledge
The Convention on Biological Diversity and Traditional Knowledge has
several stipulations that are critical to indigenous knowledge. The Preamble
to the Convention states that

“ recognising the close and traditional dependence of many indigenous and

local communities embodying traditional lifestyles on biological resources and
the desirability of sharing equitably benefits arising from the use of traditional
knowledge, innovations and practices relevant to the conservation of biological
diversity and the sustainable use of its components….”

The Convention mentions the vital role of indigenous knowledge in various

articles ranging from, Article 15 paragraphs 5 and 7 which include the institution
of prior informed consent and sharing upon mutually agreed terms.

In Africa, traditional knowledge has remained an unwritten science, for

example, in medicine most of the information on medicinal plants is largely
undocumented and a secretive practice for traditional healers or herbalists.
The lack of documentation on traditional knowledge has contributed to the
low acceptance of such valuable knowledge systems, for example, people
secretly visit traditional healers, yet, in public they hypocritically despise it.
Traditional knowledge encompasses the knowledge, wisdom and teachings
of local communities that have and still continue to accumulate over
[Link] knowledge is passed on from one generation to another through
oral traditions.

Traditional knowledge typically distinguishes one community from another

because it is culture specific. This knowledge contributes to the socio-cultural
and economic survival of local communities, for example, in Uganda there is

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the “Ngabi” clan famous for performing rituals relating to joint fixing in case
one has broken his or her bone or bones. Traditional knowledge is perceived
differently by different indigenous and local communities’ people, for example,
for some, traditional knowledge assumes a personal and spiritual meaning to
reflect a community’s aspirations and expectations and sometimes those who
have a colonial mentality tend to look down upon such knowledge because of
their idiosyncrasies and prejudices towards what they perceive to be
superstitious beliefs.

Sandiga (1995) defines traditional knowledge as the body of knowledge,

science and techniques used by local people to solve local problems. It is
home-grown knowledge meant to sustain the local communities’ lives. This
knowledge is distinguished from modern knowledge systems, which are
products of scientific revolutions.

Warren (1995) defines traditional knowledge as local knowledge unique to a

given society, which contrasts sharply with international knowledge that is
generated scientifically in research institutions, colleges and universities. Hansen
and Vanfleet (2006) define traditional knowledge as dynamic knowledge
generated and used by local people based on experience and adaptation to
local culture and environment. This knowledge includes mental inventories of
local biological resources, animal breed, local plant and crop and tree species.
This knowledge is generated in accordance with the individual or collective
creators responses to and interaction with cultural environment. Traditional
knowledge is dynamic, practical and more pro-active due to its relevance in
day-to-day problem solving value. Ttraditional knowledge refers to the content
or substance of knowledge generated through an arduous intellectual activity
in a traditional context, and encompasses the know-how, skills, innovations,
practices and learning that form part of traditional knowledge systems and
knowledge embodying traditional lifestyles of indigenous and local communities,
or contained in codified knowledge systems passed from one generation to
another. It also encompasses a multitude of fields ranging from socio-economic,
political, religious and technical field, for example agricultural, environmental
and medicinal knowledge, and knowledge associated with genetic resources

Indigenous knowledge refers to knowledge held and used by people who

identify themselves as indigenous to a place on a combination of cultural
distinctiveness and prior territorial occupancy.

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Activity 5.1

?
1. With reference to article 8(j) and article 18:4 of the Convention on
Biological Diversity (CBD) discuss the legal concerns relating to
patenting of traditional knowledge.
2. Using the concept of Intellectual Property Rights discuss the notion of
positive protection and defensive protection and how it affects the
complexities of indigenous knowledge.
3. Analyse the eight (8) main characteristics of the 2002 of the Bonn
Guidelines on Access to Genetic Resources and Fair and Equitable
Sharing of the benefits arising out of indigenous resources

5.6 Bonn Guidelines on Access to Genetic

Resources and Fair and Equitable Sharing of
the Benefits Arising out of Utilisation of
Indigenous Resources
The Bonn Guidelines of on Access to Genetic Resources (2002) are
characterised by the following factors:

 Voluntary nature: They are meant to assist both users and providers of
genetic resources on a voluntary basis.
 Ease of Use: They help to maximise their utility and to accommodate a
range of applications.
 Practicality: Guidelines should be practical and applicable
 Acceptability:;Guidelines should be acceptable among uses and
providers
 Complementality: To complement International conventions
 Flexibility: Guidelines should be flexible across a wide spectrum of users,
sectors, national circumstances and jurisdictions.
 Transparency: Promoting transparency in the negotiation and
implementation of access and benefit sharing arrangements

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5.7 Summary
The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) provides guidelines for the
effective utilisation of indigenous resources. This legally binding treaty that
addresses all aspects of biological diversity: genetic resources, species, and
ecosystems. The convention recognises that, in international law that the
conservation of biological diversity is “a common concern of humankind” and
is an integral part of the development process. The legal framework provides
guidelines relating to the role of women in management of traditional
knowledge, traditional knowledge benefits sharing, with regards to genetic
resources and other resources. Indigenous knowledge can be highly utilised
as an alternative model for development.

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References
Briggs, J. (1995:97) “Environmental resources: Their use and management
by the Bedouin of the Nubian Desert of Southern Egypt” in: Bins,
T.(eds)People and the Environment in [Link]:John Wiley.
Escobar, A.(1995) Encountering developing:The making and unmaking
of the Third [Link] New Jersey:Princeton University Press.
Warren, D.M (1991) “Using indigenous knowledge in agricultural
[Link] Bank Discussion”in: a Paper, No. Washington,
DC:World Bank.
Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), 1992.
Schroeder, R.A.(1999) Geographies of environmental intervention in
Africa. Progress in Human Geography No.23.
Briggs, J. and Sharp, J.(2004) “Indigenous knowledges and development:A
postcolonial caution.”in:Third World Quarterly 25, No.4.

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 Unit Six

The Role of Higher Technical

Education Institutions in
Promoting Local Content
Development in Zimbabwe:
Need for a Rethink
6.1 Introduction

T his unit explores the role of higher education institutions in the development
of local content in Zimbabwe. Crucial questions pertaining to local
content development in Zimbabwe in the context of globalisation are also
highlighted. The unit explores the extent to which t cooperation between
government, educational institutions and local communities can help to
promoting local content development as an indispensable tool for socio-
economic transformation. Furthermore, the unit analyses the various pieces
of local legislation and international conventions that help to promote and
protect local content development in Zimbabwe. Finally, the challenges that
are confronting the country in the area of local content development and
alternative solutions are highlighted.
Indigenous Knowledge Systems Module RAM 310/LIS 303

6.2 Objectives
By the end of this unit, you should be able to:
 define local content
 distinguish between local content and any other content
 analyse the impact of colonialism and neo –colonialism on local content
 relate traditional knowledge to the concept of local content development
 evaluate local, regional and international initiatives to promote local
content

6.3 Paradigmatic shift in Knowledge Production for

Local Content
Africa’s institutions of higher and tertiary education are central to the socio-
economic and cultural transformation in so far as traditional knowledge
intersects with research and teaching in educational settings. Mbeki (2005)
states that Higher and Tertiary education and training curriculum should have
Africa as its focus and at the same time being indigenous rooted in a drive to
transform the mind sets of African to appreciate local knowledge. The author
calls on Higher and Tertiary Education institutions need a paradigm shift from
a Euro-centric to an Afro-centric system of education which will unleash or
release the endogenous creativity, realisation of lost cultural identities and
aspirations of local or indigenous people through promoting the effective
utilisation of traditional knowledge systems.

“…We need distinctly African knowledge systems, which would have the
objective goal of recovering the humanistic and ethical principles embedded in
African philosophy….knowledge system would also constitute an effort to
develop both a vision of learning to know, learning to do, learning to be and
learning to live as equals with others,…” Mbeki (2005)

6.4 Higher Education and Knowledge Production

The demand for local content is higher in education because these institutions
are into human skills development which is hinged on knowledge production.
Knowledge contributes positively towards the economic competitiveness and
social welfare. Sutz (2005) states that higher education has a role to play in
the production and dissemination of knowledge. In the new knowledge driven
economies, the future belongs to those that invest in knowledge generation
and promotion. The total universe of producers of knowledge consists of

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individuals and organisations involved in production, organisation and

consumption. The knowledge society will only dawn on those countries whose
scholars are not merely users of imported knowledge but contributors of
content.

Higher education institutions are moving away from the fetters of rigid academic
insularity characterised by “silo” mentality because it is a liability that will cost
the organisation its existence as a competitor in the global information driven
economy. Strategic partnerships enable institutions of higher education to
collaborate to promote local content. Presently the agencies that ‘push’ global
or non-local content are more powerful and resourceful than those
disseminating local content resulting in the information divide. There will not
be justice in the world if communicative, distributive, contributive and global
justice is not put on the agenda of world governments to address the unfair
flows of information between the North and the South according to Lor and
Britz (2003).

Local needs should be considered in research agendas, for example, the needs
of local communities relating to development. The transformation of Institutions
of higher education into better producers and diffusers of local content should
be matched by the transformation of business firms and institutions as a way
to stimulate a more challenging demand for local content.

6.5 Information and Communication Technologies

(ICT’s) and Local Content Development
The greatest strengths of new ICT’s like the Internet, is the way they help to
unlock distant expertise, knowledge and markets. These technologies are the
arsenal for developing countries to shape and influence the direction of the
International Information order. Chisenga (2009) notes that Africa has been
a major market and consumer of information and cultural products from
developed countries but this trend needs to be reversed through promoting
local content as a contribution to global information. Higher education institutions
are strategically positioned to play a leading role in promoting local content,
since they are in the business of knowledge production.

Grizzle (2009) is of the view that a close analysis of all media and information
channels reflects an overwhelming presence of exotic content from content
providers in the developed countries. The current global information order
has subjugated and relegated poorer countries into a nation of “downloaders”

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of content instead of being “uploaders” of foreign content. It is through

restrategising on how best educational institutions can contribute towards local
content development that the current trend of dependency can be reversed.

6.6 Definition of Local Content

The array of what really constitutes local content is quite wide since it covers
indigenous knowledge, local web content, locally generated skills and services,
the content of theses and dissertations, grey literature, media content, national
constitutions, drama and dance, organizational records, community information,
the art of conversation, local print publications among other factors. Ballyntyne
(2009) defines local content as the expression of the locally owned and adapted
knowledge of a community taking cognizance of the language or location.
This definition it transcends beyond informational products as it encompasses
local skills, technology transfer, use of local manpower and local manufacturing.

Mutula (2008) states that the definitions of content all concur that, it is an
intellectual process that results in a product, process and service. The author
argues that content as a product is manifested in the form of information,
knowledge, song, dance, record design, artefact, while as a process,
manifestations come in the form of engineering procedures, problem solving
procedures, workflow or rules and procedures. In the context of service,
content refers to public broadcasting, news, advertising, video, presentations
among others.

