MODULE 1: INTRO TO OCEANOGRAPHY

● Water covers 71% of earth’s surface

● 96.5% is salt water

What is Oceanography
● Oceanography is the story of the
ocean
● Study of the ocean, its surroundings,
and life within it (geology, physics,
chemistry, biology)
● Oceanography vs. Marine Biology
○ Marine biology studies
marine organisms’ anatomy, ● Pacific (Largest); Arctic (Smallest)
physiology, behavior ● Deepest depth: found in the Pacific
in Mariana Trench at 11,035 m.
5 Principal Oceans ○ Next is the Puerto Rico
● The Earth's oceans are all trench in the Atlantic Ocean
connected to one another. at 8605 m
● Until the year 2000, there were four ● Highest Elevation (land): Mt.
recognized oceans: Everest at 8.8 km
○ Pacific, Atlantic, Indian, and ○ pale in comparison to the
Arctic. marianas trench.
○ In the Spring of 2000, the
International Hydrographic Seven Seas
Organization delimited a new ● Mediterranean
ocean, the Southern Ocean ● Dead Sea
(it surrounds Antarctica and ● Ross Sea
extends to 60 degrees ● South China Sea
latitude). ● Sea of Japan
● The oceans of Earth are unique in ● Caribbean Sea
our Solar System. ● Sea of Japan
● No other planet in our Solar ● Baltic Sea
System has liquid water (although ● Adriatic Sea
recent finds on Mars indicate that ● Black Sea
Mars may have had some liquid ● Red Sea
water in the recent past). ● Aegean Sea
● Life on Earth originated in the ● Marmara Sea
seas, and the oceans continue to be ● North Sea
home to an incredibly diverse web
of life. How is oceanography linked to:
● Biodiversity
● Medical potential/drug discovery
● New models of life
● Climate
 ● Fisheries
● Recreation
● Fossil fuel resource
● Ocean energy
● Navigation/transportation
● Carbon cycle
● Marine biology
● Hazards
● Pollution

Ocean Disciplines ➔ Stages of development of reef

systems
1. Geological Oceanography ◆ coral reef systems from
➔ study of how ocean basins were fringing to atoll is caused by
formed properties of rocks such as plate movement
magnetism, occurrence of
earthquakes
➔ describe different features in the sea
floor
➔ Islands in Hawaii
◆ perform through geological
processes from hotspot

2. Terrigenous (or Lithogenous)

➔ Rivers are the main source of
terrigenous sediments.
➔ Lithogenous (lithos = stone)
➔ Plate tectonics
◆ derived from preexisting rock
◆ ocean basins were born
material
through plate tectonics
➔ Transported as dissolved and
◆ Age of heart: 4.6 billion years
suspended loads in rivers, waves,
◆ Age of the ocean basin: 200
longshore currents
million years
➔ Carbonate Sand Grains
◆ Calcareous hard parts of
invertebrates
◆ Thanatocoenosis
◆ Ease of identification
depends on the degree of
damage
 ◆ Shells or skeletons produced ➔ Types of wave (by period) and how
by marine organisms they are formed
◆ Examples: Coral Fragments ◆ Wind Waves
+ Calcareous algae, mollusk ◆ Swell Waves
shells, echinoderm spines, ◆ Tsunamis
foraminifera ➔ Different types of tides and how
they affect marine life
2. Physical Oceanography ◆ Intertidal Zonation Tide Pools
➔ How and why ocean currents flow and Life
(and tides), air-sea interactions such
as the generation of waves (and
storm) by wind
➔ Tropical Cyclone Formation

3. Chemical Oceanography
➔ Composition of sea water and the
processing and altering its
composition, including marine
pollution
➔ Properties of water and what makes
➔ how the oceans are length it unique
➔ how ocean water move from one
basin to the next; grand tour
➔ Conveyor-belt circulation
◆ combination deep ocean
currents and surface currents
◆ starts in the N atlantic and
antarctic - deep water
formations
◆ surfaces in the pacific, 1000
years or so later

