Control System Engineering

Dr. Pramod R. Bokde

Assistant Professor
Priyadarshini Bhagwati College of Engineering, Nagpur

June 4, 2025
Contents

1 Signal-Flow Graphs 3
1.1 Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2 Importance and Significance of Signal Flow Graphs . . . . . . . . . 3
1.3 Basic Definitions in SFG . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.4 Rules for Signal Flow Graph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.4.1 Addition Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.4.2 Transmission Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.4.3 Multiplication Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.5 Properties of Signal Flow Graph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.6 Mason’s Gain Formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.6.1 Steps to Apply Mason’s Gain Formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.6.2 Significance of Mason’s Gain Formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.7 Comparison between Block Diagram and Signal Flow Graph
Technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

List of Figures

1.1 Signal Flow Graph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

1.2 Addition rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.3 Transmission rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.4 Multiplication rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

2
Chapter 1

Signal-Flow Graphs

1.1 Definition

A Signal Flow Graph (SFG) is a graphical representation of a set of linear algebraic

equations or a linear system, especially in the context of control systems. It consists
of nodes (representing variables or signals) and directed branches (representing
functional relationships or transfer functions between variables).

In control systems, the SFG is used to describe the flow of signals in a

system and to determine the input-output relationship using Mason’s Gain
Formula.

1.2 Importance and Significance of Signal Flow

Graphs

1. SFG provides a clear visual insight into the interrelationships and signal flow
among variables in complex control systems.

2. It eliminates the need for simultaneous equations and allows the use of
Mason’s Gain Formula to find the transfer function directly.

3. Particularly beneficial when dealing with multiple inputs and outputs,

where traditional block diagram reduction becomes cumbersome.

4. SFGs are more compact and sometimes easier to reduce than traditional
block diagrams.

5. The SFG approach can be easily coded or used in computer algorithms for
system modeling and analysis (e.g., in MATLAB).

6. SFGs can bridge the gap between state-space representation and classical
transfer function approaches.

3
4 Chapter 1. Signal-Flow Graphs

1.3 Basic Definitions in SFG

− H4

1 G1 G2 G3 G4 G5 1
x1 x2 x3 x4 x5 x6 x7 x8
− H3
− H1

− H2

Figure 1.1: Signal Flow Graph

Based on the provided Signal Flow Graph (SFG), we analyze and define key terms
in relation to Control System Engineering.

Definitions and Examples

Key Terms in Signal Flow Graphs

Input Node: A node with only outgoing branches and no incoming branches.
Example: x1

Sink Node: A node with only incoming branches and no outgoing branches.
Example: x8

Chain Node: A node with exactly one incoming and one outgoing branch in
the forward path.
Example: x2 , x3 , x5 , x6 , x7

Feedback Path: A path that starts and ends at the same node, potentially
passing through other nodes.
Examples: Paths with gains − H1 , − H2 , − H3 , − H4

Self Loop: A feedback loop that starts and ends at the same node without
passing through other nodes.
Example: x4 with gain − H4

Feedback Loop: A closed loop where the signal returns to its origin, involving
one or more nodes.
Example: x2 → x3 → x4 → x5 → x6 → x7 → x2

Path Gain: The product of all gains along a specific path.

PBOCE, Nagpur Dr. Pramod R. Bokde

1.4. Rules for Signal Flow Graph 5

Example: x1 → x2 → x3 → x4 → x5 → x6 → x7 → x8 has gain:

G1 G2 G3 G4 G5

Dummy Node: An auxiliary node added for clarity or simplification.

