GREENDALE SCHOOL

Affiliated to CBSE, New Delhi

PM Palem | Madhurawada | Visakhapatnam – 530041
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Subject: _____BIOLOGY _____________

Lesson Number & Lesson Name: ______5. LIFE PROCESSESS_______________

NOTES

1. Life processes: The processes which together perform the maintenance functions of living organisms like
respiration, nutrition, circulation, excretion, etc., are called life processes.

2. Living Being: Living beings are those who show all the characteristics of life i.e., growth, movement,
reproduction, respiration, etc. They live, die and become a part of nature again.
3. Nutrition: The process by which an organism takes food and utilizes it to get energy, for growth, repair,
maintenance, etc. is called nutrition.
4. Need for Nutrition: Organisms need energy to perform various activities. This energy is supplied by the
nutrients obtained from nutrition.

Modes of Nutrition

(i) Autotrophic Nutrition: The mode of nutrition in which an organism prepares its own food is called
autotrophic nutrition. For example, green plants and blue-green algae follow the autotrophic mode of
nutrition.

(ii) Heterotrophic Nutrition: The mode of nutrition in which an organism obtains its food from another
organism is called heterotrophic nutrition. For example, most of the bacteria, fungi and all animals follow
the heterotrophic mode of nutrition.

Heterotrophic Nutrition is of three types:

a. Saprophytic nutrition - It is a type of nutrition in which organisms feed on dead and decaying matter.
For example, fungi.

b. Parasitic nutrition - It is a type of nutrition in which organism feed on living host. For example,
Cuscutta.

c. Holozoic nutrition - It is a type of nutrition where an organism takes in whole food and breaks it inside
the body. For example, Amoeba.

Photosynthesis: Photosynthesis is a process that utilizes carbon dioxide and water in the presence of
sunlight and chlorophyll to synthesize carbohydrates like glucose.

Green leaves are the main site of photosynthesis. They contain a green colour pigment known as
chlorophyll that traps sunlight for photosynthesis.
The following events occur during the process of photosynthesis:

(i) Absorption of light energy by chlorophyll.

(ii) Convert light energy to chemical energy and split water molecules into hydrogen and oxygen.

(iii) Reduction of carbon dioxide by hydrogen to produce carbohydrates (glucose).

Stomata: Stomata are the tiny pores present on the surface of the leaves.

Features of stomata:
➡ Stomata facilitate gaseous exchange in the leaves for the purpose of photosynthesis.
➡ The opening and closing of the stomatal pores is controlled by the guard cells.
➡ The guard cells swell when water flows into them, causing the stomatal pore to open. Similarly, the pore closes
if the guard cells shrink.
Nutrition in Amoeba
➡ Amoeba is a unicellular animal that follows the holozoic mode of nutrition.
➡ Holozoic nutrition happens in five steps, viz. ingestion, digestion, absorption, assimilation, and egestion.
➡ Amoeba cell engulfs the food particle using pseudopodia (temporary finger-like extensions of the cell surface).
This process is called phagocytosis.
➡ The engulfed food gets enclosed in a food vacuole.
➡ Inside the food vacuole, complex substances are broken down into simpler ones resulting in digestion,
absorption, and assimilation.
➡ The remaining undigested material is moved to the surface of the cell and thrown out.
 Nutrition in Human Beings
Humans consist of an alimentary canal and some accessory glands. The alimentary canal is divided into several
parts that are:
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7. Rectum
8. Anus