➔ Ocean is a chemical soup

◆ Made of the elements you
find in the periodic table
 ◆ organisms have the ability to
protect themselves from
predators
➔ Adaptations to avoid predation
◆ Schooling
● safety in numbers
● school may appear as
single larger unit
● schooling maneuvers
confuse predator

➔ Essential Macronutrient - needed in

large quantities
◆ nutrients that are needed by
organisms that live in the
ocean
◆ O, C, N, H, P, S, K, Mg, Ca

Other Disciplines

1. Ocean Engineering
➔ Design and installation of
oceanographic instrumentation and
vehicles

2. Satellite Oceanography
4. Biological Oceanography
➔ Looks at the oceans at space using
➔ Organisms that live in the ocean and remote sensing
their relationship to the environment
➔ Marine Organisms and the habitats
they live in
➔ More than 250,000 marine species
identified, number increasing
➔ Nekton - organisms that can swim
◆ independent swimmers
◆ most adult fish and squid
◆ marine mammals
◆ Marine reptiles
➔ Camouflage and Countershading
➔ Benthic habitat types in optically Disciplinary Connections
shallow water (30m or less):
◆ chlorophyll concentration
◆ coral bleaching events
◆ water temperature
◆ formation of eddies
◆ El Nino
◆ track global warming
◆ atmospheric ocean wing and
waves
◆ sea level heights
◆ measure ice sheet retreat
and growth ➔ Biophysics
➔ Diwata-1 ◆ An interdisciplinary science
◆ also known as using methods of, and
PHL-Microsat-1 theories from, physics to
◆ a Philippine micosatellite study biological systems.
launched to the Intl Space ◆ spans all scales of biological
Station (ISS) in March 23, organization, from the
2016 molecular scale to whole
◆ deployed into orbit from the organisms and ecosystems.
ISS on April 27, 2016. ➔ Geophysics
◆ first Philippine microsatellite ◆ a branch of earth science
and the first satellite built and dealing with the physical
designed by Filipinos. processes and phenomena
◆ Used for disaster mgt occurring especially in the
purposes such as in earth and in its vicinity.
assessing damage from ➔ Geochemistry
typhoons and rainstorms. ◆ the science that uses the
◆ have applications in tools and principles of
agriculture, forest cover chemistry to explain the
monitoring and national mechanisms behind major
security. geological systems such as
◆ can take a daily average of the Earth's crust and its
3,500 high resolution photos, oceans.
including images of natural ➔ Biochemistry
wonders of the Philippines, ◆ the study of the chemical
which the DOST plans to substances and vital
upload daily. processes occurring in living
organisms.
◆ Biochemists focus heavily on
the role, function, and
structure of biomolecules.
 MODULE 2: HISTORY OF ◆ made “stick charts” from
OCEANOGRAPHY bamboo and
wood to diagram
islands
Early Explorers and Traders
➔ Ancient Civilizations (1500 BC –
500 AD)
➔ Closely associated with voyaging;
Interest in oceans driven by need for
food and trading
➔ people need sailing vessels and it
was…
➔ Egyptians - shipbuilding and coastal
piloting
➔ Phoenicians – North Africa,
excellent sailors; explored the Vikings
Mediterranean, traded with Britain, ➔ first real european explorers
saltier water than ◆ May have circumnavigated ➔ scandinavian homeland to atlantic
the atlantic ocean
Africa around 600 BC ocean to iceland, greenland and
◆ they lived in what we now north america
know as Lebanon (located in ➔ practical people
the eastern side of MS) ◆ they based their navigational
◆ Mediterranean Sea - first skills on knowledge gained in
evidence of voyaging comes many years of sailing
from record of trade in this ◆ used the color of seafloor
area mud samples to help
◆ moved all round the M. Sea determine where they were
(red sea, and indian ocean) ◆ Also utilized the sundial to
and some even ventured out determine the position of the
into the atlantic ocean sun and as a navigational aid
◆ early navigation done by ◆ foggy days: sundial cannot
keeping view of land be used; they use sun stone
◆ 1500 BC Phoenicians were instead to help them locate
initially were within skilled sailors and traded sun’s position; change of
the M. Sea
goods color due to light; certain
➔ Arabs - explored the Indian Ocean color mark the position of the
➔ Polynesians - explored Pacific sun
Ocean
◆ migrated from southeast asia
because it has become
overpopulated there
◆ they wanted to search for
land and food
◆ colonized islands in the
excellent navigators Pacific Ocean (Hawaii,
Tahiti, Easter Islands, etc.)
◆ navigated with stars, sun,
–> ex: bird’s flight track = land moon, behavior of marine
organisms, ocean properties
◆ sailed in large canoes
Mediterranean Sea
● first maps were made of this sea
● several civilizations navigated here
● Greeks were the first to sail out of
sea into ocean; they observed
currents
● Systematic study of ocean began at
Library of Alexandria
● Eratosthenes determined Earth’s
circumference to be 25,000 miles;
became chief librarian
● 1451-1506: Christopher Columbus
made 4 voyages across Atlantic
Ocean and thought he found islands
in Asia (black track) bermuda triangle
○ Italian but citizen of spain instead
○ His efforts to establish
settlements initiated the
permanent european
colonization of the americas

