Vehicle Dynamics

Chapter 2: Acceleration Performance

By: Mohamad Hafiz Harun

1
SEM 1 2024/2025 (Week 2)
 Introduction

• Maximum performance in longitudinal acceleration of a

motor vehicle is determined by one of two limits:
a. Engine power
b. Traction limits on the drive wheels

• These limits may depend on vehicle speed:

o At low speeds, tire traction may be the limiting factor
o At high speeds, engine power may account for the limits
 Power-limited Acceleration
• The analysis of power-limited acceleration involves
examination of the engine characteristics and their
interaction through the powertrain.
• The source of propulsive power is the engine.
• Engines may be characterized by their torque and
power curves as a function of speed.

Fig. 2.1: Performance characteristics of gasoline and diesel engines (Gillespie, 1992)
 Power-limited Acceleration
• The relation between power and torque is given as:
Power, P = Torque, T × Speed, ω
• At low to moderate speeds, an upper limit on
acceleration can be obtained by neglecting all
resistance forces acting on the vehicle.
• From the Newton’s Second Law
 Power-limited Acceleration
• Since the drive power is the tractive force times the
forward speed
𝐹𝑥 𝑃
𝑎𝑥 = =
𝑀 𝑀𝑉
• Since the
acceleration is
inversely proportional
to the velocity,
acceleration
capability decreases
with increasing
speed

Fig. 2.2: Effect of velocity on acceleration capability (Gillespie, 1992)

 Power-limited Acceleration
• More exact estimation of acceleration performance
requires modeling the mechanical systems by which
engine power is transmitted to the ground

Fig. 2.3: Primary elements in the power train (Gillespie, 1992)

 Power-limited Acceleration

• The torque at the clutch which is input to the transmission

is determined by application of Newton’s Second Law as:

(1)
 Power-limited Acceleration
• The torque at the output of the transmission is amplified
by the gear ratio of the transmission but is decreased by
inertial losses in the gears and shafts
• The torque output to the driveshaft is given as

(2)
 Power-limited Acceleration
• The torque at the axles which accelerates the rotating
wheels and provides the tractive force at the road is
amplified by the final drive ratio and reduced by the
inertia of the driveline components between the
transmission and final drive
• This torque is given as:
(3)
 Power-limited Acceleration
• The rotational accelerations of the driveline and engine
are expressed as
(4) (5)
• By combining these equations, the expression for the
tractive force available at the road can be obtained as

ax is the vehicle acceleration

αw is the wheel rotational acceleration
r is the tire radius
 Power-limited Acceleration
• The efficiency value is added to the equation to account
for the effect of mechanical losses:

(6)

• Eq. (6) gives the tractive force that is provided by

the engine. There are two components:
o The first term on the right-hand side is the engine torque
multiplied by the overall gear ratio and the efficiency of the
drive system, then divided by tire radius. This term represents
the steady-state tractive force available at the ground to
overcome the road load forces of aerodynamics and rolling
resistance, to accelerate, or to climb a grade.
 Power-limited Acceleration

(6)

o The second term on the right-hand side represents the "loss"

of tractive force due to the inertia of the engine and drivetrain
components. The term in brackets indicates that the
equivalent inertia of each component is "amplified" by the
square of the numerical gear ratio between the component
and the wheels.
 Power-limited Acceleration
• Example 1: The information on the engine and drivetrain
are given as follows:
Engine inertia: 0.0903 kgm2
RPM Torque (Nm) RPM Torque (Nm) RPM Torque (Nm)

800 162.7 2400 237.3 4000 271.2

1200 179.0 2800 245.4 4400 272.5
1600 196.6 3200 257.6 4800 268.5
2000 216.9 3600 268.5 5200 244.0

Transmission Data
Gear 1 2 3 4 5
Inertia 0.1469 0.1017 0.0791 0.0565 0.0339
(kgm2)
Ratio 4.28 2.79 1.83 1.36 1.00
Efficiency 0.966 0.967 0.972 0.973 0.970
 Power-limited Acceleration

Final drive – Inertia: 0.1355 kgm2

Ratio: 2.92
Efficiency: 0.99
Wheel inertia Drive :1.2428 kgm2 Non-drive: 1.2428 kgm2
Tire radius 0.3198 m

a. Calculate the effective inertia of the drivetrain components in

first gear.
b. Calculate the maximum tractive effort and corresponding road
speed in first gear of the car described above when inertial
losses are neglected.
 Power-limited Acceleration

a. Calculate the effective inertia of the drivetrain components in

first gear.
Te N tf tf −{(I + I )N 2 + I N 2 + I } a x
Fx = e t tf d f w
r r2
Effective inertia Ieff
I = (I + I )N 2 + I N 2 + I
eff e t tf d f w

Ieff = (0.0903 + 0.1469)(4.28 2.92)2 + (0.1355)(2.92)2 + (2 1.2428)

Ieff = 40.69 kgm2

 Power-limited Acceleration
b. Calculate the maximum tractive effort and corresponding road
speed in first gear of the car described above when inertial
losses are neglected.
First gear
Since the inertial losses are neglected, the problem of
finding the maximum tractive effort reduces to
Te N tf tf
Fx =
r
The maximum tractive effort occurs at the maximum
torque. The maximum torque occurs at 4400 RPM
(272.5)(4.28 2.92)(0.966 0.99)
Fx = = 10.18 kN
0.3198
 Power-limited Acceleration
Recall that
d = N f w
The wheel rotational speed is
e = 4400
rev 2 1min
  