Accessory glands: Salivary gland, liver and pancreas are the accessory glands which lie outside the alimentary
canal.
Process of digestion of food in human beings
➡ Food is taken in through the mouth where it is moistened by saliva.
➡ Saliva contains an enzyme called salivary amylase/ ptyalin that breaks down complex starch (present in food)
into simple sugar.
➡ The food is chewed in the mouth by the muscular tongue. It then moves down the alimentary canal.
➡ The lining of the oesophagus has muscles that contract rhythmically to push the food forward. These
movements are called as peristalsis
➡ The food is taken to the stomach through the food pipe called the oesophagus.
➡ The muscular walls of the stomach help in mixing the food with more digestive juices.
➡ The gastric glands present in the wall of the stomach release hydrochloric acid, a protein-digesting enzyme
called pepsin, and mucus.
➡ Hydrochloric acid creates an acidic medium that facilitates the action of the enzyme pepsin. It also kills bacteria
entered through food and prevents infection.
Mucous: It will protect the stomach lining from the action of hydrochloric acid(HCl).
➡ From the stomach, the food now enters the small intestine (the longest part of the alimentary canal).
The stomach contains a ring of muscles called the Pyloric sphincter.
Small intestine :
The small intestine is a tube-like structure and the longest part of the human digestive system.
It is divided into duodenum, jejunum, ileum.
The duodenum receives secretions from the liver and pancreas.
The ileum secretes intestinal juices called succus entericus.
Functions of the small intestine:
The small intestine completes the digestion of the nutrients, absorbs the products of digestion, and transports the
remaining residues to the large intestine.
(Note - Herbivores eating grass need a longer small intestine to allow the cellulose to be digested. Meat is easier to
digest, hence carnivores like tigers have a shorter small intestine.
➡ Complete digestion of carbohydrates, proteins and fats occurs in the small intestine. It receives the secretions of
the liver and pancreas for this purpose.
➡ Bile juice from the liver helps in the emulsification of fats.
➡ Pancreas secrete enzymes such as trypsin for the digestion of proteins.
➡ Pancreatic juice contains trypsin, amylase, and lipase
Proteins ---------------> polypeptide (Trypsin)
Starch------------→ Maltose (Amylase)
Emulsified fats --------→ Fatty acids + glycerol (Lipase)
➡ The walls of the small intestine contain glands that secrete intestinal juice. It finally convert the proteins to
amino acids, complex carbohydrates into glucose and fats into fatty acids and glycerol.
Peptides-----→ Amino acids (Peptidases, Alkaline medium)
Maltose -----→ Glucose (Maltase, Alkaline medium)
Sucrose ----→ Glucose + Fructose (Sucrase, Alkaline medium)
Lactose ----→ Glucose + Galactose (Alkaline medium)
➡ Digested food is then absorbed by the walls of the small intestine.
➡ The inner lining of the small intestine has numerous finger-like projections called villi which increase the
surface area for absorption of food.
➡ The villi are richly supplied with blood vessels which take the absorbed food to each cell of the body to meet
their energy requirements.
➡ The unabsorbed food is then transferred to the large intestine where water is absorbed from it.
➡ The rest of the material is then removed from the body via the anus.

RESPIRATION

Respiration is an essential physiological activity of all living organisms by which they obtain energy for
carrying out all other metabolic activities of the body. It is a catabolic process in which breakdown of complex
organic compounds occur and energy is released.
There are two types of respiration:
ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION:
When respiration does not involve the uptake of oxygen then this type of respiration is called anaerobic
respiration and life in the absence of respiration is called anaerobic respiration and life in the absence of oxygen is
called as anaerobiosis.
such type of respiration is generally found in the parasitic worms, lower organisms (bacteria, yeast) etc.
AEROBIC RESPIRATION:
When respiration involves the uptake of oxygen, then this type of respiration is called aerobic respiration.
It requires exchange of O2 and CO2 between the organisms and the surroundings. Aerobic respiration takes place
inside mitochondria of mammals.

Difference between aerobic and anaerobic respiration :

Aerobic Respiration Anaerobic Respiration
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1. Takes place in presence of Takes place in absence of oxygen
oxygen
2. Complete breakdown of Partial breakdown of food takes place
food takes place
3. Food gets converted into Food can be converted into either ethanol and CO2 (as in yeast) or
CO2 and water. in lactic acid (as in animal muscles)
4. 38 molecules of ATP are 2 molecules of ATP are produced.
produced
 ORGANS OF RESPIRATION
Skin or general body surface, as in earthworm.
Air tubes or trachea, as in insects (grasshopper, cockroach, housefly).
Gills as in aquatic animals like fish and prawn.
Lungs as in land animals like frog, lizard, birds, rat, humans.
Frog respires through skin as well as lungs (being amphibious)
• All respiratory organs whether skin, trachea, gills or lungs have three common features:
• All the respiratory organs have a large surface area so as to get enough oxygen.