Age of Discovery (1400s-1800s)

● stimulated by the lust for resources
and better trade routes
● 1487: Bartholomeu Dias rounded ● 1513: Balboa (Spanish explorer)
Cape of Good Hope (red track) ○ led an expedition in search of
○ portuguese explorer gold
○ First european to reach ○ finds the Pacific Ocean,
indian ocean from atlantic claimed it for spain thus
ocean opening it for Spanish
expedition
● 1519: Victoria
○ led by Portuguese Ferdinand
Magellan, first to
circumnavigate the world;
○ sailed under spanish flag
○ 3 of 5 ships are lost on
voyage;
○ Magellan is killed in
Philippines, then del Cano
takes over
● 1498: Vasco de Gama continued
route of Dias and mapped route to
Indian Ocean (blue track)
 RRS: James Cook
- Royal Research Ship

● 1768: English James Cook charts

Australia region aboard Endeavor
and islands in the pacific; prevents
scurvy by getting sailors enough
Vitamin C
○ Sailed using the “Endeavor”
○ 3 major voyages mapped
South Pacific, coasts of New
Zealand, Australia and N
America, “discovered”
Hawaiian Islands
● 1772: Cook charts islands of Pacific
with Resolution and Adventure;
killed by natives of Hawaii
Magellan’s Voyage ● 1728: John Harrison made a
marine chronometer, which allowed
➔ Chronicled by antonio pigafetta in navigators to determine longitude on
the narrative of the first ships
circumnavigation ○ A marine chronometer is
➔ Victoria: the only ship out of 5 that revolutionary because it
made it back to spain allowed navigators to
➔ Magellan: Portugese but sailed determine longitude a
under Spanish flag ○ A timepiece that is precise
◆ wanted western route to and accurate enough to be
Spice Island in Indonesia used as a portable time
◆ sailed w/ 5 ships and 270 standard; it can therefore be
men used to determine longitude
◆ after mutiny, left with 3 ships, by means of celestial
150 men navigation.
◆ named Pacific because it ○ Took harrison 31 years of
was so peaceful persistent experimentation
◆ after his death, Juan and testing
Sebastian Elcano took over, ○ Longitude - vertical lines in
went back to Spain with 1 the globe; angular distance
ship (Victoria) east and west prime meridian
◆ total journey = 3 years
 ● 1769: Ben Franklin and Tim Folger ○ to map the coastline of south
map the Gulf Stream america and take
oceanographic measures
○ his job: observe everything,
Franklin’s map and satellite photo of Gulf write it down and collect as
Stream many specimens as possible
■ Record the weather
➔ located in the western boundary of ■ geological features
the atlantic ocean ■ plants, animals,
➔ when you compared the map and fossils, rocks,
the satellite image: no changes from minerals, indigenous,
1769 up to now etc.
○ voyage took almost 5 years
■ spent 3 years
exploring on land
including the
galapagos islands
■ unique animal
species
○ English naturalist, geologist
and biologist, best known for
his contributions to the
science of evolution.
○ Subsidence theory of coral
reef formation (atolls) &
Alexander Von Humboldt (1800’s) origin of species
➔ German naturalist, contributions in
geophysics, meteorology, and
oceanography
➔ The “humboldt current” name was
derived from his name