Hampton, (2008) states that there is no consensus as to the precise definition

of local content because of the vague nature of the concept locally. Local can
refer to a country, a village, a language or a cultural or special interest group.
Ballantyne (2009) comments that local content can also be viewed as content
originating from a community whereby the content is a creation of the community
or an import adapted and assimilated into the knowledge base of the
community as it can be exchanged and shared locally or .globally in various
formats or packages.

Local content is also viewed as a heritage for social, cultural and intellectual
development at both the local and national level. Vosloo (2005) views local
content as a creative production of owners or originators, who are inspired
with the zeal to create, adapt or exchange knowledge. Content is the creative
human made material irrespective of format. Content has expression and
application on a local and global level, for example, a community television

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Unit 6 The Role of Higher Technical Education Institutions in Promoting
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station is content source for local expression and local application, while on
the other end we have a global news agency that draws on local content from
all over the world to address global issues.

6.7 Colonialism and Local Content

Menchu (2007) notes that pre-colonial Africa relied on internal development
characterized by reliance by people on their own local resources, values,
knowledge and social and cultural institutions locally meant to support local
needs. Mbeki (2005) states that the centuries’ old subjugation of Africa to
foreign exploitation was specifically designed to achieve maximum extraction
and exploitation of raw materials for the benefit of the metropol. Colonialism
led to the brutal discharge and derision of all things indigenous and this was
accomplished through a wide range of arrangements including educational
philosophies, curricula and other practices whose context corresponded with
that of the respective colonial powers.

Activity 6.1

?
1. Using relevant examples define local content.
2. Evaluate the impact of colonialism on local content development.
3. Analyse the mental or intellectual costumes that can be used to exploit
the rich African legacy and heritage.
4. Design a business proposal to promote local content in the creative
productions in Zimbabwe.

6.8 Local Content and Culture

Culture is critical for local content development because African countries
have diverse artistic, cultural and linguistic heritages. The preservation of
cultural assets helps in promoting social cohesion. Cultural industries use
creativity, cultural knowledge and intellectual property to produce culturally
meaningful products and service. They provide tangible and intangible, creative
and artistic output which brings in wealth through the effective exploitation of
cultural assets and production of knowledge based goods and services. These
industries cover literature, theatre, dance, music and visual arts among others
and they are all important for cultural and economic reasons.

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“....Culture takes diverse forms…... This diversity is embodied in the uniqueness

and plurality of the identities of the groups and societies making up humankind.
As a source of exchange, innovation and creativity, cultural diversity is as
necessary for humankind as biodiversity is for nature…. it is the common heritage
of humanity and should be recognized and affirmed for the benefit of present
and future generations....” (UNESCO 2008)

Language is critical in local content development because culture is embedded

in language. Many African countries do have exogenous language policies
which give a second class status to local languages yet language is one of the
pillars of culture reflecting how reality interpreted, captured and communicated.
The provisions of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights with regards
to Article 19 on freedom of opinion and expression and 27 on cultural rights
can only be realized through empowering local citizens with ICT skills to
enable them to produce and access information content in the languages of
choice.

6.9 International Programmes to Promote Local

Content
The United Nations’s General Assembly adopted the Declaration on the
Rights of indigenous Peoples on 13 September 2007 and this provides a
legally constituted document to protect and develop indigenous knowledge.
Article 31 of the declaration states;

“.....Indigenous peoples have the right to maintain, control, protect and develop
their cultural heritage, traditional knowledge and traditional cultural expressions,
as well as the manifestations of their sciences, technologies and cultures,
including human and genetic resources, seeds medicines, knowledge of the
properties of fauna and flora, oral traditions, literature and designs, sports and
traditional games and visual and performing arts. They also have the right to
maintain, control, protect and develop their intellectual property over such cultural
heritage, traditional knowledge and traditional cultural expressions. In
conjunction with indigenous peoples, states shall take effective measures to
recognize and protect the exercise of these rights...”

The United Nations Economic Commission for Africa began to encourage

Africans to fully participate in local content production as way to promote
sustainable development in Africa. It was hoped that through such community
based initiatives, members of local communities would be able to interact and
communicate with each other through their own language.

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Mchombu (1991) is of the view that Africa can only develop through building
capacity to produce and define its own knowledge rather than having other
people defining knowledge for Africa. The production and promotion of
content must be encouraged at all levels so that developing countries do not
remain information consumers of content conceived by others. Mbeki (2005)
argues that there is need to promote the development of local content in Africa
through ensuring that the educational curricula has Africa as its focus and
ensuring an indigenous grounding and orientation. Soraj Hongladarom (2007)
notes that local content development needs to be analysed in the context of
the information and digital divide, whereby the former refers to a society’s
capability of generating its own knowledge for its socio-economic needs,
while the latter refers to access to information technology and global computer
networks.

6.10 United Nations Economic Commission for

Africa
The Department for International Development (DFID) initiated a project to
promote the creation and exchange of local content in Africa through the use
of ICT”s. Another initiative is the Open Knowledge Network which brings
together New Media artists, musicians, filmmakers, designers, programmers
and anybody else who works creatively with technology to share experience
and exchange ideas. This project has resulted in the production of local content
in multi-media formats.

The UNESCO Programme for Creative Content aims at boosting the

production and dissemination of local content in both the traditional and new
media in the most disadvantaged communities of the developing world by
training content creators, supporting local content production and enhancing
content distribution channels.

6.11 World Summit of Information Society

Ballantyne (2009) comments that content initiatives using ICT’s tend to push
external content towards local people by providing access to other people’s
knowledge and this is why it is imperative to appropriate technology and use
it to create relevant electronic local content. In 2003 all members of the United
Nations signed the Plan of Action and Declaration of Principles signed at the

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World Summit Information Society (WSIS) to preserve and foster cultural

identity and linguistic diversity through the creation and dissemination of content
in local languages for an equitable information society and sustainable
development. In 2005 the WSIS called for the strengthening of public
institutions like libraries, archives, museums, cultural collections and other
community-based access points as a way to prop up documentary records,
free and impartial access to information. The plan of Action recommends
members to empower local communities to produce local content through
ICT’s.

6.12 African Union and the Lagos Plan of Action

The African Union through the Lagos Plan of Action laid the foundation for
promoting locally generated knowledge to contribute towards solving Africa’s
problems. The “Africa’s Science and Technology Consolidated Action
Plan” of 2005 acknowledges the richness of Africa’s indigenous knowledge
and related technologies and emphasises the need to promote local content
through indigenous knowledge.

“..It is important to protect and effectively utilise indigenous knowledge…and

share this knowledge for the benefit of humankind…special attention will be
given to the protection and nurturing of indigenous knowledge…..inventions
and all other tradition based innovations and creations.” (Africa’s Science and
Technology Consolidated Action Plan, 2005)

The World Bank Report (1998) urges for the incorporation of indigenous
knowledge into development programmes to enrich the development process.
Ocholla (2007) defines indigenous knowledge as a complex set of knowledge
and technologies existing and developed around specific conditions of
populations and communities indigenous to a particular geographical area.
This knowledge is critical for sustainable development because of its role in
building national identity, self-esteem, preserving culture for the current and
future generations and medicinal and commercial benefits in the pharmaceutical
and tourist sectors.

Nath (2005) comments that there is danger in uncritically accepting foreign

knowledge and information that can distort reality especially in the context of
information as a source of power. This calls for institutions of higher education
to champion knowledge production to promote local content. “... Information
and knowledge organized on the basis of a particular world view will direct
the mind towards that world view and hence will influence the behaviour of

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those who have (information and knowledge) imposed on them…” (Saadar,

1998).

Vosloo (2005) states that the digital divide has created information apartheid
whereby those countries that are resource endowed have published more of
their local content while the ICT disabled third world countries have been
rendered dependencies of the latter. African higher education institutions should
strategise on to how save Africa from being turned into a consumer of distant
and potentially irrelevant information that may undermine or overwhelm local
cultural heritage and economic livelihoods.

Activity 6.2

?
1. Analyse local, regional and international initiatives that help to promote
local content.
2. Evaluate two pieces of legislation that are meant to protect and promote
local content.
3. Discuss the use of institutional repositories in the promotion of local
content.

6.13 Institutional Repositories as Reservoirs of

Local Content
Kgautlhe (2009) notes that online scholarly research is one of the criteria
used to rank institutions of higher education and this justifies the reason why
institutions of higher education should prioritize developing institutional
repositories   as a way to promote local content. Institutional repositories are
systems that ease the process of capturing, storing, preserving and
disseminating the intellectual output of an institute in electronic form. Cliiford
Lynch (2003) defines a university-based institutional repository as a set of
services that a university offers to the members of its community for the
management and dissemination of digital materials created by the institution
and its community members. He further states that an institutional repository
is most essentially an organizational commitment to the stewardship of these
digital materials, including long-term preservation where appropriate, as well
as organization and access or distribution. An Institutional Repository (IR) is
also defined as a database with a set of services to capture, store, index,
preserve and redistribute an institution’s (mainly universities and educational
institutions) scholarly research outputs in digital formats. It may also be defined

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as a long-term digital archive containing scholarly or artistic work produced

by the members of a particular institution, for example, the University of
Zimbabwe‘s institutional repository.

Rosenblum (2008) states that the output of an information repository will

vary from institution to institution; some will capture theses and dissertations,
whilst others will capture published papers, unpublished pre-prints, working
papers, conference presentations, data sets, teaching materials among others.

The University of Zimbabwe has taken the initiative by developing its

Institutional Repository using DSpace software. This is a database of published
and unpublished material deposited by members of the institution, including
peer-reviewed journal articles, published conference papers, books and book
chapters, working papers, research reports and seminar papers and full texts
freely available.

6.14 Functions of Institutional Repositories

1. They can bring (back) some local control of scholarly work. This control
is ceded to varying or lesser degrees to publishers when subscriptions
move to online-only — authoritative versions of articles are not typically
retained in accessible format locally, as they are with print journals.
2. IRs, by grouping much of a university’s intellectual output in one place,
facilitate interdisciplinary research connections, statistic-keeping,
marketing and other institutional efforts.

6.15 Six Roles of Librarians in an Institutional

Repository Environment
The following are the roles of librarians in an institutional repository
environment;
1. Understanding software,
2. Project planning and management,
3. Collection definition,
4. Metadata guidance,
5. Submission review,
6. Author training.

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6.16 Use of Open Institutional Repositories?

Universities and educational institutions around the world, including Science
Academies, use OIRs in many different ways including:

 Scholarly communication
 Storing learning materials and courseware
 Electronic publishing
 Managing collections of research documents
 Preserving digital materials for the long-term
 Adding to the institution’s prestige by showcasing its academic research
 Institutional leadership role for the institution
 Knowledge management
 Research assessment
 Encouraging open access to scholarly research

6.17 Higher Education and Knowledge Management

Professor Jennifer Rowley notes that Higher Education institutions are in the
knowledge business because generally they are involved in knowledge creation,
coordination and promotion. Knowledge management is critical for national
development because successful organizations are judged by how they utilise
knowledge in order to realize organizational objectives and institutions of higher
learning in Zimbabwe are no exception to this trend. Kidwell ([Link]) (2000)
notes that in the current age of information economies, higher education
institutions have significant opportunities to apply knowledge management
practices to support every part of their mission.