• All have thin walls for easy diffusion and exchange of respiratory gases.

• The respiratory organs like the skin, gills and lungs have a rich blood supply for transport of gases. In the
tracheal system, air reaches cells directly and blood plays no role in the transport of gases.
MODES OF RESPIRATION
Cell surface respiration: Exchange of gases takes place directly between cells and the environment (water)
across the cell surface. e.g., Sponges, coelenterates, protistans.
Cutaneous respiration: Skin functions as respiratory surface. For such respiration, skin is thin, porous, moist
and vascular. e.g., Nereis, Frog (cutaneous respiration is the only mode of respiration during hibernation).
Buccal respiration: This occurs through buccal cavity in frog. The mucus membrane of buccal cavity is thin
and moist which serves as the respiratory surface for gas exchange.
Pulmonary respiration: It occurs with the help of lungs and a respiratory tract.
Tracheal respiration: Exchange of gases takes place through trachea. e.g., Insects, peripatus.
Bronchial respiration: Exchange of gases takes place through gills. e.g., Aquatic animals (fishes).

Breakdown of Glucose by Various Pathways ATP

• Glucose (6-carbon molecules) Pyruvate (3-carbon molecule) + Energy

ATP:
• It refers to a nitrogenous compound, Adenosine Tri-Phosphate.
• The energy released during cellular respiration is immediately used to synthesize a molecule called ATP from

• ADP and inorganic phosphate.

• ATP is used to fuel all activities in the cell. Therefore, it is said to be the energy currency of the cell.
Gaseous Exchange in Plants
Plants need energy. This energy is obtained through the process of respiration:
• Plants exchange gases through stomata and the large intercellular spaces ensure that all cells are in contact
with air.
• CO2 and O2 are exchanged by the process of diffusion.
• Exchange of gases CO2 and O2 in Plants:
• At Night → No Photosynthesis only Respiration → CO2 is given out
• At Day time → Photosynthesis and Respiration → O2 is given out
• It takes place in all parts of a plant like roots, stem and leaf.
• Exchange of gases in roots take place by the process of diffusion.
 • Oxygen diffuses into the root hair and passes into the root cells, from where carbon dioxide moves out into
the soil.

• In woody plants, bark has lenticels for gaseous exchange.