● 1842: Matthew Fontaine Maury

(“Father of Oceanography”) Journal of Researches
systematically collected wind and ● produced by Darwin
current data; charted North Atlantic ● Covers biology, geology,
○ he pioneered the systematic anthropology
collection of oceanographic ● Darwin’s notes include comments
data (i.e wind and currents) when he was developing (changing)
○ 1847: U.S. Navy Lieutenant theory of evolution by natural
Matthew F. Maury produced selection.
the first bathymetric, wind ● The differences in shape and size of
and current chart of the North beaks in Darwin's finches illustrate
Atlantic. ongoing evolutionary change.
○ In 1859, Charles Darwin set
out his theory of evolution by
● 1831: Charles Darwin sails aboard natural selection as an
HMS Beagle as the naturalist; explanation for adaptation
accurately described atoll formation and speciation.

HMS: Beagle
- His/Her Majesty’s Ship
 ○ He defined natural selection ● Voyage of the challenger took 4
as the "principle by which years
each slight variation [of a ● First leg to bermuda → south atlantic
trait], if useful, is preserved". → cape of good hope → indian
○ There are now at least 13 ocean → pacific ocean → europe
species of finches on the
Galapagos Islands, each
filling a different niche on The Challenger Expedition
different islands.
○ All of them evolved from one ● Comprehensive scientific expedition
ancestral species, which ● Ship refitted with laboratories,
colonized the islands only a winches, and sounding scope
few million years ago. ○ Circumnavigation (logged
111,840km)
RV Melville – BRP Gregorio Velasquez ○ 361 sounding stations
- Research Vessel (deepest is 8180m or
HMS Challenger (1872-1876)
26,850ft)
● first true oceanographic research ○ Collected deep-sea water
expedition renovated a British samples
corvette, a small warship led by ○ Investigated deep-water
Charles Wyville Thomson motion
(naturalist) ○ Temperature measurements
● His assistant, John Murray at all depths
(geologist), others were chemist, ○ Thousands of biological and
artist sea-bottom samples
● discovered Mariana Trench; deepest ○ Produced 50 volume Report
spot was later given the name (took another 20 yrs)
Challenger Deep ● John Murray edited Reports and
● discovered mid-ocean ridge and wrote others
collected water data ○ Considered the First
● Corvette Challenger was a sailing Geological Oceanographer
ship with auxillary steam power. All ● William Dittmar – prepared info on
but 2 of corvette’s guns removed seawater chemistry for Challenger
and ship refitted with laboratories, Reports; identified major elements
winches, equipment, including 232 and confirmed findings on constancy
km of sounding rope. of composition
● Oceanography as modern science
is usually dated from the Challenger
expedition
● Challenger Reports laid foundation
for the science of oceanography
 ● Microscopic Drifting Animals from
volume 25 of challenger report
● After expedition, analysis and
compilation of data continued for 20
years Began oceanography as a
modern science Prestige stimulated
expeditions by other nations

they have dogs/pets

for sanity purposes

*MY Panata
- Marine Yatch

very male-dominated oceanographer workspace

● Photo was taken on October of 1876

Other Explorations after Challenger

● Norway – explored North Atlantic
with Voringen (1876-78)
● Drawings of the ship ● Germany – studied Baltic and North
● Activities onboard such as Dredging Sea in SS Pomerania (1871-72) and
Crache (1881-1884)
● France – financed cruises by
Travailleur and Talisman (1880s)
● Austria – worked in Mediterranean
and Red Seas in Pola (1890s)
● US – circumnavigated earth with US
Enterprise (1883 and 1886)
● Italy and Russia – also
circumnavigated (1886 & 1889)

