Chapter V :

Periodic table

1- Introduction :
Did you know that although electrons are minuscule compared to other parts of an atom, the
way they are arranged around the nucleus is the biggest factor in determining the chemical
properties of an element? The periodic chart is ordered by atomic number, but drastic shifts in
chemical properties can occur from one element to the next. These shifts are explained by how
the elements are displayed on the periodic table.

2- Electronic composition of atom:

a- Orbital Diagrams :
 S orbital consists of one quantum quase

l=0
(S)

 P orbital consists of three quantum quases

l=1
(p)

 d orbital consists of five quantum quases

l=2
(d)

 f orbital consists of seven quantum quases

l=3
(f)
There can be no two electrons with the same four quantum numbers. The first three quantum
numbers (n, l, and ml) can be the same, but the fourth must be different. A single orbital can
only house two electrons with opposing spins. One electron spins up (ms = +1/2), while the
other spins down (ms = -1/2).

ψ100+1
2
( 42𝐻𝑒 )
ψ100−1
2

b- Rules for Assigning Electron Orbitals :

 Occupation of Orbitals :
Electrons fill orbitals in a way to minimize the energy of the atom. Therefore, the electrons in
an atom fill the principal energy levels in order of increasing energy (the electrons are getting
farther from the nucleus). The order of levels filled looks like this:
1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, 4s, 3d, 4p, 5s, 4d, 5p, 6s, 4f, 5d, 6p, 7s, 5f, 6d, and 7p
One way to remember this pattern, probably the easiest, is to refer to the periodic table and
remember where each orbital block falls to logically deduce this pattern. Another way is to
make a table like the one below and use vertical lines to determine which subshells correspond
with each other.
  Pauli Exclusion Principle :
The Pauli exclusion principle states that no two electrons can have the same four quantum
numbers. The first three (n, l, and ml) may be the same, but the fourth quantum number must
be different. A single orbital can hold a maximum of two electrons, which must have opposing
spins; otherwise they would have the same four quantum numbers, which is forbidden. One
electron is spin up (ms = +1/2) and the other would spin down (ms = -1/2). This tells us that
each subshell has double the electrons per orbital. The s subshell has 1 orbital that can hold up
to 2 electrons, the p subshell has 3 orbitals that can hold up to 6 electrons, the d subshell has 5
orbitals that hold up to 10 electrons, and the f subshell has 7 orbitals with 14 electrons.

l=0 nS2

m= 0

l=1 np6

m= -1 0 1

l=2 nd10

m = -2 -1 0 1 2

l=3 nf14

m = -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3

example 1: Hydrogen and Helium

The first three quantum numbers of an electron are n=1, l=0, m l=0. Only two electrons can
correspond to these, which would be either m s = -1/2 or ms = +1/2. As we already know from
our studies of quantum numbers and electron orbitals, we can conclude that these four quantum
numbers refer to the 1s subshell. If only one of the m s values are given then we would have 1s1
(denoting hydrogen) if both are given we would have 1s2 (denoting helium). Visually, this is be
represented as:
As shown, the 1s subshell can hold only two electrons and, when filled, the electrons have
opposite spins.

 Hund's Rule :
When assigning electrons in orbitals, each electron will first fill all the orbitals with similar
energy (also referred to as degenerate) before pairing with another electron in a half-filled
orbital. Atoms at ground states tend to have as many unpaired electrons as possible. When
visualizing this processes, think about how electrons are exhibiting the same behavior as the
same poles on a magnet would if they came into contact; as the negatively charged electrons
fill orbitals they first try to get as far as possible from each other before having to pair up.

Example 2: Oxygen and Nitrogen

If we look at the correct electron configuration of the Nitrogen (Z = 7) atom, a very important
element in the biology of plants: 1s2 2s2 2p3

We can clearly see that p orbitals are half-filled as there are three electrons and three p orbitals.
This is because Hund's Rule states that the three electrons in the 2p subshell will fill all the
empty orbitals first before filling orbitals with electrons in them. If we look at the element after
Nitrogen in the same period, Oxygen (Z = 8) its electron configuration is: 1s2 2s2 2p4 (for an
atom).

Oxygen has one more electron than Nitrogen and as the orbitals are all half filled the electron
must pair up.

c- Writing Electron Configurations :

When writing an electron configuration, first write the energy level (the period), then the
subshell to be filled and the superscript, which is the number of electrons in that subshell. The
total number of electrons is the atomic number, Z. The rules above allow one to write the
electron configurations for all the elements in the periodic table. Three methods are used to
write electron configurations:
1. orbital diagrams
2. spdf notation
3. noble gas notation
Each method has its own purpose and each has its own drawbacks.