Observations from the Graph

• The main forward path is:

1 1 G2 G 4 G3 G G5 1
x1 −
→ x2 −→ x3 −→ x4 −→ x5 −→ x6 −→ x7 −
→ x8

• Feedback Paths:

1. x7 → x5 with gain − H1
2. x7 → x2 with gain − H2
3. x4 → x3 with gain − H3
4. x4 → x4 (self-loop) with gain − H4

Summary Table

Node Role
x1 Input Node
x8 Sink Node
x2 , x3 , x5 , x6 , x7 Chain Nodes
x4 Node with self-loop and feedbacks
Arcs with − H1 , − H2 , − H3 Feedback Paths
Arc with − H4 Self Loop
x4 → x2 → x3 → x4 Feedback Loop

1.4 Rules for Signal Flow Graph

1.4.1 Addition Rule

The value of a variable at a particular node is equal to the algebraic sum of all the
signals entering at that node. This is termed as addition rule.. From following
figure 1.2, we can write -

x2 = ax1 + bx3 + cx4 + dx5 + ex6 (1.1)

Dr. Pramod R. Bokde PBOCE, Nagpur

6 Chapter 1. Signal-Flow Graphs

x4 x3

c b

x5 d x2 a x1

x6

Figure 1.2: Addition rule

1.4.2 Transmission Rule

The value of a variable at a node is transmitted to every branch that is leaving that
node in signal flow graph. This is termed as transmission rule. Figure 1.3
x4 x3

c b

x5 d x2 a x1

x6

Figure 1.3: Transmission rule

Using transmission rule, we can write the equations as -

x1 = ax2
x3 = bx2
x4 = cx2
x5 = dx2
x6 = ex2

1.4.3 Multiplication Rule

If the branches are in series, the gain gets multiplied. Figure 1.4 shows the
multiplication rules.

abcd
a b c d
x1 x2 x3 x4 x5 ≡ x1 x5

Figure 1.4: Multiplication rule

PBOCE, Nagpur Dr. Pramod R. Bokde

1.5. Properties of Signal Flow Graph 7

1.5 Properties of Signal Flow Graph

1. SFG is applicable to linear systems

2. A signal flow graph is a directed graph where the edges (branches) have a
defined direction representing the flow of the signal.

3. Each node represents a variable or signal (input, output, or intermediate) in

the system.

4. Each branch represents a functional relationship (gain or transfer function)

between two variables (nodes).

5. A loop is a closed path that starts and ends at the same node, without passing
through any other node more than once.

6. A self-loop is a loop that starts and ends at the same node directly,
representing feedback acting on the same variable.

7. A forward path is a path from the input node to the output node without
touching any node more than once.

8. A feedback path connects a node to a previous node (often to an input or

intermediate node), typically with a negative gain.

9. There can be multiple forward paths, loops, and feedback paths between
nodes.

10. Two or more loops are non-touching if they do not share any common node.

11. The overall input-output relationship (transfer function) is computed using

Mason’s Gain Formula, which accounts for all forward paths, loops, and
non-touching loops.

12. SFGs are best suited for linear time-invariant (LTI) systems; they are not
applicable for nonlinear or time-varying systems.

13. Dummy or auxiliary nodes can be used to simplify complex relationships or

represent zero-gain paths for analysis purposes.

14. Unlike block diagrams, signal addition is not explicitly shown in SFGs.
Multiple incoming branches to a node imply summation implicitly.

15. The direction of branches ensures that cause-effect relationships (signal

causality) are maintained.

1.6 Mason’s Gain Formula

Mason’s Gain Formula is a mathematical method used to determine the overall

transfer function of a linear system represented by a Signal Flow Graph (SFG). It
provides a systematic way to compute the ratio of the output variable to the input

Dr. Pramod R. Bokde PBOCE, Nagpur

8 Chapter 1. Signal-Flow Graphs

variable by considering all forward paths, loops, and non-touching loops in the
graph.

Mason’s Gain Formula provides a powerful and compact way to analyze

and solve linear control systems. It is especially useful when dealing with
complex signal flow graphs, where traditional block diagram reduction becomes
cumbersome.

