Reviewer
Terms:
Electric Charge - An attribute that is as fundamental as mass.
Charge of electron: e=−1.602176487 x 10−19 C
Ionic Bonding - complete transfer of valence electron(s) between atoms. It is a type of chemical bond that generates
two oppositely charged ions.
Electric Field - A region in which each point is affected by an electric force.
- The electric force on a charged body is exerted by the electric field created by other charged bodies.
Direction of Electric field
Electric Flux - The rate of flow of the electric field through a given area. Electric flux is proportional to the number of
electric field lines going through a virtual surface.
Charge Density - Measure of electric charge per unit volume of space.
Electric Potential/Potential - potential energy per unit charge.
Voltage - the potential difference between two points
Equipotential Surface - A three-dimensional surface on which the electric potential V is the same at every point.
Capacitors - A device that stores electric potential energy and electric charge.
To make a capacitor, just insulate two conductors from each other.
Capacitance - a measure of the ability of a capacitor to store energy.
Dielectrics - Nonconducting material, or an insulator.
Functions:
1. maintaining two large metal sheets at a very small separation without actual contact.
2. increases the maximum possible potential difference between the capacitor plates
3. capacitance is greater when there is a dielectric material between the plates than when there is vacuum.
Polarization- redistribution of positive and negative charge within the dielectric material.
Electric Circuit - If the charges follow a conducting path that forms a closed loop, the path is called an electric circuit.
- Means for conveying energy from one place to another.
Current - Any motion of charge from one region to another.
-The rate at which charge flows past a point on a circuit.
Resistance - A measure of the degree to which a substance impedes the flow of electric current induced by a voltage.
Resistance increases as temperature increases.
Incomplete Circuit - For a conductor to have a steady current, it must be part of a path that forms a closed loop or
complete circuit.
Complete Circuit - If a charge goes around a complete circuit and returns to its starting point, the potential energy must
be the same at the end of the round trip as at the beginning.
Electromotive Force - The influence that makes current flow from lower to higher potential.
Note: EMF is NOT a Force; It is an energy per unit charge. In other words volts.
Internal Resistance - Charge moving through the material of any real source(EMF) encounters resistance.
Note: For a real source of emf, the terminal voltage equals the emf only if no current is flowing through the
source. V ab=ℇ , If there is no internal resistance.
Power in Electric Circuits - Rate at which energy is delivered to or extracted from a circuit element.
Voltmeter - For measuring Voltage, Ideal voltmeters have infinite resistance.
Ammeter - For measuring Current, Ideal ammeters have zero resistance
Physiological Effects - Even if the potential difference is large, so long as there is very small current, no harm will occur.
Junction in a circuit is a point where three or more conductors meet.
Loop is any closed conducting path.
Laws/Rules/Statements
Coulomb’s Law – Relationship between 1 or more point charges.
Gauss’ Law - The total electric flux through a closed surface is equal to the total (net) electric charge inside the
surface, divided by ϵ 0 .
Note: Gauss’s law is valid for any distribution of charges and for any closed surface and Gaussian surfaces are
imaginary
Qualitative statement of Gauss’ law.
Direction of the flux through a closed surface depends on the sign of the enclosed charge.
Outside charges does not contribute to the net electric flux.
Electric flux is independent of the size of the closed surface.
Ohms’ Law - Relationship among voltage, current, and resistance
- Ohm’s law is the direct proportionality (for some materials) of V to I or of J to E.
Note: Only when R is constant (Ohmic resistor) can we correctly call this relationship Ohm’s law.
Safety Measures
All safety rules are aimed at not causing a current to pass through paths we do not intend.
First class of safety
Increasing the effective resistance
Second class of safety
Prevent the production of sparks
Third class of safety
Good grounding of a person or an object.
Kirchhoff’s Rule
Kirchhoff’s junction rule: The algebraic sum of the currents into any junction is zero. That is,
∑ I =0
Kirchhoff’s loop rule: The algebraic sum of the potential differences in any loop, including those associated with emfs
and those of resistive elements, must equal zero. That is,
∑ V =0
Sign Conventions for the Loop Rule
Units:
Charge (Q): C (Coulumb)
Electric Force (F): N (Newton)
Electric Field (E): N/C or V/m (volt/meter)
Electric Potential Energy (U): J (Joules)
Potential (V): V (volts) or J/C
Capacitance (C): F (Farad) or C/V
Current (I): A (amphere)
Resistance (R): Ω (ohm)
EMF: V (volts)
Power: W (watt) or VA or A2 Ω or V 2 /Ω
Equations:
Magnitude of Electric Force (Coulomb’s Law)
|q 1 q 2|
F=k 2
Where k=9.0 x 10 9 N m 2 /C2
r
Example: q 1=q 2=+1.0 C , r=1.0 m , Answer: F=9.0x109 N
Magnitude of Electric Field
|q|
E=k : Where k=9.0 x 10 9 N m 2 /C2
r2
Example: q❑ + 1.0C , r=1.0 m, Answer: E=9.0x109 N /C
F
E=
q0
9
Example: q 0 +1.0 C , F =9.0 x 10 N , Answer: E=9.0x109 N /C
Electric Flux
Φ E =EA cosϕ
Example: E = 2N/C, A = 2 m2 , angle = 0. Answer: Φ E =4N m2/C
Electric Potential Energy
q q0
U =k
r
Example: q❑ =q 0=+1.0 C , r =1.0 m, Answer: U= 9.0x109 J
Electric Potential
U
V=
q0
U q
V = =k
q0 r
Example: q❑ =q 0=+1.0 C , r =1.0 m, Answer: V= 9.0x109 V
Capacitance
Q
C=
V ab
Example: Q= 4C, V ab =2V, Answer: C=2F
For parallel plate,
A
C=ϵ 0 ,
d
Capacitors in series:
1 1 1 1
= + + +………………..
Ceq C 1 C2 C 3
Capacitors in parallel:
C eq=C 1 +C 2+C 3 +… . .
Resistance
ρL
R= , where ρ – resistivity, an intrinsic property of a material.
A
Ohms’ Law
V = IR
Example: I= 2A, R=2ohms, Answer: V= 4V
Power
2
2 V ab
P=V ab I =I R=
R
Example: V= 2V. I=2A, Answer: P=4W
Resistors in series
Req =R1 + R2 + R3 , Voltage: V ab=V ax +V xy +V yb , Current: I =I 1=I 2=I 3
Resistor in parallel
1 1 1 1
= + + , Voltage: same V ab , Current: I =I 1+ I 2 + I 3
R eq R1 R2 R3
Kirchhoff’s Rule
Example: Junction
Junction and Loop
For junction B
I 1+ I 2−I 3=0
For loop 1
ε 1−I 1 R1−I 3 R 2=0
For loop 2
ε 2−I 2 R3−I 3 R 2=0
Guide Questions:
1. Why does the electric field in a solid conductor zero?
2. Are dielectrics neutral? Why?