 Orbital Diagrams :
An orbital diagram, like those shown above, is a visual way to reconstruct the electron
configuration by showing each of the separate orbitals and the spins on the electrons. This is
done by first determining the subshell (s,p,d, or f) then drawing in each electron according to
the stated rules above.

Example 4: Aluminum and Iridium

Write the electron configuration for aluminum and iridium.

SOLUTION
Aluminum is in the 3rd period and it has an atomic number of Z=13. If we look at the periodic
table we can see that its in the p-block as it is in group 13. Now we shall look at the orbitals it
will fill: 1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p. We know that aluminum completely fills the 1s, 2s, 2p, and 3s orbitals
because mathematically this would be 2+2+6+2=12. The last electron is in the 3p orbital. Also
another way of thinking about it is that as you move from each orbital block, the subshells
become filled as you complete each section of the orbital in the period. The block that the atom
is in (in the case for aluminum: 3p) is where we will count to get the number of electrons in the
last subshell (for aluminum this would be one electron because its the first element in the period
3 p-block). This gives the following:
Note that in the orbital diagram, the two opposing spins of the electron can be visualized. This
is why it is sometimes useful to think about electron configuration in terms of the diagram.
However, because it is the most time consuming method, it is more common to write or see
electron configurations in spdf notation and noble gas notation. Another example is the electron
configuration of iridium:

The electron configuration of iridium is much longer than aluminum. Although drawing out
each orbital may prove to be helpful in determining unpaired electrons, it is very time
consuming and often not as practical as the spdf notation, especially for atoms with much longer
configurations. Hund's rule is also followed, as each electron fills up each 5d orbital before
being forced to pair with another electron.

 spdf Notation :
The most common way to describe electron configurations is to write distributions in the spdf
notation. Although the distributions of electrons in each orbital are not as apparent as in the
diagram, the total number of electrons in each energy level is described by a superscript that
follows the relating energy level. To write the electron configuration of an atom, identify the
energy level of interest and write the number of electrons in the energy level as its superscript
as follows: 1s2. This is the electron configuration of helium; it denotes a full s orbital. The
periodic table is used as a reference to accurately write the electron configurations of all atoms.

Example 5: Yttrium

Write the electronic configuration of Yttrium.

SOLUTION
Start with the straightforward problem of finding the electron configuration of the element
yttrium. As always, refer to the periodic table. The element yttrium (symbolized Y) is a
transition metal, found in the fifth period and in Group 3. In total it has thirty-nine electrons. Its
electron configuration is as follows:
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p6 5s2 4d1
This is a much simpler and more efficient way to portray electron configuration of an atom. A
logical way of thinking about it is that all that is required is to fill orbitals across a period and
through orbital blocks. The number of elements in each block is the same as in the energy level
it corresponds. For example, there are 2 elements in the s-block, and 10 elements in the d-block.
Moving across, simply count how many elements fall in each block. Yttrium is the first element
in the fourth period d-block; thus there is one electron in that energy level. To check the answer,
verify that the subscripts add up to the atomic number. In this case, 2+2+6+2+6+2+10+6+2+1=
39 and Z=39, so the answer is correct.
A slightly more complicated example is the electron configuration of bismuth (symbolized Bi,
with Z = 83). The periodic table gives the following electron configuration:
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p65s2 4d10 5p6 6s2 4f14 5d10 6p3
The reason why this electron configuration seems more complex is that the f-block, the
Lanthanide series, is involved. Most students who first learn electron configurations often have
trouble with configurations that must pass through the f-block because they often overlook this
break in the table and skip that energy level. Its important to remember that when passing the
5d and 6d energy levels that one must pass through the f-block lanthanoid and actinoid series.
Keeping this in mind, this "complex" problem is greatly simplified.
Another method (but less commonly used) of writing the spdf notation is the expanded notation
format. This is the same concept as before, except that each individual orbital is represented
with a subscript. The p, d, and f orbitals have different sublevels. The p orbitals are px, py, and
pz, and if represented on the 2p energy with full orbitals would look like: 2p x2 2py2 2pz2. The
expanded notation for neon (Ne, Z=10) is written as follows:
1s2 2s2 2px2 2py2 2pz2
The individual orbitals are represented, but the spins on the electrons are not; opposite spins are
assumed. When representing the configuration of an atom with half filled orbitals, indicate the
two half filled orbitals. The expanded notation for carbon is written as follows:
1s2 2s2 2px1 2py1
Because this form of the spdf notation is not typically used, it is not as important to dwell on
this detail as it is to understand how to use the general spdf notation.