Institutions of higher learning are the engines of national development and it is

imperative that they should be involved in promoting the drive towards a
knowledge driven economy. The writer goes on to state that sharing knowledge
is the main purpose for the existence of institutions of higher learning and as
such the Harare Polytechnic and other government institutions in Harare are
satiated with examples of programmes whereby they have leveraged
knowledge to stimulate innovation and achieve organizational success as the
engines of social and economic transformation.

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Zimbabwe has invested heavily in higher education because the integration of

knowledge, education and technology will accelerate the drive towards the
realization of a knowledge society. Muganda (2004) notes that the integration
of knowledge technology and livelihood in education systems basically means
an integration of general education that is normally obtained through formal or
non-formal training with vocational skills and competencies that are relevant
to the social and economic well-being of the learners and the society. This
approach to knowledge generation is premised on the notion that learners
learn to acquire skills and knowledge in order to transform information to
knowledge relevant in solving day-to-day problems encountered by the
community.

The institutions of Higher Education have been integrated within the frameworks
of knowledge creation, production, reproduction and consumption process
and this also includes the incorporation of both formal and non-formal education.
This integrated educational system has provided the basis for the development
of a knowledge society in Zimbabwe. Technical institutions of Higher Education
have incorporated knowledge with social, economic and technological
development within the local and universal context of their respective
environments.

This approach reaffirms the notion that education should be geared towards
equipping students with life-long skills that will enable them to effectively deal
with the socio- economic challenges of life.

“ …the whole process of education should be conceived as the process of

learning to think through the solution of real problems…”

6.18 Responding to Local Needs

“The people centred approach towards knowledge generation is driven by
the needs of the local people and it is part of the process of democratising
education so that it is accessible to all irrespective of one’s social standing.
This programme has seen the Harare Polytechnic’s lecturing staff being
deployed in rural areas to impart knowledge and skills on projects relevant to
the local communities, for example, dressmaking, building, welding and
carpentry. It is through such programmes that the concept of intellectual humility
as outlined by Steve Covey (1990 is realized and upheld as illustrated by one
of his comments “principle centred people are constantly educated by their
experiences…They discover that the more they know the more they realize
that they do not know; that is as their circle of knowledge grows so, thus its
outside edge of ignorance grows”

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Unit 6 The Role of Higher Technical Education Institutions in Promoting
Local Content Development in Zimbabwe: Need for a Rethink.

6.19 Use of ICT’s in Local Content Development

Katzen (2009) notes that the ICT’s revolution has altered the make-up and
norms of the global research academia, for example, internet has given an
opportunity to more players to enter the market by adding their content on
the network. Higher technical education institutions need to exploit the Internet
because of its ability to facilitate access to information. The Internet provides
opportunities for researchers to share their insights and breakthrough’s with
fellow colleagues in the scientific community.

The democratizing effect of the web has given an encouragement to other

countries which previously were not seen as research centers. Katzen, (2009)
comments that even though the United States of America is viewed as the
number one country with regards to scientific and engineering publications, its
position is being eroded as growing nations are destined for a big take-off, for
example, China has proved to be a force to reckon with in the new global
knowledge economy. Institutions of higher education should take advantage
of the numerous opportunities that the Internet provides in order to claim
Africa’s fair share of worldwide publications.

This also calls for new and faster ways to connect researchers with potential
partners around the world, for example, the use of new platforms in the form
of social networks, and Web 2.0. Libraries can also promote local content
through exploiting social networking media like wikis and blogs. These can
be used to promote local content, to exchange and share ideas, to market
library services and to create awareness of library programmes. It is also
possible to promote academic publications and promote academic visibility
of published works.

There is a growing concern to ensure that in this information age, local

communities should be empowered to master modern technologies and
integrate them in their social activities. ICT’s should be harnessed as tools to
promote sustainable development through providing universal, ubiquitous,
equitable and affordable access to technology. ( World Summit on the
Information Society, 2005). This is possible through the integration of ICT’s
into local content development, coordination and promotion. Martins (1995)
defines the information/knowledge society as a society in which the quality of
life and prospects for social change and economic development depends greatly
upon information and its exploitation. Living standards, patterns of work and
leisure, the education system and the market place do depend on advances in
information and knowledge in knowledge driven societies.

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6.20 Challenges Confronting Local Content

Development.
Ford (2005) states that there are less open content projects written by Africans
about Africa on the internet because of lack of infrastructure and local
applications, legal and ethical constraints, and fear of intellectual theft. The
author further argues that many local content developers complain about
feelings of isolation because the percentage of the population that are active
users is low, that the feedback and interactivity potential that drives non-
commercial content is not fully realised. This implies that Africans have yet to
recognize their active participation or at least presence on cyberspace as an
opportunity. Institutions of higher education should move away from academic
insularity and embrace an open-ended approach whereby they will exploit
the global information by taking African knowledge further through ICT’s.

There is little faith in sharing knowledge because the local discourse around
intellectual property rights is replete with stories of how the continent’s local
knowledge has been pillaged and plundered. Open content is viewed by
sceptics as a disguised neo–colonial way to extract value from Africa and
feed new wealth to the West. Ford (2005) is of the opinion that open access
has transformed the profile of academic institutions by creating opportunities
for collaboration and resource sharing.

Kuchma (2009) states that open access enables academics, scientists, doctors,
students and the general public to access the materials they need to conduct
research and an opportunity to contribute towards the global research
community. Local content developers desperately need to have a legal advice
body knowledgeable of alternative licenses such as the Creative Commons
to help them navigate the terrain of legal issues on the Internet.

The lack of infrastructure, for example, content like video, animation or

photography requires relatively large capacity computers, expensive software
and high bandwidth to produce and disseminate content. This type of content
is mainly confined to training centres and private sector advertising companies.
Africa should use technology as tools for communities to actively create and
share local culture and this will mean that there will not be need to waste
money importing exotic content. “….Instead of sending billions out of the
continent every year as consumers of Coca Cola culture, Africa could be
using some of the money to build a local content industry independent from
the United States….”(Ford, 2005).

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Unit 6 The Role of Higher Technical Education Institutions in Promoting
Local Content Development in Zimbabwe: Need for a Rethink.

There are no comprehensive laws and policies that govern the practice and
use of traditional knowledge, lack of capital for content development,
inappropriate training opportunities for content creators, lack of access to
advanced technology production units such as digital studios, low connectivity
densities, motivation and commitment among decision makers to make a
paradigm shift.

An in-depth content analysis of television and radio programmes in Africa

reveals that there is an overwhelming presence of content from developed
countries reflecting alien language, values, and lifestyles which often contrasts
sharply with those of the communities consuming the content.

The lack of a vibrant and relevant indigenous publishing industry has also
contributed to the low output in terms of local content production since most
publishing houses are owned by multinational and transnational publishing
companies. This has had a serious impact on education and quality of library
services in the form of library colonialism manifested through exotic collections.

6.21 Summary
Local content development is anchored on traditional or indigenous knowledge
and for any meaningful development to take place there is need to utilise such
knowledge as a development alternative. Africa needs strong and vibrant
intellectual property laws to safeguard its cultural heritage so that it is not
pirated by multinational companies for the benefit of the few. These laws
should be developed as local and regional as well as continental levels. It is
imperative for Africa and developing countries to develop knowledge systems
that will help to reposition Africa in the new knowledge economy. Information
and Communication Technology (ICT’s) should be effectively utilised to
leverage indigenous knowledge without violating intellectual property rights
and ethical considerations that relate to works that are communally owned.

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References
Mbeki, T. (2005) "Africa: The role of Higher Education”.in: New
African April, 2005. Paper Presented at the Association of African Universities
Conference held in Cape Town.
Menkiti, I (2006) “On the normative conception of a person.” in: Wiredu, K.
(ed) A Companion of African Philosophy. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers.
Mudege, N.N. (2008) Ethnography of Knowledge: The production of
knowledge in Mupfurudzi Resettlement Scheme in
[Link] Brill NV.
Mukuidi, Mutasa.(2009) "Marrying indigenous knowledge and modern science
sustains agriculture.”[Internet] Available [Link]
2011/01/06/marrying-indigenous-knowledge-and-modern-science-
sustains-agriculture/. Accessed 11 April, 2011.
Nakata, M. AND Langton, M. (2005) “Australian indigenous knowledge
and Libraries.” [Internet] Available [Link]
aarl/AARL. Accessed 21 January 2011.
Nakata, M., & Langton, M. (2005). “Australian indigenous knowledge and
libraries “[Internet]. Available: [Link]
AARL_vol36_no2_2005(reprint).pdf Accessed 14 February, 2010.
Nyana, S, A. (2009) “Creating a library system that serves the needs of rural
communities in Africa South of Sahara.”in: Journal of Pan African
Studies Vol, 3 No.1, September, 2009.
Nyerere, J.M. (1975) “ Education for self reliance”.in: Education in the least
developed countries” Prospects Quarterly Review of Education 5(1).
Okore, A.M., et al. (2009).” Promoting access to indigenous knowledge in
digitize age: Libraries as facilitators. Libraries Create Future” A paper
presented at the Nigerian Libraries Association 47th Annual General
Conference 2009, Ibadan, Oyo State, from 26-31 July 2009.
Sithole, J.(2007 “The Challenges Faced by African Libraries and Information
Centers in Documenting and Preserving Indigenous
Knowledge.”in:IFLA Journal,
Tsiko, S. (2004) “Vital to document traditional knowledge”in: The Herald
Friday, 26 November.2004.
UNESCO/IFLA Public Library Manifesto, ( 1994).
Viriri, A. (2009) “The Paradox of Africa’s poverty: the role of indigenous
knowledge in Zimbabwe’s environmental management issues.” in:
Journal of Sustainable Development in Africa 2009 Vol. 10 No. 4
pp. 129-146.
Walford, J. (2011) “The role of culture houses in Zimbabwe” [Internet]
Available [Link]
houses-in-zimbabwe. Accessed 14 April, 2011.

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Unit 6 The Role of Higher Technical Education Institutions in Promoting
Local Content Development in Zimbabwe: Need for a Rethink.

Wendland, W. (2007) “Intellectual Property and Traditional Cultural

expressions and Traditional knowledge: Key Issues.” [Internet]
Available [Link]
Accessed 3 April, 2011.
Williams, D.L. and Muchena, O.N. (1991) “Utilizing Indigenous knowledge
in Agricultural education” [Internet] Available [Link]
jae/pdf/Vol32/[Link]. Accessed 14 April, 1990.
World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED). (1987). Our
Common Future. New York, Oxford University Press.

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Blank page
 Unit Seven

Repackaging Traditional
Knowledge

7.1 Introduction

T his unit will investigate the challenges of repackaging traditional knowledge.