Oceanography Pioneers
● Victor Hensen (1800s): plankton
studies
● Alexander Agassiz (1800s): studied
corals aboard the Albatross
● Fridjtof Nansen (1800s): drifted in
ice with the Fram near the North
Pole
● Walfrid Ekman (1900s):
Scandinavian who studied physical
oceanography
Ekman layer / depth
 ● 1909: Robert Peary reaches North tectonics theory of W.
Pole Jason Morgan and
● 1911: Roald Amundsen reaches Xavier Le Pichon.
South Pole ■ The theory of these
● Some oceanographic concepts and two geologists
instruments have been named in attempts to explain
some of these pioneers the formation of
mountain ranges,
earthquakes, and
Further Exploration (1900s +) deep sea trenches.
○ Another discovery was how
● Ocean Drilling Program: collected youthful the ocean floor is
data about sea floor; started with in comparison to Earth's
Glomar Challenger (1968), then geologic history.
Retired already ! JOIDES Resolution and Chikyu ■ After analysis of
(“Planet Earth”) samples, scientists
○ Glomar Challenger - drilling concluded that the
for deep sea sediments ocean floor is
○ core samples retrieved probably no older
provided definitive proof for than 200 million
continental drift and seafloor years.
renewal at rift zones ■ This is in comparison
○ But the purpose of the with the 4.5 billion
Glomar Challenger was years of our Earth.
scientific exploration. ■ As the seafloor
○ One of the most important spreads from the rifts,
discoveries was made during it descends again
Leg 3. beneath tectonic
■ The crew drilled 17 plates or is pushed
holes at 10 different what is the tower-like upwards to form
sites along a oceanic thing in the middle called?
mountain ranges.
ridge between South
America and Africa.
■ The core samples
retrieved provided
definitive proof for
continential drift
and seafloor
renewal at rift
zones.
■ This confirmation of
Alfred Wegener's
theory of continental
drift strengthened the
proposal of a single,
ancient land mass,
which is called
Pangaea.
■ The samples gave
further evidence to
support the plate
 ○ literally flips from horizontal
to vertical positions
○ designed to study wave
height, acoustic signals (e.g.
marine mammal research),
collect meteorological data

● Youngest - red; Oldest - blue

● Submersible vessel - can go deeper

● Trieste: bathyscaphe that still holds
the deepest dive to 11,000 m (11km)
in Challenger Deep
○ designed by Auguste Piccard

● Meteor: German ship; studied South

Atlantic currents
○ Recent: Meteor Expedition
(1925) introduced modern
optical and electronic
equipment (echo sounder)

● SCUBA (self-contained underwater

breathing apparatus, 1943):
○ initially developed by
Jacques-Yves Cousteau and
Emile Gagnon
○ to observe marine world
upclose

● FLIP (Floating Instrument Platform):

*retired last year
sits still in the water
link will be sent for info about this
RMS: Royal Mail Ship
- main purpose is to deliver mails across continents

Modern Submersibles of Today

● Alvin (max: 4000m): manned DSV;
discovered hydrothermal vents,
recovered missing bomb
● Sea Cliff II (max: 6000m): went
deeper than Alvin ROV: Remotely Operated Vehicles
● Jason/Medea: pair of ROVs
(remotely-operated vehicles)
attached to each other

● Led Participated in deep sea

expeditions where deep
submersibles were used
● a filmmaker and a writer

Satellites
● Collected information about the
ocean from space
● SEASAT (1978): short-lived satellite;
pioneer in oceanography remote
sensing
● TOPEX/Poseidon (1992-2006):
satellite that measured sea surface
height to reveal info about
circulation; successful mission

● We are now able to examine:

○ what’s found at depths
beyond man’s reach
○ take more images of the
ocean from space and
observe global change
○ Observations of the oceans
on a finer scale and over
longer periods of time.
● This image of the Pacific Ocean was
produced using sea-surface height
● gives us the topography of sea measurements taken by the
surface – high and lows in ocean U.S.-French Jason satellite.
surface ● The image is based on the average
of 10 days of data centered on Feb.
12, 2007, compared to the long-term
 average of observations from 1993
through 2005.
● In this image, places where the
Pacific sea surface height is higher
(warmer) than normal are yellow and
red, and places where the sea
surface is lower (cooler) than normal
are blue and purple.
● Green shows where conditions are
near normal. Sea-surface height is
an indicator of the heat content of
the upper ocean.
● Addtl: NASA A-Train satellites