 Noble Gas Notation :

This brings up an interesting point about elements and electron configurations. As the p subshell
is filled in the above example about the Aufbau principle (the trend from boron to neon), it
reaches the group commonly known as the noble gases. The noble gases have the most stable
electron configurations, and are known for being relatively inert. All noble gases have their
subshells filled and can be used them as a shorthand way of writing electron configurations for
subsequent atoms. This method of writing configurations is called the noble gas notation, in
which the noble gas in the period above the element that is being analyzed is used to denote the
subshells that element has filled and after which the valence electrons (electrons filling orbitals
in the outer most shells) are written. This looks slightly different from spdf notation, as the
reference noble gas must be indicated.

Example 6: Vanadium

What is the electronic configuration of vanadium (V, Z=23)?

SOLUTION

Vanadium is the transition metal in the fourth period and the fifth group. The noble gas
preceding it is argon (Ar, Z=18), and knowing that vanadium has filled those orbitals before it,
argon is used as the reference noble gas. The noble gas in the configuration is denoted E, in
brackets: [E]. To find the valance electrons that follow, subtract the atomic numbers: 23 - 18 =
5. Instead of 23 electrons to distribute in orbitals, there are 5. Now there is enough information
to write the electron configuration:

Vanadium, V: [Ar] 4s2 3d3

This method streamlines the process of distributing electrons by showing the valence electrons,
which determine the chemical properties of atoms. In addition, when determining the number
of unpaired electrons in an atom, this method allows quick visualization of the configurations
of the valance electrons. In the example above, there are a full s orbital and three half filled d
orbitals.
 3- Modern Periodic Table :
In 1869, the Russian chemist Dmitri Mendeleev first proposed that the chemical elements
exhibited a "periodicity of properties." Mendeleev had tried to organize the chemical elements
according to their atomic weights, assuming that the properties of the elements would gradually
change as atomic weight increased. What he found, however, was that the chemical and
physical properties of the elements increased gradually and then suddenly changed at distinct
steps, or periods. To account for these repeating trends, Mendeleev grouped the elements in a
table that had both rows and columns.
The modern periodic table of elements is based on Mendeleev's observations; however, instead
of being organized by atomic weight, the modern table is arranged by atomic number (z).

Modern Periodic Law:

 Properties of elements are the periodic function to their atomic numbers.
 The periodicity in properties is due to repetition of similar outer shell electronic
configuration at a certain regular intervals.
 In modern periodic table is based on modern periodic law in which elements are
arranged in increasing order of their atomic numbers.
 In the modern periodic table, the elements are arranged in rows and columns. These
rows and columns are known as periods and groups respectively.
 The table consists of 7 periods and 18 groups
 Period indicates the value of ‘n’ (principal quantum number) for the outermost or
valence shell.
 Same number of electrons is present in the outer orbitals (that is, similar valence shell
electronic configuration
 Characteristics of Periods :
 First period is called shortest period and contains only two elements. Second and third
periods are called short periods containing eight elements each. Fourth and fifth periods
are long periods containing eighteen elements each. Sixth period is the longest period
with thirty-two elements. Seventh period is an incomplete period containing nineteen
elements. Numbers 2, 8,8,18,18, 32 are called magic numbers.
 Lanthanide and actinide series containing 14 elements each are placed separately under
the main periodic table. These are related to sixth and seventh periods of III group
respectively.
 Elements of third period from sodium (Na) to Chlorine (Cl) are called representative or
typical elements.
 Valency of an element in a period increases from 1 to 7 with respect to oxygen.
Na2O MgO Al2O3 SiO2 P2O5 SO3 Cl2O7
1 2 3 4 5 6 7

 From left to right in a period generally

o Atomic weight, effective nuclear charge, ionisation potential, electronegativity
and electron affinity of an element increases.
o Atomic radius, electropositive character and metallic character of an element
decreases.
 Diagonal relationship — Elements of second period Li, Be and B resemble closely with
the elements Mg, Al and Si of third period in the next higher group.
Second Period Li Be B C
Third Period Na Mg Al Si
 Elements of second period are called bridge elements.