It will look at the pieces of legislation that relate to traditional or indigenous
knowledge. The unit will highlight the challenges that developing countries
encounter in managing traditional or indigenous knowledge in the context of
developing countries. The unit will also explore the role of women in
management of traditional knowledge. It also explores the African Model
Law and conventions that relate to indigenous knowledge.
Indigenous Knowledge Systems Module RAM 310/LIS 303

7.2 Objectives
By the end of this unit, you should be able:
 identify and analyse the various pieces of legislation that relate to
traditional or indigenous knowledge
 describe the role women in the preservation of indigenous knowledge
 describe the role of libraries, archives, museums and related institutions
in management of traditional knowledge
 analyse Copyright and Neighbouring Rights Act of Zimbabwe in the
context of communal ownership of indigenous knowledge

7.3 African Initiatives Towards the Legal Protection

of Indigenous Knowledge
Uganda and Zimbabwe have abundant wealth in the form of Traditional
Knowledge (TK) and the challenges that need to be dealt with include: the
need to repackage this knowledge for wider distribution for the benefit of
humankind, formulation and enforcement of legislation to protect indigenous
resources against bio-piracy and how to promote research in the use of
indigenous knowledge and resources. Uganda and Zimbabwe have greater
strides in the proliferation of the legal instruments to protect and promote
traditional knowledge and resources, for example, in Zimbabwe, the Patent
Act of Zimbabwe (1973), Copyright and Neighbouring Rights Act (2000)
and the Traditional Medical Practitioners‘ Council’s Act (1981). In Uganda,
we have the Uganda Copyright and Neighbouring Rights Act, 2006; the
National Council of Traditional Healers and Herbalists Associations of Uganda
(NACOTHA),which represents traditional health practitioners in the Inter-
agency Coordinating Committee (ICC)-Ministry of Health, Private
Partnership-Ministry of Health, World Intellectual Property Organisation
(WIPO) and the ad hoc committee on the National Drug Authority for herbal
medicine, which are a step in the right direction in the drive towards the full
exploitation of traditional knowledge. These instruments tend to be more
effective in protecting intellectual property associated with individual ownership
at the expense of traditional knowledge which has collective ownership.

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7.4 Communal Ownership of Traditional

Knowledge and Piracy
The greatest challenge is that of patenting and intellectual property rights of
the traditional knowledge. There is lack of intellectual property protection
systems that can name the source of genetic material or traditional knowledge
used in product discovery. For example, Jordan noted that the South African
government was battling to save the South African plant “pelargonium” from
being pirated by Western companies because of its extracts which are used
to cure fatigue, pain and AIDS related infections. State intervention is critical
in situations whereby existing patent laws make no provisions for traditional
knowledge. Traditional healers and elders within African communities do
complain that foreign pharmaceutical companies take advantage of loop-holes
in current patent laws.

In most cases those who pirate traditional knowledge disregard the communal
ownership on the grounds that, from a scientific perspective, for one to claim
knowledge of a plant species and its uses, there is need to have a written
chemical formula. Tsiko notes that Africa suffers from negative image of people
towards traditional knowledge and there is need to transform these perceptions
in order to bring on board the healing practices not as an appendage to Western
medical systems but as a competitive and complementary force on the
continent‘s health delivery systems. There is also need to change or transform
the mindsets of Africans through education so that people will appreciate
knowledge governance through the formulation of policies that help in the
crafting of global policies meant to create and achieve impartial system of
access and benefit sharing of traditional knowledge.

The other challenge is that of investing more capital in research and development
in indigenous knowledge systems and resource for the benefit of humanity.
Knowledge is indeed power and as a result there is greater need to protect
indigenous knowledge through research, document and explaining to the world
that Africa in general, Uganda and Zimbabwe in particular have individuals,
identifiable authors and investors who have contributed immensely towards
the production of Uganda‘s and Zimbabwe‘s accumulated heritage of
intellectual capital in the form of traditional knowledge.

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7.5 Women and the Preservation of Traditional

Knowledge
Traditional knowledge that is held by women needs special consideration for
a number of reasons. Indigenous women all over the world, as the primary
harvesters of medicinal plants, seed stocks and small game, are keepers of
the knowledge about significant spheres of biodiversity in their own right, and
as such, are the only ones able to identify the environmental indicators of
ecological health in those spheres.

Perhaps even more central in importance is the fact that women share with
men the responsibility for stewardship of values in their societies. They feel a
keen responsibility to future generations for action undertaken today that affect
the world in which we all live and for their descendants. It is women, for the
most part, who transmit to the next generation these values as part of their
stewardship role. Their multi-generational perspective must be taken into
account.

Groenewald acknowledge the role of African women in the preservation of

indigenous knowledge because they are natural managers, for example, through
socialization, women play a critical role by bringing up children and in their
nurturing role they pass on knowledge to their children and traditions to the
next generation. The writer further states that women play a critical role in the
preservation and in the practice of cooking for public gatherings, rituals, tilling
the land, caring for the ill and so on.

Groenewald (2006) notes that in many communities women are the natural
resources managers because they possess in-depth knowledge of the
environment and they are credited with keeping traditional knowledge alive
and passing it on to the next generation. For instance, Dr Grace Nambatya a
Chemotherapist and one Namutebi popularly known as Mama Phina Ndeeba,
who is also the President of Traditional healers in Uganda, among others,
have played a critical role in the preservation of IK. In agreement, Hansen
notes that, ‘…. Women play a crucial role in maintaining livelihoods, cultural
continuity and community cohesion… women are custodians of indigenous
knowledge…”

TK is also a value addition to the health of many people who have lost hope.
For instance, some people have been treated mysteriously with IK. Mugisha
relates, “It was an astonishing sight,” the technologist with Uganda’s Natural
Chemotherapeutics Research Laboratory in Kampala says. “My father
returned the boy to life.”

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Another source that preferred anonymity testified that “When I was six I was
stricken by measles, a disease that has tormented Africa for decades,” he
recounts. “The symptoms were all too familiar. My eyes were itchy, I was
coughing a lot and had a fever and a rash.”

Concerned that he would not survive, his family called a traditional herbalist
who boiled the crushed roots of a local grass together with a handful of miniature
Mukene fish from a nearby river and fed him the mixture on regular basis and
the rest was history. In agreement, Nyero explains, “Traditional healers still
play a significant healthcare role in our country. I have personal experience in
the power of their knowledge about Uganda’s flora and fauna.”

7.6 Why Traditional Knowledge is Lowly

Appreciated?
Sidinga notes that the failure to accept traditional system can be attributed to
colonialism and the Christian crusade that in the name of Christianity, commerce
and civilization sought to acculturate the conquered in a bid to establish firm
control over them. Onayade states that in Africa, traditional medicine that is
part of traditional knowledge relies on the use of plants as herbal remedies to
heal wounds, are extracting pus as well as for infected and festered wounds,
In support of Onyade’ assertion, Kazembe and Mashoko note that herbal
remedies are used as anti-venom to cure snakebites, stomach aches and
reproductive problems. It is noted that more than seventy five percent (75%)
of the modern medicine is plant based while twenty five percent (25%) is
derived from synthetic materials and this proves that there is need to come up
with sustainable environmental management strategies to protect indigenous
plants. In Zimbabwe the Ministry of Environment and Tourism, together with
other quasi-governmental organisations like Environmental Management
Agency (EMA), Forestry Commission of Zimbabwe and the non-governmental
Sothern Africa Foundation for Indigenous Resources (SAFIRE) have
contributed towards the promotion and protection of biological species.

The Sunday Mirror (a Zimbabwean Newspaper) stated that one of the greatest
paradoxes of the Zimbabwe psyche is that it snubs the powders and herbs
prescribed by a doctor whose knowledge is based on traditions, customs
and prescriptions passed on from one generation to the other. The article
goes further to state that if big drug or pharmaceuticals companies were to
come to Zimbabwe to patent and repackage many herbs used by indigenous
doctors by giving them new names, it would be surprising that the same people

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who sneer at traditional medicine and knowledge system would be the first to
queue for drugs. The colonial dispensation undermined the value of such
traditional medicine by labelling it as inferior. It is acknowledged that traditional
medicine and knowledge systems are very much alive in Uganda and
Zimbabwe. In most cases in Uganda and Zimbabwe, many people have been
known to disparage the fecundity of traditional knowledge systems in public
but to surreptitiously seek them out when they think no one is watching them.
Furthermore, in Uganda, TK has been lowly appreciated because of
unemployment or some other reason, unethical members of the community
have registered into the practice and have brought this service low into the
eyes of the public. For instance, kids have been slaughtered, people‘s money
has been robbed, and discouraging songs composed about the practice and
some churches are condemning anything related to IK and practice without
isolating some useful areas. Herbal medicine has been associated with witchcraft
and hence labelled bad.

7.7 Way Forward

The Intellectual Property Rights should guarantee both an individual’s and
group’s right to own, exploit and benefit from its own cultural discoveries,
creations and products. The African Union published the African Model Law
in 2002 for the protection of the rights of the local communities, farmers and
breeders and for the regulation of access to biological resources such as plants
and animals. The African Model Legislation for the Protection of Rights of
Land of Communities, farmers, and breeders and for the regulation of access
to biological resources including agricultural genetic resources and knowledge
and technologies in order to maintain and improve their diversity as a way of
sustaining life support systems.

Many African countries are yet to adopt this model legislation but generally
significant progress has been made. Matonho states that the document is set
as a model for use byAfrican countries, that wish to develop their own national
laws pertaining to traditional knowledge systems and Zimbabwe is signatory
to such a convention. Kawoyo notes that even though African countries,
especially those in Southern Africa, have acceded to regional and international
laws, treaties, protocols and agreements on intellectual property rights, there
appears to be lack of clear cut policies on the concept in most African countries.

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Unit 7 Repackaging Traditional Knowledge

The African Science and Plan of Action (2005) states that the NEPAD
framework document emphasizes the importance of protecting and promoting
indigenous knowledge and related technological innovations. The documents
lament over the lack of protection and promotion of IK. For example, in most
African countries, institutions to safeguard the rights of indigenous knowledge
holders are so porous and also there is lack of coordination between formal
research and development institutions and local communities that hold and
use traditional knowledge. Patent offices in most African countries are so
small as compared to first world countries like the United States of America
whose patent office employs thousands of employees.

The NEPAD framework values traditional knowledge as a critical component

of culture that must be for the benefit of humankind.

Activity 7.1

?
1. Analyse strategies that higher and tertiary educational institutions can
play in promoting local content.
2. In line with Gibbon’s new modes of knowledge production how can
these be utilised to promote local content.
3. Analyse the factors which interfere with the drive towards an information
or knowledge economy.

7.8 Role of Libraries and Related Institutions in

Promoting Local Content
With the ascending role of information in tertiary, primary and secondary sectors
of the society it implies that the vital role of libraries can not be underestimated
because libraries have a patent over information and they are a major
constituency of the service sector which is a key component of the information
driven economy. Barka (2005) states that, libraries bring knowledge to
preserve the creative heritage of the society and to provide a fertile ground
for sharing ideas.