The transfer function can be easily obtained by using Mason’s gain formula
given below :
Y (s) n
P∆
T= = ∑ k k (1.2)
X (s) k =1
∆
Where:

∆ = 1 − ∑ (individual loop gains)

+ ∑ (gain product of two non-touching loops)
− ∑ (gain product of three non-touching loops) + · · ·

• Pk : Gain of the kth forward path (product of gains along that path)
• ∆: Determinant of the graph considering all loops and their combinations
• ∆k : Determinant of the graph with all loops that touch the kth path removed

1.6.1 Steps to Apply Mason’s Gain Formula

1. Identify all forward paths from input to output and calculate their gains Pk .
2. Identify all individual loops and compute their loop gains.
3. Identify all combinations of non-touching loops and compute their gain
products.
4. Compute the value of ∆ using all loops and non-touching loops.
5. Compute each ∆k by excluding loops that touch the kth path.
6. Substitute into the formula:
n
Pk ∆k
T= ∑ ∆
k =1

1.6.2 Significance of Mason’s Gain Formula

• Systematic and General Method: Offers a structured approach to compute

transfer functions.
• Efficient for Complex Systems: Useful for systems with multiple feedback
loops and paths.

PBOCE, Nagpur Dr. Pramod R. Bokde

1.6. Mason’s Gain Formula 9

• Applicable to MIMO Systems: Works with both single-input-single-output

(SISO) and multi-input-multi-output (MIMO) systems.

• Graph-Based Visualization: Leverages the structure of signal flow graphs

for intuitive understanding.

• Algorithm-Friendly: Suitable for computational implementation in tools

like MATLAB and Python.

Example 1.1
Find the transfer function of the system shown in figure using Mason’s gain
formula.

G6

1 G1 G2 G3 G4 G5 1
R(s) C(s)
− H1 − H2

− H3

Solution :
Step 1 : There are two forward paths as follows :

1 G1 G2 G3 G4 G5 1
R(s) C(s)

G6

1 1
R(s) C(s)

Gain of first forward path, P1 = G1 G2 G3 G4 G5

Gain of second forward path, P2 = G6

Step 2 : There are four loops shown in figure below:

Dr. Pramod R. Bokde PBOCE, Nagpur

10 Chapter 1. Signal-Flow Graphs

G1 G2 G3 G4 G5 G6
G2 G4

− H1 − H2 − H3
− H3

Loop gain (L1 ) of first loop, L1 = − G2 H1

Loop gain (L2 ) of second loop , L2 = − G4 H2
Loop gain (L3 ) of third loop , L3 = − G1 G2 G3 G4 G5 H3
Loop gain (L4 ) of forth loop , L4 = − G6 H3

Step 3 : Out of the four loops, Loop 1, Loop 2 and Loop 4 are non-touching loops.
The combinations of two non-touching loops are :

1. Loop 1, Loop 2 : Loop gain, L12 = G2 G4 H1 H2

2. Loop 1, Loop 4 : Loop gain, L22 = G2 G6 H1 H3

3. Loop 2, Loop 4 : Loop gain, L32 = G4 G6 H2 H3

Step 4 : Out of these four loops, Loop 1, Loop 2 and Loop 4 are possible
combinations of three non-touching loops.

∴ L13 = − G2 G4 G6 H1 H2 H3 (1.3)

Step 5 : There is no higher order non-touching loops.

Step 6 :

△ = 1 − ( L1 + L2 + L3 + L4 ) + ( L12 + L22 + L3 2) − L13

∴ △ = 1 + ( G2 H1 + G4 H2 + G1 G2 G3 G4 G5 H3 + G6 H3 )
+ ( G2 G4 H1 H2 + G2 G6 H1 H3 + G4 G6 H2 H3 ) + G2 G4 G6 H1 H2 H3

Step 7 :

1. Considering P1 , Loops 1, 2, 3, 4 touch this path.

∴ △1 = 1 − (0) = 1

2. Considering P2 , Loops 1,2 do not touch it.

∴ △2 = 1 − (− G2 H1 − G4 H2 ) + G2 G4 H1 H2
∴ △2 = 1 + G2 H1 + G4 H2 + G2 G4 H1 H2

PBOCE, Nagpur Dr. Pramod R. Bokde

1.6. Mason’s Gain Formula 11

Step 8 :
P1 △1 + P2 △2
T=
△
G G G G G + G6 (1 + G2 H1 + G4 H2 + G2 G4 H1 H2 )
∴T= 1 2 3 4 5
△

Put the expression for △ in the above equation to get the complete
expression of Transfer function.
Example 1.2
C (s)
Find the transfer function of the system shown in the signal flow graph
R(s)
using Mason’s Gain Formula.