 Characteristic of Groups :
 There are nine groups in modern periodic table and they are represented by roman
numerals as I, II, III, IV, V, Vi, VII, VIII and zero.
 Groups I to VII are further divided into two subgroups A and B, Group VIII consists of
three sets, each one containing three elements.
 Inert gases or noble gases are placed in zero group.
 The valency of an element in a group is equal to the group number.
  The elements of the groups which resemble the typical elements are called normal
elements. For example IA, IIA, IIIA, IVA, VA, VIA, VIIA group elements are normal
elements.
 Those elements of the groups which do not resemble the typical elements are called
transition elements. For example- IB, IIB, IIIB, IVB, VB, VIB, VIIB, and VIII group
elements are transition [Link] is placed in both IA and VIIA groups.
 Atomic weight, atomic size, electropositive character and metallic character of elements
increases down the group.
 Ionisation potential, electron affinity and electronegativity of elements decreases down
the group.

 Classification of Elements :

On the basis of electronic configuration, the elements may be divided into four groups.
s-block elements
 These are the elements in which last electron enters s subshell.
 These are present in the left part of the periodic table.
 These include 1 and 2 group elements.
 All the s- block elements are metals.
 The general electronic configuration of valence shell for s block elements is ns 1-2 ( n =
1 to 7).
p – block elements
 These are the elements in which last electron enters p subshell.
  These are present in the right part of the periodic table.
 These include 13 to 18 of the periodic table.
 Most of the p block elements are metalloids and non metals but some of them are
metals also.
 The general electronic configuration of the valence shell is ns 2np1-6 ( n = 2 to 7).
 ns2 np6 is stable noble gas configuration. The electronic configuration of He is Is2.
d-Block Elements
 These are the elements in which last electron enters d-subshell.
 These are present in the middle part of the periodic table (between s & p block
elements)
 d block elements include group 3 to 12 groups of the periodic table.
 All are d block elements are metals.
 The last electrons fills in ( n – 1)d orbital.
 The outermost electronic configuration of d block elements is (n-1)d1-10 ns1-2 (n = 4 to
7).
 There are three series of d-block elements as under
 3d series – Sc(21) to Zn (30)
 4d series – Y (39) to Cd (48)
 5d series – La (57), Hf (72) to Hg (80)
f -Block Elements
 These are placed separately below the main periodic table.
 These are mainly related to IIIB i.e. group 3 of the periodic table
 There are two series of f-block elements as under
 4f series – Lanthanides – 14 Elements i.e. Ce (58) to Lu (71)
 5 f series – Actinides – 14 Elements i.e. Th (90) to Lw (103)
 the last electron fills in ( n – 2) ¦-orbital
 Their general outermost electronic configuration is (n-2)¦1-14 (n-1)s2 (n-1)p6 (n-1)d0-
1
ns2 (n = 6 and 7).

4- Chemical families :

In the periodic table of elements, there are seven horizontal rows of elements. Each of these
rows are called periods. The vertical columns of elements are called groups, or families. The
most common way the periodic table is classified is by metals, nonmetals, and metalloids.
 - Periods in the periodic table :
In each period (horizontal row), the atomic numbers increase from left to right. The periods are
numbered 1 through 7 on the left-hand side of the table.

Elements that are in the same period have chemical properties that are not all that similar.
Consider the first two members of period 3: sodium (Na) and magnesium (Mg). In reactions,
they both tend to lose electrons (after all, they are metals), but sodium loses one electron, while
magnesium loses two. Chlorine (Cl), down near the end of the period, tends to gain an electron
(it’s a nonmetal).

- Families in the periodic table

Just like human families, members of the families (vertical columns) in the periodic table have
similarities or similar properties. The families are labeled at the top of the columns in one of
two ways:

 The older method uses Roman numerals and letters. Many chemists prefer and still use
this method.
 The newer method uses the numbers 1 through 18.

So why do the elements in the same family have similar properties? You can examine four
families on the periodic table and look at the electron configurations for a few elements in each
family.

Alkali Metals/Alkali Earth Metals :

The Alkali metals are comprised of group 1 of the periodic table and consist of Lithium,
Sodium, Rubidium, Cesium, and Francium. These metals are highly reactive and form ionic
compounds (when a nonmetal and a metal come together) as well as many other compounds.
Alkali metals all have a charge of +1 and have the largest atom sizes than any of the other
elements on each of their respective periods.