Academic libraries can utilise their accumulated cultural and intellectual heritage
to promote local content by facilitating easier and affordable access through
the local and global information infrastructure. Libraries in academic institutions
should develop websites that contain much with regards to local content and
this should be accessible through links to full text resources.

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The public library system is relatively a newcomer to the African information

provision scene and was introduced at the end of the colonial era. These
libraries have, in certain cases, ignored the oral shape of their communities by
prioritising foreign print oriented content. Shera (1998) notes that adopted
models are more elitist and out of tune with the cultural versance of the local
communities.

7.9 Summary
In this unit, we discussed that, there is an urgent need to promote more
empirical research on how traditional knowledge can be utilized to complement
the modern knowledge systems in the area of health, education, and law among
other areas. Africa has immense potential in developing and repositioning itself
in the global knowledge economy. The challenges of repackaging traditional
knowledge can be turned into opportunities that will facilitate the rise of new
information driven economy. It is important that since Zimbabwe is a signatory
to International Conventions on Intellectual Property Rights and it should use
such platforms to further the traditional knowledge agenda so that through
further research this knowledge can be utilized as a survivalist strategy in
dealing with developmental issues in health, education, agriculture,
environmental management, tourism among other areas. It is also through
promoting collaboration between institutions of higher learning, industry and
government that meaningful benefits can be utilized from research on traditional
knowledge and how it can be applied in science and technolog

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References
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report [Link] 15 July, 2009.
Barka, [Link] Zulu,B.(2009) “Plea for African digital libraries.”
[Internet]Available from [Link]
[Link]. Accessed 22 July, 2009.
Bray-Crwaford and Keula, P.(1999) “The Ho’okeke Newwariors in the
liquid content.” in:Harcour, W(ed)Women@[Link]:Zed
Books.
Chisenga, J.(2009) “Global Information Infrastructure and the question of
African content “ [Internet] Available from[Link]
IV/ifla65/papers/[Link] 12 February..
Cram, J. (2004) “Colonialism and libraries in third world Africa.” in:Australian
Library [Link].I. 2004.p.9.
Ford, H.(2005) “Stimulating local” in: Rhodes Journalism Review 25,
November, 2005.
Grizzle, A. (2009) “Creative Content: Radio, TV, New Media: Supporting
creativity and innovation in local content production in radio, television
and new media” [Internet] Available from [Link]
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Accessed 1 July, 2009.
Hampton, A.(2009) “Hitchhikers guide to the Information Highway.”
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Katzen, J.(2009) “Technology brings challenges and opportunities for
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March,[Link].40.
Kgautlhe, C. (2000) “Where is Research at UB?”. The Botswana Gazette,
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Kuchma, I.(2009) “Libraries and the open access movement:A developing
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Mbeki, T.(2005:66) “Africa:The role of Higher Education.” in:New Africa
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Mbeki, T.(2007) “Opening address by Executive Deputy President Thabo

Mbeki to the Information Society and Development Conference”
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Ocholla, Dennis.(2007) “Marginalised Knowledge Knowledge: An agenda
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[Link], 2007.
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 Unit Eight

Dimensions of Traditional
Knowledge

8.1 Introduction

T his unit briefly surveys the dimensions of traditional knowledge with

regards to discipline and context. The unit also explores the aspect of
intellectual property rights for indigenous or traditional knowledge. The unit
also highlights the challenges of promoting indigenous knowledge in socio-
economic development. The unit also looks at ways to promote and protect
indigenous knowledge.
Indigenous Knowledge Systems Module RAM 310/LIS 303

8.2 Objectives
By the end of the unit, you should be able to:

 describe the various parameters or dimensions of African indigenous

knowledge
 analyse the factors that interfere with access to indigenous knowledge
 suggest strategies to promote indigenous knowledge using modern
technology
 identify institutions that are involved in the promotion of indigenous
knowledge at local, regional and international levels

8.3 Traditional Knowledge as Representative of

Indigenous Peoples’ Culture
TK covers a variety of areas ranging from health to mathematics, technology,
governance, astronomy, philosophy, animal and plant husbandry, food
production and preservation, education, conflict resolution among other areas.
For this reason, existing intellectual property mechanisms, which are intended
to function in trade- related context, may not fully respond to the essentially
cultural nature of traditional knowledge.

In addition, traditional knowledge, as representative of cultural values is

generally held collectively, hence the concept of collective or communal
authorship. Grenier also argues that traditional knowledge is culture specific,
and this explains the problem of transferring and repackaging it into different
formats and cultures. The author further states that indigenous knowledge is
culture specific and can not be isolated from specific geographical and cultural
location or context and “ …refers to the unique, traditional, local knowledge
existing within and developed around the specific conditions of women and
men indigenous to a particular geographic area…”

Hansen and VanFleet (2006) note that traditional knowledge is called traditional
because it is tradition based since the knowledge is created in a manner that
reflects the traditions of the specific local communities. The two authors further
state that the knowledge is traditional because of the way it is created, preserved
and disseminated. This results from the fact that what can be sometimes
perceived as an isolated piece of literature (a poem, for example) or an isolated
technical invention (the use of a plant resource to heal wounds, for instance) is
actually an element that integrates as vast and mostly coherent complex of

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beliefs and knowledge, control of which is not in the hands of individuals who
use the isolated pieces of knowledge, but is vested in the community or
collective. Furthermore, most traditional knowledge is transmitted orally from
generation to generation and thus remains largely un-documented.

Activity 8.1

? 1. Using an eclectic model of knowledge discuss the main components of

what constitute “knowledge”.
2. Justify why traditional knowledge is referred to as “traditional”
3. With reference to the non-material culture of Zimbabwe discuss how it
relates to indigenous knowledge.
4. Analyse the challenges that confront African governments in enforcing
laws to protect and promote Intellectual Property Rights.

8.4 Legal Protection of Traditional Knowledge

Tsiko (2004) argues that the flow of investment and knowledge from the
north has led to abandonment of traditional values and practices and the
dismantling of economic basis on which the survival of indigenous cultures
depend. Chavunduka (2004) notes that the protection of traditional knowledge
faces challenges when it comes to patenting and intellectual property rights.
He further notes that foreign researchers can appropriate traditional knowledge
and apply for a patent, claiming to have invented a new product since traditional
knowledge has attributes of communal ownership. Chavunduka (2004) argues
that since knowledge is power there is need to protect traditional knowledge
through research, documentation and explaining to the world that Africa has
identifiable authors and inventions. Matonho observes that African governments
need to devote resources to the development of African Model Law.
Intellectual Property is inadequate and inappropriate for the protection of
traditional ecological knowledge, because it recognizes individual not collective
rights.

Professor Claude Mararike and Prof. Nabure (2004) also echoed similar
sentiments when they state that there is need to protect traditional knowledge
through collaboration within the region and other parts of the world. The
professors further lament that institutions of higher education are not doing
enough to promote indigenous resources through documentation. “…We as
Africans are not doing enough … another big issue is disorientation, total

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disorientation of the mind… we need to redirect our thinking to live within our
context… there is no way you can develop yourself when you are not standing
on your platform. If you stand on borrowed platform then your mind becomes
a borrowed mind…”

8.5 Challenges of Repackaging Traditional

Knowledge
Africa, Latin America and some parts of Asia have plentiful capital information
on traditional knowledge that has been used to solve problems for generations.
There is need to repackage this knowledge for wider distribution for the benefit
of humankind, formulation and enforcement of legislation to protect indigenous
resources against bio-piracy and promoting scholarly research in the use of
such resources. ManyAfrican countries, for example, Zimbabwe, South Africa,
Nigeria, Tanzania and Zambia have greater success in promulgating laws to
protect and promote traditional knowledge and resources. However, the
greatest challenge is that most of these legal instruments tend to be based on
the Western formal Scientific Model of Knowledge in the drive to protect
intellectual property rights relating to individual ownership at the expense of
collective ownership.

The greatest challenge that African or developing countries have had to grapple
with relates to the patenting and intellectual property rights of the traditional
knowledge and indigenous resources. There is lack of intellectual property
protection systems that can name the source of genetic material or traditional
knowledge used in product discovery. Jordan (2000) noted that the South
African government was battling to save the South African plant “pelargonium”
from being pirated by Western companies because of its extracts which are
used to cure fatigue, pain and HIV/AIDS related infections. There is urgent
need for state intervention in situations whereby existing patents do not cater
for traditional knowledge.

In most cases those who pirate traditional knowledge disregard the communal
ownership on the grounds that, from a scientific perspective for one to claim
knowledge of a plant species and its uses, there is need to have a written
chemical formula. Tsiko notes that Africa suffers from negative image of people
towards traditional knowledge and there is need to transform these perceptions
in order to bring on board the healing practices not as an appendage to Western
medical systems but as a competitive and complementary force on the
continent‘s health delivery systems. There is also need to change or transform

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the mindsets of Africans through education so that people will appreciate

knowledge governance through the formulation of policies that help in the
crafting of global policies meant to create and achieve impartial system of
access and benefit sharing of traditional knowledge.

The other challenge is that of investing more capital in research and development
in indigenous knowledge systems and resource for the benefit of humanity.
Knowledge is indeed power but it becomes power if it can be used effectively
in practical situations to solve development issues and as a result there is
greater need to protect indigenous knowledge through research, document
and explaining to the world that Africa in general boasts of identifiable authors
and investors who have contributed immensely towards the production of
indigenous accumulated heritage of intellectual capital in the form of traditional
knowledge.

8.6 Summary
Overall, there is an urgent need to promote more empirical research on how
traditional knowledge can be utilized to complement the modern knowledge
systems in the area of health, education, and law among other areas. Africa
has immense potential in developing and repositioning itself in the global
knowledge economy. The challenges of repackaging traditional knowledge
can be turned into opportunities that will facilitate the rise of new information
driven economy. It is important that since Zimbabwe is a signatory to
international conventions on intellectual property rights it should use such
platforms to further the traditional knowledge agenda so that through further
research this knowledge can be utilized as a survivalist strategy in dealing with
developmental issues in health, education, agriculture, environmental
management, tourism among other areas. It is also through promoting
collaboration between institutions of higher learning, industry and government
that meaningful benefits can be utilized from research on traditional knowledge
and how it can be applied in science and technology.

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References
Chavunduka, G.L.(2006) in Tsiko, S.(2006) “Traditional knowledge must be
repackaged.” in: The Herald, Monday 4 September, 2006.
Hamel, J.(2010) “Knowledge Management for revealing modernity: A new
Strategy.” Unpublished.
Nyumba, J.B. (2006.) “The role of the library in promoting the application of
Indigenous Knowledge (IK) in development projects.” Proceedings
of the 72nd International Federation of Library Associations
Conference, Seoul, 20-24 August,2006.
Payyappallimana, U.(2009) “The World Tree Traditional Knowledge.”
in:Sang Saeng Spring.
Sithole, J. (2006). "The challenges faced by African Libraries and Information
Centers in documenting and preserving indigenous knowledge.”
Proceedings of the 72nd International Federation of Library
Associations Conference, Seoul, 20-24 August, 2006.