1
 w=
Nt N f min 1rev 60s 4.28 2.92

w = 36.87 rad/s
The road speed is

vx = rw= 0.3198 36.87 = 11.79 m/s = 42.44 km/h

Exercise: Calculate the maximum tractive effort and corresponding
road speed in fifth gear of the car described above when inertial
losses are neglected.
 Traction-limited Acceleration
• Given that there is enough power from the engine, the
acceleration that can be achieved may be limited by
the tire-road friction coefficient.
• The maximum achievable longitudinal force Fx is
limited by:

where

• The vertical load on a drive wheel includes the static

load, the dynamic load due to acceleration, and any
transverse shift of load due to drive torque
 Traction-limited Acceleration
• Transverse weight shift occurs on all solid drive axles,
whether on the front or rear of the vehicle.
• Fig. 2.10 shows the basic reactions on a rear axle.

Fig. 2.10: FBD of a solid drive axle. (Gillespie, 1992)

 Traction-limited Acceleration

• The driveshaft into the differential imposes a torque Td

on the axle.
• The chassis may roll compressing and extending
springs on opposite sides of the vehicle such that a
torque due to suspension roll stiffness, Ts, is produced.
• Any difference between these two must be absorbed
as a difference in weight on the two wheels.
• If the axle is of the non-locking type, then the torque
delivered to both wheels will be limited by the traction
limit on the most lightly loaded wheel.
 Traction-limited Acceleration
• Applying Newton’s Second Law for rotation of the axle
about its centerpoint, we have

• In Eq. (2.14), Td can be related to the drive forces because:

where:
Traction-limited Acceleration

Fig. 2.11: Diagram of drive torque reactions on the chassis. (Gillespie, 1992)
 Traction-limited Acceleration
• The drive torque reaction at the engine/transmission is
transferred to the frame and distributed between the front
and rear suspensions.
• The roll torque produced by a suspension is assumed to
be proportional to roll angle (Hooke's Law) of the chassis.

where
 Traction-limited Acceleration
• The roll angle is the drive torque divided by the total roll
stiffness:

• Substituting (2.17) into Eq. (2-16b) gives

• This in turn can be substituted into Eq. (2-14), along with

the expression for Td obtained from Eq. (2-15):

• The term in the brackets collapses to yield:

 Traction-limited Acceleration
• Eq. (2.18b) gives the magnitude of the lateral load transfer
as a function of the tractive force and vehicle parameters
such as the final drive ratio, tread of the axle, tire radius,
and suspension roll stiffnesses.
• The net load on the rear axle during acceleration will be its
static plus its dynamic component. For a rear axle:

• Neglecting the rolling resistance and aerodynamic drag

forces, the acceleration is simply the tractive force divided
by the vehicle mass
 Traction-limited Acceleration

• Then the weight on the right rear wheel

• and
 Traction-limited Acceleration
• Traction limits
o Case 1: Solid rear axle with a non-locking differential
Maximum tractive force:

o Case 2: Solid rear axle with a locking differential or

independent rear suspension
Maximum tractive force:
 Traction-limited Acceleration
• Traction limits
o Case 3: Solid front drive axle with non-locking differential
Maximum tractive force:

o Case 4: Solid front drive axle with locking differential or

independent front drive axle
Maximum tractive force:
 Traction-limited Acceleration
• Example 2: Find the traction-limited acceleration for the
rear-drive passenger car with and without a locking
differential on a surface of moderate friction level. The
information that will be needed is as follows:
9341.26 N 8229.21 N 17570.47 N

0.5334 m 2.7432 m

1.4986 m

0.3302 m

1559 Nm/deg 380 Nm/deg

 Traction-limited Acceleration
• The equation for the maximum tractive force of a solid axle
rear-drive vehicle with a non-locking differential was given
in Eq. (2.23):

• In Eq. (2.23), Wb/L is the rear axle weight, which is known

(0.62)(8229.21)
Fmax =
0.5334 2(0.62)(0.3302) 1559
1− (0.62) +
2.7432 (2.9)(1.4986) 1559 + 380
Fmax = 5.34 kN
 Traction-limited Acceleration
• The maximum longitudinal acceleration is calculated as
Fmax 5340
amax = = = 3.031 ms −2
M 17570.47
9.81
• With a locking differential the third term in the denominator
disappears (Eq. (2.24)) so that we obtain:
(0.62)(8229.21)
Fmax =
0.5334
1− (0.62)
2.7432
Fmax = 5.80 kN

• The maximum longitudinal acceleration is calculated as

F 5800
amax = max = = 3.238 ms −2
M 17570.47
9.81
 Traction-limited Acceleration
• Exercise: Find the traction-limited performance of a
front-wheel-drive vehicle with independent front
suspension on a surface of moderate friction level. The
information that will be needed is as follows:
8674.03 N 5115.45 N 13789.48 N

0.4826 m 2.667 m

1.524 m

0.3198 m

1288.03 840.61
Nm/deg Nm/deg