Alkali Earth Metals are located in group 2 and consist of Beryllium, Magnesium, Calcium,
Strontium, Barium, and Radium. Unlike the Alkali metals, the earth metals have a smaller atom
size and are not as reactive. These metals may also form ionic and other compounds and have
a charge of +2.
Transition Metals :

The transition metals range from groups IIIB to XIIB on the periodic table. These metals form
positively charged ions, are very hard, and have very high melting and boiling points. Transition
metals are also good conductors of electricity and are malleable.

Lanthanides and Actinides :

Lanthanides and Actinides, form the block of two rows that are placed at the bottom of the
periodic table for space issues. These are also considered to be transition metals. Lanthanides
are form the top row of this block and are very soft metals with high boiling and melting points.
Actinides form the bottom row and are radioactive. They also form compounds with most
nonmetals.

Metalloids :

As mentioned in the introduction, metalloids are located along the staircase separating the
metals from the nonmetals on the periodic table. Boron, silicon, germanium, arsenic, antimony,
and tellurium all have metal and nonmetal properties. For example, Silicon has a metallic luster
but is brittle and is an inefficient conductor of electricity like a nonmetal. As the metalloids
have a combination of both metallic and nonmetal characteristics, they are intermediate
conductors of electricity or "semiconductors".

Halogens :

Halogens are comprised of the five nonmetal elements Flourine, Chlorine, Bromine, Iodine,
and Astatine. They are located on group 17 of the periodic table and have a charge of -1. The
term "halogen" means "salt-former" and compounds that contain one of the halogens are salts.
The physical properties of halogens vary significantly as they can exist as solids, liquids, and
gases at room temperature. However in general, halogens are very reactive, especially with the
alkali metals and earth metals of groups 1 and 2 with which they form ionic compounds.

Noble Gases :

The noble gases consist of group 18 (sometimes reffered to as group O) of the periodic table of
elements. The noble gases have very low boiling and melting points and are all gases at room
temperature. They are also very nonreactive as they already have a full valence shell with 8
electrons. Therefore, the noble gases have little tendency to lose or gain electrons.

5- Periodic Properties of the Elements :

The elements in the periodic table are arranged in order of increasing atomic number. All of
these elements display several other trends and we can use the periodic law and table formation
to predict their chemical, physical, and atomic properties. Understanding these trends is done
by analyzing the elements electron configuration; all elements prefer an octet formation and
will gain or lose electrons to form that stable configuration.

 Atomic Radius
We can never determine the atomic radius of an atom because there is never a zero probability
of finding an electron, and thus never a distinct boundary to the atom. All that we can measure
is the distance between two nuclei (internuclear distance). A covalent radius is one-half the
distance between the nuclei of two identical atoms. An ionic radius is one-half the distance
between the nuclei of two ions in an ionic bond. A metallic radius is one-half the distance
between the nuclei of two adjacent atoms in a crystalline structure. The SI units for measuring
atomic radii are the nanometer (nm) and the picometer (pm). 1nm=1×10−9m and
1pm=1×10−12m.

Metallic Radii.
description the atomic radius trend in the periodic table:
The atomic number increases moving left to right across a period and subsequently so does the
effective nuclear charge. Therefore, moving left to right across a period the nucleus has a greater
pull on the outer electrons and the atomic radii decreases. Moving down a group in the periodic
table, the number of filled electron shells increases. In a group, the valence electrons keep the
same effective nuclear charge, but now the orbitals are farther from the nucleus. Therefore, the
nucleus has less of a pull on the outer electrons and the atomic radii are larger.

We can now use these concept to explain the atomic radius differences of cations and anions.
A cation is an atom that has lost one of its outer electrons. Cations have a smaller radius than
the atom that they were formed from. With the loss of an electron, the positive nuclear charge
out powers the negative charge that the electrons exert. Therefore, the positive nucleus pulls
the electrons tighter and the radius is smaller. An anion is an atom that has gained an outer
electron. Anions have a greater radius than the atom that they were formed from. The gain of
an electron does not alter the nuclear charge, but the addition of an electron causes a decrease
in the effective nuclear charge. Therefore, the electrons are held more loosely and the atomic
radius is increased.

 Ionization Energy (ionization potential)

Expelling an electron from an atom requires enough energy to overcome the magnetic pull of
the positive charge of the nucleus. Therefore, ionization energy (I.E. or I) is the energy required
to completely remove an electron from a gaseous atom or ion. The Ionization Energy is always
positive.