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Role of Libraries in Promoting

the Dissemination and
Documentation of Indigenous
Agricultural Information
9.1 Introduction

T his unit explores the role of libraries in promoting and facilitating access
to indigenous knowledge for agricultural productivity. The unit will seek
to explain areas of convergence and divergence with regards to indigenous
knowledge. It will also clarify the role of libraries in promoting indigenous
knowledge .The unit will also highlight the challenges that libraries face in
trying to cater for indigenous knowledge and the role that indigenous knowledge
can play in enhancing productivity.
Indigenous Knowledge Systems Module RAM 310/LIS 303

9.2 Objectives
By the end of the unit, you should be able to:
 define indigenous knowledge
 justify the uniqueness of indigenous knowledge as opposed to other
knowledge systems
 analyse the role of indigenous knowledge in sustainable development
 evaluate the legal and ethical issues that relate to management of
indigenous knowledge

9.3 Endorsing Indigenous Knowledge

Nakata and Langton (2005) note that the library and information profession
has a great deal to learn if they are to effectively meet the information needs of
indigenous people and manage indigenous knowledge in an appropriate
[Link] calls for a fundamental rethink with regards to strategies on how
best to exploit indigenous knowledge to realize the goals of sustainable
development. It is common knowledge that the world over, modern science
has begun to recognize the constructive role that indigenous knowledge of
the local ecosystem can play in the formulation and implementation of
sustainable development policies and projects in developing countries. Escobar
(1995:98) notes that indigenous knowledge represents a possible alternative
amongst the world’s poor “…the remaking of development must start by
examining local constructions, to the extent that they are the life and history of
the people, that is, the conditions for and of change…”

The International Federation of Library Associations (2003) also

acknowledges the intrinsic value and importance of traditional knowledge
and local knowledge and the need to consider it holistically as a tool for
socio-economic development. IFLA (2008) recommends libraries to collect,
preserve, and disseminate indigenous knowledge, publicise the value,
contribution, and importance of IK to both non-indigenous and indigenous
people, involving elders and communities in the production of IK and encourage
the recognition of intellectual property laws to ensure the proper protection
and use of IK. World Commission on Environment and Development
(1987:12) echoed similar sentiments as it lamented the threats to traditional
lifestyles and called for action to halt an impending catastrophe.
”Some traditional lifestyles are threatened with virtual extinction by insensitive
development over which the indigenous peoples’ have no participation. Their
traditional rights should be recognized and they should be given a more decisive
voice in formulating policies about resource development in their areas …”

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9.4 Indigenous Knowledge: Convergence or

Divergence?
Nakata and Langton (2005) note that indigenous knowledge is collectively
owned and exists as stories, songs, folklore, proverbs, cultural values, norms,
beliefs, rituals, local languages, and agricultural practices, including the
development of plant species and animal breeds. Indigenous people and
cultures have for long been oppressed and exploited under colonial and after
colonialism in the neo–colonial stage. It has been observed that colonial
governments in developing countries prevented and criminalized the display
of traditional cultural expressions, for example, language, ceremony, dance
and drama, hence leading to the cultural disorientation and alienation of local
people from their culture. Development has relied entirely on western
knowledge at the expense of local knowledge and libraries have remained
mere appendages of the former.

Brigs (2005) notes that there is a binary tension between the two knowledge
systems in that , formal scientific knowledge is viewed to be open, systematic
and objective while traditional knowledge is viewed to be parochial, intellectual,
primitive and emotional. De Walt (1994) notes that indigenous knowledge
should be viewed as a complement and not a competitor of western knowledge
systems. This has seen farmers in Zimbabwe using the eclectic approach
whereby they appropriate those elements that are useful to their socio-
economic progress, for example, the use of organic manure as fertilizer is
common amongst Zimbabwean farmers. Public libraries can help people,
through facilitating access to knowledge independent from bipolar positions
but rather as a complimentary.

This cantankerous vituperation of everything indigenous created a state of

cultural disorientation amongst the indigenous people especially with regards
to identity, food production and conflict resolution among other issues. Williams
and Muchena (1991) note that nineteenth century social sciences contributed
through ethnic stereotyping and prejudice to current negative attitudes towards
indigenous knowledge systems, for example, colonialism and western
educational systems led to the denigration of everything indigenous. Formal
scientific method which espouses reason as the only way of knowing has
been used as a tool to alienate indigenous knowledge systems for example,
intuition is regarded as unscientific, yet amongst Africans , this is the sixth
sense that has a spiritual or cultural dimension in determining whether its going
to rain or not.

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The use of indigenous knowledge implies change that comes from within local
communities and it reflects local community’s confidence in indigenous
knowledge as a tool for socio-economic progress. Agrawal (1995) notes
that contrary to negative publicity of indigenous knowledge, there is growing
interest in local content and this has come as a result of a fundamental rethink
on the part of policy makers, “represents a shift from the preoccupation with
the centralization of technically oriented solutions that failed to alter life prospects
for a majority of the peasants and small farmers of the world.”

Activity 9.1

?
1. Discuss why the endorsement of indigenous knowledge as an alternative
to modern knowledge systems marks a watershed in development
theories
2. Suggest ways through which indigenous knowledge can be used to
boost agricultural production

9.5 Libraries and Related Institutions: Access to

Indigenous Knowledge
The UNECO Public Library Manifesto (1994) describes the public library as
the local center of information which provides access to all kinds of knowledge
and information. It describes the role of the librarian as that of “an active
intermediary between users and resources.” The Manifesto further notes that
the library services and collections must include all types of appropriate media
and modern technologies as well as traditional materials. Wendland(2007)
notes that libraries and archives as repositories of formal scientific and
indigenous and other cultural materials fulfill vital preservation, educational,
scholarly and functions of access for the benefit of whole society.

Libraries and related institutions in Zimbabwe play a critical role in collecting

both modern and indigenous knowledge and organizing it for dissemmination
to the local people. However, it appears that most libraries have remained
print based yet rural Zimbabwe is predominantly oral shaped. Wendland
(2007) further states that libraries and archives as part of the superstructure
they need to “reassert cultural integrity, cultural authority, and preservation of
context, cultural sovereignty and respect.”

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Libraries in Southern Africa are a by product of colonial rule and as such they
have to grapple with reorienting and reengineering there services in line with
the needs of the local people. Burtis (2004) argues that the discord of modern
Library and Information systems is that they are oriented towards a scientific
logic of information retrieval and access whereby knowledge is reduced into
information without due consideration to the cultural context in which it was
created. The author further states that it is not enough to catalogue, abstract,
classify, index, and digitize materials to facilitate access but what is needed is
for Library and Information professionals to put indigenous knowledge into
a cultural context.

“… Indigenous claims for protection of indigenous knowledge systems and

cultural materials lie, albeit perhaps only superficially at right–angles to some of
the core objectives of libraries and other information services, such as: freedom
of speech, intellectual freedom, diffusion of knowledge, research and learning,
access to information and preservation of cultural heritage….”

Okore, et al., (2009) state that developing countries are endowed with a
wealth of indigenous knowledge but access to such knowledge is hampered
by lack of an environment that permits free flow of ideas amongst members of
the community . The author recommends libraries to promote access to
indigenous knowledge by creating an environment which permits face-to-
face forums and network formation to discuss and debate on issues that might
be useful to members of the communities, for example, the use of talk shows
promoting intergenerational dialogue between the young and the old on different
subject areas ranging from agriculture, ecosystem, medical care, and conflict
resolution. Libraries should also use other sources of indigenous knowledge,
including indigenous experts, opinion leaders and village elders. Farmer to
Farmer interaction involving neighbours, friends or village gatherings in social
spaces is also useful.

Okore et al. (2009) argues that libraries managing indigenous knowledge

should not view themselves as owners of such knowledge but rather custodians
who are freely available to dialogue with members of the community, through
creating social spaces for communities to learn from each other. This implies
that when dealing with indigenous knowledge library and information
professionals should descend from their elitist and anachronistic ivory towers
shrouded by the brick and mortar print based alphabetized services and be
able to be sensitive to the pulse of the community with regards to the provision
of information to promote agriculture.

Zimbabwe has a well developed library system with higher concentrations in

urban areas, for example, the capital city has at least sixteen to eighteen public

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libraries, while there are others in the outer parts of Harare, for example,
Chitungwiza and in Zimbabwe libraries range from the academic, public, school
and national libraries. These institutions mainly provide print based resources
with the exception of public libraries that have at least embraced an indigenous
grounded appeal with regards to the provision of information services, for
example, story telling sessions in urban areas are a favourite for children.

9.6 Avoidance Taboos and Sustainable Development

Chemhuru and Masaka (2010) note that prohibitions and restrictions through
taboos on unsustainable use of certain species, forests, rivers , pools, mountains
and other ecological species help to shape environmental ethics that are critical
for sustainable development. In Zimbabwe indigenous knowledge is
encapsulated in oral traditions in the form of myths and legends, for example,
totems. Adherence to totems reflects respect for avoidance taboos, for
example, those belonging to the elephant clan will not eat that animal but
revere it. Totems play a critical role in community bonding and sustainable
environmental protection because of the strong belief that it is a taboo to kill
or eat a totem. They are also ethical tools that foster social cohesion and
strengthen relations between human beings and their environment.

The African communitarian view of the human person is premised on the

notion that an individual can better be understood from a cultural perspective
according to Menkiti (2006). Totems (mitupo) have been in use among the
Shona people since the initial development of their culture. Respect for one’s
totem serves as an instrument of informal social control against the excesses
or irregular conduct on the part of the members.

Totems identify the different clans among the Bantu that historically made up
the dynasties of their ancient civilization. Currently more than twenty five (25)
different totems can be identified among the Shona, and similar totems exist
among other Southern African groups, for example, the Zulu, the Ndebele,
and the Herero. Taboos are critical in nurturing sustainable use of natural
resources. Currently taboos are utilized as a means to protect endangered
non-human species, for example, pythons, pangolins and rhinoceros. There is
a strong belief that if one kills a python then this will affect rain patterns and
this clearly confirms that Shona culture guarantees protection for endangered
species. This knowledge is to some extent available in print form in a few
selected libraries and it is accessible to the literate even though its source is
oral and indigenous. Public libraries provide space for people to read and

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Unit 9 Role of Libraries in Promoting the Dissemination and Documentation of
Indigenous Agricultural Information

learn but they could do more by creating information repositories that will
help to preserve such vital knowledge.