R(s) G1 G2 G3 G4 C(s)
x1 x2 x3 x4 x5

− H1

− H2

Solution:

Step 1: Identify Forward Path(s)

Only one forward path:

P1 = G1 G2 G3 G4

Step 2: Identify Individual Loops

• Loop 1: x2 → x3 → x2 : L1 = − G2 H1
• Loop 2: x1 → x2 → x3 → x4 → x5 → x1 : L2 = − G1 G2 G3 G4 H2

Step 3: Non-touching Loops

Loops share nodes, so no non-touching loops.

Step 4: Compute Determinant ∆

∆ = 1 − ( L1 + L2 ) = 1 + G2 H1 + G1 G2 G3 G4 H2

Step 5: Compute ∆1 (since the forward path touches all loops)

∆1 = 1

Dr. Pramod R. Bokde PBOCE, Nagpur

12 Chapter 1. Signal-Flow Graphs

Step 6: Apply Mason’s Gain Formula

P1 ∆1 G1 G2 G3 G4
T= =
∆ 1 + G2 H1 + G1 G2 G3 G4 H2

Example 1.4 — Complex SFG with 3 Forward Paths and Non-touching Loops
C (s)
Find the transfer function using Mason’s Gain Formula.
R(s)
G4 G5

G1 G2 G3
R ( s ) x1 x2 x3 x4 C ( s )
− H2

− H3

− H1

Solution:

Forward Paths:
P1 = G1 G2 G3
P2 = G4 G3
P3 = G1 G5

Loops:
L1 = − G3 H1
L2 = − G2 H2
L3 = − G5 H3
L4 = − G1 G2 G3 H1

Non-touching Loops:
L1 · L2 = G3 H1 · G2 H2
L2 · L3 = G2 H2 · G5 H3

Overall Determinant:
∆ = 1 − ( L1 + L2 + L3 + L4 ) + ( L1 L2 + L2 L3 )

Path-specific Cofactors:
∆1 = 1 − ( L1 + L2 + L4 ) + ( L1 L2 )
∆2 = 1 − ( L1 )
∆3 = 1 − ( L2 + L3 ) + ( L2 L3 )

PBOCE, Nagpur Dr. Pramod R. Bokde

1.7. Comparison between Block Diagram and Signal Flow Graph Technique 13

Transfer Function:
P1 ∆1 + P2 ∆2 + P3 ∆3
T=
∆

1.7 Comparison between Block Diagram and Signal

Flow Graph Technique

Feature Block Diagram Signal Flow Graph (SFG)

Representation Represents the control system Represents the system
using functional blocks and using nodes (variables) and
lines. directed branches (gains).
Basic Elements Blocks (with transfer Nodes (for signals) and
functions), summing points, branches (for signal gains).
and take-off points.
Directionality Flow is typically from left to Direction is explicitly shown
right. by arrows, can be in any
orientation.
Variables Focuses mainly on system Focuses on signal variables
functions. Internal variables at each node. Every node
may not be visible. represents a variable.
Use of Loops Feedback loops are Loops are naturally
represented by summing represented as closed signal
and feedback blocks. paths.
Complexity Becomes cluttered and More compact and systematic
Handling difficult to simplify as system for complex systems.
complexity increases.
Analysis Simplified using block Analyzed using Mason’s
Method diagram reduction rules. Gain Formula.
Mathematical Based on algebraic Based on path analysis and
Approach manipulation of transfer gain calculations.
functions.
Application Widely used in control Preferred in signal
Scope engineering and classical processing, control system
system representation. analysis, and system
modeling.
Feedback Path Explicitly shown as a Naturally integrated through
backward connection with a branch loops without
summing point. separate summing points.
Clarity for Large Not ideal — can get Easier to handle and solve
Systems confusing. systematically using gain
rules.

Dr. Pramod R. Bokde PBOCE, Nagpur