The energy required to remove one valence electron is the first ionization energy, the second
ionization energy is the energy required to remove a second valence electron, and so on.

 1st ionization energy

Na(g)⟶Na+(g)+e−

 2nd ionization energy

Na+(g)⟶Na2+(g)+e−
Ionization energies increase relative to high effective charge. The highest ionization energies
are the noble gases because they all have high effective charge due to their octet formation and
require a high amount of energy to destroy that stable configuration. The highest amount of
energy required occurs with the elements in the upper right hand corner. Additionally, elements
in the left corner have a low ionization energy because losing an electron allows them to have
the noble gas configuration. Therefore, it requires less energy to remove one of their valence
electrons
Table 1: Ionization Energies of certain elements (1st IE, 2nd IE, etc)
Element 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th 7th
Na 496 4562
Mg 738 1451 7733
Al 577 1817 2745 11580
Si 786 1577 3232 4356 16090
P 1060 1903 2912 4957 6274 21270
S 999.6 2251 3361 4564 7013 8496 27110
Cl 1256 2297 3822 5158 6542 9362 11020
 Table 1: Ionization Energies of certain elements (1st IE, 2nd IE, etc)
Element 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th 7th
Ar 1520 2666 3931 5771 7238 8781 12000
These are the ionization energies for the period three elements. Notice how Na after in the
second I.E, Mg in the third I.E., Al in the fourth I.E., and so on, all have a huge increase in
energy compared to the proceeding one. This occurs because the proceeding configuration was
in a stable octet formation; therefore it requires a much larger amount of energy to ionize.
Ionization Energies increase going left to right across a period and increase going up a group.
As you go up a group, the ionization energy increases, because there are less electron shielding
the outer electrons from the pull of the nucleus. Therefore, it requires more energy to out power
the nucleus and remove an electron. As we move across the periodic table from left to right, the
ionization energy increases , due to the effective nuclear charge increasing. This is because the
larger the effective nuclear charge, the stronger the nucleus is holding onto the electron and the
more energy it takes to release an electron.

The ionization energy is only a general rule. There are some instances when this trend does not
prove to be correct. These can typically be explained by their electron configuration. For
example, Magnesium has a higher ionization energy than Aluminum. Magnesium has an
electron configuration of [Ne]3s2. Magnesium has a high ionization energy because it has a
filled 3s orbital and it requires a higher amount of energy to take an electron from the filled
orbital.

 Electron Affinity :
Electron affinity (E.A.) is the energy change that occurs when an electron is added to a gaseous
atom. Electron affinity can further be defined as the enthalpy change that results from the
addition of an electron to a gaseous atom. It can be either positive or negative value. The greater
the negative value, the more stable the anion is.
 (Exothermic) The electron affinity is positive
 X(g)+e−⟶X−+Energy
 (Endothermic) The electron affinity is negative
X(g)+e−+Energy⟶X−
It is more difficult to come up with trends that describe the electron affinity. Generally, the
elements on the right side of the periodic table will have large negative electron affinity. The
electron affinities will become less negative as you go from the top to the bottom of the periodic
table. However, Nitrogen, Oxygen, and Fluorine do not follow this trend. The noble gas electron
configuration will be close to zero because they will not easily gain electrons.

 Electronegativity :
Electronegativity is the measurement of an atom to compete for electrons in a bond. The higher
the electronegativity, the greater its ability to gain electrons in a bond. Electronegativity will be
important when we later determine polar and nonpolar molecules. Electronegativity is related
with ionization energy and electron affinity. Electrons with low ionization energies have low
electronegativities because their nuclei do not exert a strong attractive force on electrons.
Elements with high ionization energies have high electronegativities due to the strong pull
exerted by the positive nucleus on the negative electrons. Therefore the electronegativity
increases from bottom to top and from left to right.
  Metallic Character
The metallic character is used to define the chemical properties that metallic elements present.
Generally, metals tend to lose electrons to form cations. Nonmetals tend to gain electrons to
form anions. They also have a high oxidation potential therefore they are easily oxidized and
are strong reducing agents. Metals also form basic oxides; the more basic the oxide, the higher
the metallic character.

As you move across the table from left to right, the metallic character decreases, because the
elements easily accept electrons to fill their valance shells. Therefore, these elements take on
the nonmetallic character of forming anions. As you move up the table, the metallic character
decreases, due to the greater pull that the nucleus has on the outer electrons. This greater pull
makes it harder for the atoms to lose electrons and form cations.

Summary of Periodic Trends :