9.7 Permaculture and Agricultural Production

Matowanyika et al, in Kunnie (2000) notes that one of the oldest ways of
farming that has persisted up to day is permaculture because it has proved to
be a better agricultural practice as compared to monoculture .Permaculture
is said to help in maintaining soil moisture and reduction of soil erosion
caused by running water. The author further notes that that indigenous people
used to and continue to use their agricultural knowledge in the form of
permaculture whereby different crops are grown together on the same plot of
land. The advantage of this approach is that there is provision for permanent
cover for the crops and this leads to a reduction of exposure to the sun. These
methods of farming have persisted amongst subsistence farmers or small scale
farmers as they view it as a sustainable way of farming as opposed to
monoculture which is done for commercial purposes. Access to such
knowledge can be promoted through repackaging, discussion groups in
libraries and related community centers.

9.8 Traditional Religion

The Shona and Ndebele as Bantu people do not separate religion from day
to day life, because from a traditionalist perspective life is anchored on
maintaining a harmony between the living, the ancestral spirits and God who
are the guardians of the land. Mudege (2008) notes that there are a variety of
traditional religious functions which celebrate good harvest, for example, “doro
remusha” celebrates and thanks the benevolent ancestors for their blessings.
The author further notes that there is also beer of good harvest “goho” which
celebrates good harvests. During times of drought people brew beer to appease
the ancestors to provide rain after prolonged periods of a dry spell which
might threaten the planting season. This great cultural event is known as
“mafuwe” among the Korekore and “mukwerera” among the Zezuru. Africans
did not have cloud seedling technology and they had to rely on rain making
ceremonies to appeal to God for rain and avoid natural disasters. These
traditions still remain intact in the form of oral traditions commonly held by
chiefs and spirit mediums. Mararike (1993) in Mudege (2008) notes that “the
relationship between the living, the dead and God was intertwined… the natural
world and the human world and spiritual world are closely related”

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This traditional knowledge is not documented but it exists in the community

and it is passed on from one generation to another orally. It is the knowledge
that has helped to sustain the lives of the rural people .Public libraries can
make use of this knowledge through repackaging information and facilitating
access to this knowledge through talk shows and discussion. This will require
libraries to be proactive and implement community engagement programmes
that promote synergies between the young and the old through intergenerational
dialogue. The public library has a cultural, informational and educational
mandate to provide service to the public, especially those with a strong
inclination towards culture and development.

9.9 Libraries and Access to Agricultural Information:

Need for a Fundamental Rethink
Amadi (1981) is sceptical that African libraries are incapable of playing the
role of information providers or storehouses of African cultures and traditions
grounded in oral [Link] (1995) carried out a study in Nigeria,
Kenya and Tanzania and found out that there is common need for agricultural
information with regards to agricultural skills, marketing of produce and basic
health skills which are not catered for by the Western model of librarianship.
The ideal African library should be a social space whereby traditional and
modern technology converge to promote a synergy of ideas as reflected by
Nyerere’s speech.

“Adaption is required in the creation of information structures and methodologies

that would encompass Africa’s traditional resources and modern knowledge
resources. Information management and marketing strategies: acquisition;
dissemination and use of relevant information; modification of information seeking
behaviour; and most of all ; the inertia of perceiving and expressing problems in
terms of external factors, are factors that need immediate attention….”

Williams and Muchena (1991) highlighted the importance of collecting,

organizing and developing indigenous knowledge to increase productivity. They
called for a developmental approach that builds on the knowledge that
indigenous farmers already have and how to use that as the foundation for
promoting sustainable agriculture capacity development programmes. It has
been observed that where conventional weather information is not easily
accessible, there is need to make use of indigenous knowledge to predict the
amount of rainfall for that agricultural season, and inform the farmers’ cropping
activities.

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Mutasa (2009) noted that scientific research in Buhera and Chikomba revealed
that there was heavy reliance on indigenous knowledge and speculation through
the use of indigenous rainfall prediction indicators, for example, a high number
of spiders webs will indicate a wet season, circular halo of the moon, animal
and plant behaviour, as well as wild fruit availability and wind direction prior
to the rainy season. Williams and Muchena (1991) called on government to
consider protecting indigenous knowledge through equipping information
professionals with “...skills to identify, collect, and develop indigenous
knowledge into contemporary usable formats.” The authors further state that
by starting with the farmers’ indigenous knowledge, educators can move from
the general to the specific, from the concrete to the abstract in the process of
promoting sustainable agriculture.

9.10 Libraries as Cultural Institutions

Welford (2011) states that every country has its own cultural traditions that it
seeks to preserve for future posterity. Traditions which a society preserves
become the bedrock of the country’s norms and values that unify the
community. The National Library and Documentation Services (NLDS)
embarked on an ambitious project to build centres through-out the country.
This resulted in the development of the multi purpose Murehwa Cultural House
with space for reading, an auditorium, exhibitions dances and other cultural
activities. The cultural aspect was meant to allow the library to tap into the
indigenous knowledge of the surrounding communities and thus promote
development. Walford (2011) notes that when the Murehwa Culture House
first started operating “ ... visitors would be greeted by the sharp rattling
sound of wooden instruments being shaken followed by a loud and deep
drumbeat, wild ululations and earsplitting whistles....”

The economic challenges made it impossible to develop libraries with a high

cultural orientation that transcend print oriented culture. However, desperate
situations call for desperate solutions, the introduction of donkey drawn mobile
libraries has helped to fill in the void by providing access to information in the
most remote places. The Rural Library and Resource Development
Programme (RLRDP) founded in 1990 has inspired teachers’ colleges, for
example, Seke Teachers College to also explore the idea of mobile libraries
for student teachers scattered in rural areas. The main aim of mobile libraries
is to provide information to the most remote rural areas and bridge the
information divide or apartheid.

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9.11 Access to Indigenous Knowledge : Academic

Institutions as Engines for Knowledge
Production
Zimbabwe has a total of thirteen (13) agricultural colleges located in all the
provinces of Zimbabwe, six of which offer diplomas in agriculture namely
Chibero, Gwebi, Mazowe, Rio Tinto, Mlezu and Esigodini while the rest offer
certificates. There is at least one agricultural college in each province of the
country. These libraries are complemented by public libraries, college libraries
and other special libraries in government ministries and non-governmental
organisations. University libraries also provide agricultural information relating
to both local and western knowledge systems. However, these institutions
are accessible to the formally educated at the exclusion of the general
communities. The goal of African Renaissance can only be achieved through
ensuring that the educational and cultural institutions remain part of the peoples
ways of life.

Universities are helping to promote indigenous knowledge in agriculture through

integrating traditional with formal scientific knowledge, for example, the Faculty
of Agriculture and Natural Resources of the Africa University seeks to promote
a holistic approach to life and recognition for the inviolability of the environment.
It intends to achieve this by establishing a dynamic community of learning
committed to teaching, research and extension that addresses the challenges
of food production to meet the dietary requirements in Africa, encourage
income generation to improve the quality of life of current and future generations
through improved agricultural practices and the sustainable management of
natural resources.

Africa University has an indigenous acacia tree set against the background of
a rising sun as its logo and this is symbolic of the institution’s goal to promote
and sustain socio-economic development by integrating indigenous knowledge
and modern scientific knowledge. Libraries in higher and tertiary education
have a critical role to play as the engine that drive the natural processes by
which members acquire knowledge, skills and attitudes appropriate to their
local life. This is in line with Thabo Mbeki’s (2005) call at the Association of
African Universities Conference; “…higher education has an important role
to play in the economic, social, cultural and political renaissance of our
continent and in the drive for the development of indigenous knowledge systems
(IKS)”

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Activity 9.2

?
1. Analyse the value of avoidance tabboos as a means of social control
2. Evaluate the role of higher and tertiary education in promoting indigenous
knowledge
3. Suggest possible solutions towards the indigenisation of the curriculum
in higher and tertiary institutions in Africa.

9.12 Libraries and Information Repackaging

Saracevic and Woods (1981) and Bunch (1984) use the term information
repackaging to refer to the way an information service selects appropriate
materials, reprocesses and packages the material according to user
specifications. Repackaging can be done through various forms, for example,
popular theatre, drama, story telling and the use of songs. Modern technology
makes it much easier to repackage information through integration of text and
graphics and texts. Information technology assists in repackaging information
into oral form, for example, the use of broadcasts in rural areas to record oral
history and songs. The use of tape recorders also assists in capturing a fading
memory with regards to traditional knowledge in agriculture. Repackaging of
information helps in locating, retrieval, evaluation, interpretation and
repackaging of information on a particular subject area.

Modern technology is important in repackaging information because

Information and Communication Technologies (ICT’s) are free from the fetters
of time and space. Libraries need to utilize modern technology to promote
access to indigenous knowledge with regards to promoting a culture of
knowledge sharing amongst farmers. Tsiko (2004:9) suggests an alternative
to the repackaging of indigenous knowledge through documentation. The
author states that this is critical at a time when traditional knowledge is being
marginalized by high culture resulting in assimilation and cultural genocide.
With due consideration to intellectual property rights, it is imperative to
document this knowledge that has practical uses in agriculture, forestry, health
and sustainable development.

Libraries need to be proactive and promote community publishing, so that

communities are able to document their experiences and market as well as
share with others. Programmes to repackage traditional knowledge will also
help to integrate Western and indigenous knowledge to generate knowledge
to tackle the environmental challenges with regards to land management
.Community libraries working with communities and other stakeholders can

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encourage research, recording and documentation and use of hereditary

knowledge system to showcase how these can be used in managing natural
and cultural elements, for example , public libraries’ use of story telling sessions
helps to unlock the great potential encapsulated in indigenous knowledge
systems.

9.13 Summary
Public library services are essential public access points because people feel
comfortable to rely on their free information services. However, in the current
information centric age libraries need to do more to promote access to
indigenous knowledge through establishing knowledge centres that provide
access to all forms of knowledge. There is need to transform the library service
from its straightjacket to a community oriented service that takes cognizance
of indigenous knowledge for sustainable agricultural production. This calls for
what Ivan Illich called “deschooling” the scientific community so that they
relearn and value traditional knowledge. Furthermore, this will also call for
the redefinition of knowledge, and an endorsement of indigenous knowledge
as a complement to formal scientific knowledge in the drive to realize the
goals of sustainable development and bring to an end the unsustainable culture
of poverty, intellectual bankruptcy, greedy consumerism and environmentally
unfriendly methods of agricultural producti

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Indigenous Agricultural Information

References
Agrawal, A.C. (1995) “Dismantling the divide between indigenous and
scientific knowledge.” in: Development and Change Vol, 26, 413-
13.
Atteh, O.D. 1989. “Indigenous Local Knowledge as Key to Local-Level
Development: Possibilities, Constraints and Planning Issues in the
Context of Africa.” Seminar on reviving local self-reliance:
challenges for rural/regional development in eastern and southern
Africa. Unpublished.
Burtis, A. “Managing Indigenous knowledge and Traditional Cultural
Expressions: Is technology the solution” [Internet] Available http://
l i b r. o rg/ i s c/ i s s u es /IS C 2 9 / ar t i cl es / 3 % 2 0 -
%20Managing%20Indigenous%[Link]. Accessed 4
February, 2011.
Escobar, A. (1995) Encountering development: The making and unmaking
of the third World. Princeton NJ: Princeton University Press.
Illich Ivan.(1987) Deschooling [Link]:Penguin.
International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions (2008). IFLA
statement on indigenous traditional knowledge. [Internet]
Available: [Link]
indigenous-traditional-knowledge. Accessed 5 January, 2011.
Kunnie(2000) “Developing Indigenous Knowledge and Technological
system.”.in:Chiwome, E.M(etal)(eds)Indigenous Knowledge and
Technology in Africa and Diasporan Communities. Harare:
Southern African Association for Culture and Development Studies.

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 Unit Ten

African Thoughts and Cultural

Development: Integrating
Traditions and Modern Science

10.1 Introduction
T his unit will explore Afro-centric perspectives on the promotion, and
coordination of indigenous knowledge. It will highlight the challenges
that are encountered in transforming societies to appreciate and accept
indigenous knowledge. The unit will also look at possibilities of integrating
indigenous knowledge into developmental programmes. The unit will also
look at how indigenous knowledge can be used to promote modern science.
It will also highlight the value of African Model Law in promoting traditional
knowledge in Africa.
Indigenous Knowledge Systems Module RAM 310/LIS 303

10.2 Objectives
By the end of the unit, you should be able to;
 analyse the afro-centric perspective of the concept of knowledge
production and coordination
 distinguish between non-formal and formal scientific knowledge
 describe the value of indigenous knowledge in environmental
management
 evaluate the main stipulations of the Africa Union (AU) African Model
Law with regards to the management of Indigenous Knowledge

10.3 Basis of African Scholarship

Matonho (2006) states that African scholars must not continue to be carbon
copies of Western thoughts by being content with merely applying Western
ideas, concepts, models and theories. Molefe Asante Kete (2000) in the book
“Afrocentricity” notes that there is need for a fundamental rethink so that
Africans will turn the globe and view reality from African perspectives. The
writer questions the use of borrowed theories to interpret African reality.
Chancellor (1999) notes that the African continent has been too Westernized
and Christianised to the extent that it has taken strong ideological stances
against its own culture often to the harm of the development and sustenance
of African conscience. Mental colonisation and inertia is suicidal as it threatens
the existence of developing countries abilities to realise their full potential as
sovereign countries in a global world.

Hamel (2009) notes that the paradigmatic shift toward modern ways of
knowing and acting requires championing the scientific method, the rule of
technique and innovation as well as promoting decisive scientific arbitrations,
increased technical mediations and a redefining of relationships with the
superstructure which includes religious, cultural, social and economic life. For
this shift to occur there is a need to better value modern science, as a method
of both calculative and subversive thinking and as a means of achieving the
systematic unmasking and renovation of conventional, medieval, and pre-
modern realities. This calls for re-cosmologizing, re-mythologizing, “re-
prophetizing", re-charlatanizing and re-directing the evolution of a mutilated
empirical reality toward a truly "African’ future, emancipated from the sacred
relics of a convoluted history.

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Unit 10 African Thoughts and Cultural Development:
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There is growing consensus that globalisation is suffocating indigenous culture

resulting in the slow death of all traces of African culture. According to critical
development experts, Africans need to assess what derives from their material
culture and what originates from their non-material culture and then develop
ways to integrate the two towards an indigenous grounded development
paradigm. There is also a need to assess African knowledge and science that
has nurtured the continent this far. This can be achieved through the
development of inventories and creation of knowledge repositories of
indigenous knowledge.

10.4 Environmental Knowledge and Indigenous

Knowledge Systems
While acknowledging the mistakes that have been made in efforts to look
after the environment by Africans, environmentalists note that Africans have
put in place some useful and environmentally friendly systems that should not
be abandoned. Some of them include the process of proper plant material
extraction and good management of scarce water resources. It is scientifically
proven knowledge that while the Basarwa- derogatorily known as the
Bushmen of Botswana, know where to find good water, the Masai of Kenya
are experts in preserving and managing natural resources as well as the
treatment and control of livestock diseases for a long time yet mainstream
scientist spend time and money researching without consulting them. For
centuries, the Masai were convinced that the wildebeest was the silent carrier
of the malignant catarrh fever (MCF) virus. The virus contained foetal
membrane fluids from the calving wildebeests. It is surprising that recently,
scientists concur with this pastoralist view which is based on traditional
knowledge or non-formal scientific knowledge. According to Forestry
Research Centre of Mozambique, a study was carried out in Gaza, south of
the country; which showed that people have rituals which relate to conservation
of water and other natural resource. The study acknowledges that access to
free resources is controlled by traditions. This is a manifestation of how
indigenous knowledge is intertwined with local lifestyles. The embedment of
indigenous knowledge in the lifestyles of indigenous communities makes it
difficult to decontextualise such knowledge systems.

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Indigenous Knowledge Systems Module RAM 310/LIS 303

Experts observe that the researchers from developing countries should

network from and share ideas as a way to strengthen African traditions. The
continent has distinctive rich tradition and heritage, which is part of the human
experience that needs to be improved upon from time to time.

However, other development research experts note that indigenous knowledge

is the best udder to distinguish between knowledge and systems developed
by a community and the international knowledge system also called Western
knowledge, generated through universities, government research centres and
private industries. Dickson (2002) notes that indigenous knowledge should
not necessarily be considered more important than Western or international
knowledge, but at the same time, the value of indigenous knowledge must not
be underestimated. In fact, the two kinds of knowledge should be utilized
together, in a balanced way. Interestingly, the research expert points out that,
neither indigenous knowledge nor the international Western knowledge systems
seem to be able to provide sustainable solutions to meet future demands.

Indigenous and Western or formal scientific knowledge have their strengths

and weaknesses, but by using the two knowledge systems in a complementary
rather than competitive way, the best results could be achieved. However, the
use of such a combination should take into cognisance and try to reconcile the
binary tensions that exist between the two.

10.5 Promoting Non-Formal and Formal Knowledge

as Tools for Development.
Dickson (2002) points out that there is need for comprehensive information
on indigenous knowledge to be made available to researchers to allow its
relative strengths and weaknesses to be compared and contrasted with those
of its global counterpart. By researching indigenous knowledge and retrieving
for communities the potential of the knowledge could be unravelled. However,
such experts quickly note that the process of researching indigenous knowledge
may not be as straightforward as it sounds. The questions of where to go and
who to ask are just the first problems that need to be solved.

In recent years, indigenous knowledge in some communities has become a

well-guarded secret, as a result of the unscrupulous behaviour of some Western
scientists. Some indigenous knowledge and material has been collected and
used without rewarding those who provided the original information, say the
research experts.

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Unit 10 African Thoughts and Cultural Development:
Integrating Traditions and Modern Science

In recent years, there has been great reluctance on the part of practitioners to
release their knowledge for precisely this reason. But when the knowledge is
going to be used as part of a local project, explaining the purpose of the study
and the benefits the community may derive from the results would often be
enough to access the required knowledge.

In other cases, it may be necessary to provide compensation for this knowledge,

say the research experts. They further assert that the countries that include
combined knowledge systems in their development planning derive many
advantages. As well as being an important first step to development, they also
empower communities to seek alternative solutions to their problems through
discerning strengths and weaknesses. The combined use of the two knowledge
systems constitute a strategic national resource that ought to be harnessed as
it provides a sustainable basis for agriculture and natural resources
management.

Development research experts quote Cameroon as a country in Africa with

potential of using indigenous knowledge systems. With a very rich biodiversity
well conserved, 900 species of plant, over 800 species of birds and some
300 species of mammals, Cameron has proved to be an ideal testing ground
for the role of indigenous knowledge. This level of biodiversity has been
maintained as a result of indigenous knowledge systems used for generations,
using the resources available without over-exploiting them. Through combining
this indigenous knowledge with international Western knowledge, more
productive and sustainable systems of agriculture are being developed in
Cameroon, note the research experts.

In recognition of the importance of the African Model Law (AML) conceived

by the then Organisation Of African Unity (OAU) now the African Union
(AU) and the need to appreciate formulation of policies and legal frameworks
by African governments, there is a need to develop and manage our own
intellectual property rights systems, within the context of African Model Law
( AML).This initiative would greatly enable African countries to participate
equitably in the global systems with regards to the development of indigenous
agriculture and natural resources among other issues.

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Indigenous Knowledge Systems Module RAM 310/LIS 303

Activity 10.1

? 1. Distinguish between formal and non formal knowledge as tools for

development

10.6 Integrating Traditional Knowledge into Modern

Science
Greater efforts are needed to integrate the insights of traditional knowledge
into modern science, as applied to practices ranging from medicine to
environmental management. This requires redefining our concept of the
‘scientific world view. Niooge (2002) states that the Kenyan government
intention to introduce a new law allowing the provision of herbal drugs to
hospital patients provoked a storm of protest from the country’s doctors.
Critics argued that the effectiveness of such drugs had not been scientifically
proven, and that their potential dangers were unknown. Niooge (2002) notes
that Kenya Medical Association (KMA) is concerned that the efficacy of
most herbal drugs has not been scientifically proven and hence the need to
promote more research. The Kenyan government’s decision is a classic
example of a growing consciousness by those responsible for health policy in
both developed and developing nations that traditional medical techniques
have much to offer modern medicine (an awareness that, ironically, now creates
its own problems in the form of ‘biopiracy’. The objections of the Kenyan
Medical Association, however, reflect the fact that tensions between traditional
knowledge and modern science continue to reverberate.

10.7 Summary
There is need to support scholarly initiatives in order to unearth the controversies
and myth surrounding indigenous knowledge. Legal and ethical factors should
be taken into account in any endeavor relating to the research or study of
indigenous knowledge. There is need to research more on the areas of
convergence and divergence in order to resolve the binary tension between
formal and non-formal scientific [Link] and
interdisciplinary collaborations can also assist in coming up with findings on
how to utilize the two knowledge systems for development.

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Unit 10 African Thoughts and Cultural Development:
Integrating Traditions and Modern Science

References
Dickson,D. (2002)” Traditional Knowledge and Modern Science”.
[Internet]Available [Link]
environment/editorials/[Link].
Accessed 22 February, 2010.
Niooge, J. (2002) “Kenyan Doctors oppose herbal remedies.”[Internet]
Available [Link]
[Link]. Accessed 20 July, 2010.
Shale, T.L, Stirk, W. A. and Staden J. van (1999) “Screening of medicinal
plants used in Lesotho for anti-bacterial and anti-inflammatory activity.”
in Journal of Ethno Pharmacology, [Link] No.3.
Lor. [Link] Britz,J.(2005) “Knowledge production from an African
[Link] Information Flows and Intellectual Property”in
International Information and Library Reviews, Vol.37. 2005.p61-
67
Mbeki, T.(2005:66) “Africa:The role of Higher Education.”in: New Africa
April, 2005..
Mbeki, T.(2007) “Opening address by Executive Deputy President Thabo
Mbeki to the Information Society and Development
Conference”[Internet]Available from [Link]
[Link] 17June, 2007.

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