• In leaves, respiration takes place by diffusion of oxygen through stomata into cells of the leaf and carbon
dioxide is released into the atmosphere.
Opening and Closing of Stomata
• Turgor pressure of guard cells controls the opening and closing of stomata.
• When guard cells lose water, turgor process inside the guard cells decrease resulting in the closing of stomata.
• When water gets inside the guard cells, their turgor pressure increases, as a result stomata pore opens.
RESPIRATION IN ANIMALS
Animals have evolved different organs for the uptake of O2 and release of CO2. However, in unicellular
organisms no specific organ is there for exchange of gases because the entire surface of the organism is in
contact with the environment.
Aquatic animals use the O2 dissolved in water. Since the amount of O2 in water is fairly low as compared to
the amount of O2 in the air, the rate of breathing in aquatic organisms is much faster than that seen in
terrestrial organisms.
Fishes take in water through their mouths and force it past the gills where the dissolved O2 is taken up by
blood.
• Fish release carbon dioxide into water. For this exchange, they have special respiratory organs called
gills.
• Gills are thin, moist membranous structures that are richly supplied with blood.
There are four gills on each side of the body. These four gills are enclosed in a gill chamber. The gill
chamber is enclosed by a gill cover called operculum.
• Each gill bears a double row of many fine filaments called gill filaments. The gill filaments bear
smaller filaments which in turn, divide into smaller branches. So a very large surface area is
provided for gaseous exchange when the gills are immersed in water.
• The gill filaments are richly supplied with blood capillaries. Exchange of gases takes place through
the thin walls of the gill filaments. During breathing, rhythmic movements of the mouth, throat and
operculum allow continuous availability of water to the gills.
• Blood in capillaries of gill filaments flows in opposite direction to the flow of water over the surface
of filaments. This counter current system greatly helps in gaseous exchange as steep concentration
gradient of gases is maintained throughout the respiratory surface resulting into efficient gas
exchange mechanism.
Gaseous Exchange in Animals
• It takes place with the help of some specific respiratory organs which differs in different animal groups,
according their habitat.
• Aquatic animals like fish, prawns and mussels have gills as respiratory organs.
• Land animals like lizard, bird, human have lungs, frogs breathe both by skin and lungs.
• Insects like grasshopper, housefly or cockroach have air tubes or trachea as their respiratory organs.
• In lower animals like Protozoans, Poriferans and Coelenterates, no specialised organs are present for
gaseous exchange. It occurs by diffusion through the body surface
Respiration in Humans
Respiration in human being is a very complex process and involves :
✓ Breathing: It is a physical process in which there is intake of fresh air from the environment and
removal of foul air (having more CO2) from the body.
✓ Cellular respiration: It is a biochemical process where food in oxidized in order to release energy.
The main respiratory organs in human beings are lungs. Respiration through lungs is called pulmonary
respiration. Atmospheric oxygen is used for respiration. To maintain a high metabolic rate, humans require
more oxygen. Rate of breathing under normal conditions is 15 to 18 times per minute. During vigorous
exercise, rate increases by about 20 to 25 times.
Many organs take part in the process of respiration in human beings. They are called organs of respiratory
system.
The main organs of human respiratory system are:-
✓ Nose or nostrils
✓ Nasal cavity (or Nasal passage)
✓ Pharynx
✓ Larynx
✓ Trachea
✓ Bronchi
✓ Bronchioles and alveoli
✓ Lungs
✓ Diaphragm
Nose and nostrils: The external part of the nose bears two nostrils separated by a cartilaginous septum. In
the nostrils, hairs are present which prevent large particles from entering the system. Nostrils also help in
detecting smell through their sensory cells.
Nasal passage: From the nostrils, air travels through the nasal cavities or chambers. The nasal chambers are
lined with glands which secrete mucous. The nasal chambers perform following functions:
· Warm the air.
· Add moisture to the air.
· The mucous entraps the dust and harmful particles; thus, cleaning the air.
Pharynx (or throat) : The pharynx is a cavity at the back of the mouth, and the nasal cavity opens into it.
It is a common passage for food and air. From the nasal cavity, air enters into pharynx and then into wind
pipe through a slit called glottis. The glottis gets covered by a small cartilaginous flap-like structure called
epiglottis at the time of swallowing of food. epiglottis, thus, prevents the entry of food into the wind pipe at
the time of swallowing of food. The pharynx opens into larynx.
Larynx (voice box):Popularly called “Adam’s apple”, it is a hollow cartilaginous structure leading into the
trachea. The larynx contains two ligamentous folds called vocal cords. Vocal cords vibrate to produce sound
resulting in speech. In males, the “Adam’s apple” is the protruding cartilage of the voice box.
Trachea (wind pipe): Larynx opens into a long tube called trachea which is supported by incomplete C
shaped cartilaginous rings. These rings provide the flexibility and strength to trachea and prevent its collapse
when there is not much air in it. Trachea runs in front of oesophagus and after reaching thorax divides into
right and left bronchi (singular bronchus) which enter the lungs of their respective side and divide into
bronchioles.

Lungs (Respiratory organ)

∙ The lungs lie in the thoracic cavity one on either side of the heart. The cavity is separated from abdominal cavity
by a dome shaped muscular partition called diaphragm.
∙ Lungs in man are soft, spongy and of pinkish colour. The passage (trachea) divides into two bronchi in lungs.
Inside the lungs each bronchi divides as follows:
Bronchi → Bronchioles → Terminal Bronchioles → Alveoli
∙ Alveoli (unit of lungs) are balloon like structure which provides a surface where exchange of gases takes
 place. The wall of alveoli contains an extensive network of blood vessels.

Mechanism of Breathing in Human

Breathing is a complex mechanical process involving muscular
movement that alters the volume of the thoracic cavity thereby
that of the lung.
• Breathing occurs involuntarily but its rate is controlled by the
respiratory center of the brain.
• The floor of the thoracic cavity is completely closed by
diaphragm. It is a thin muscular septum separating the
abdominal and thoracic cavities.
• Breathing mechanism involves two steps:

♦ Inhalation Mechanism of Breathing in Human

♦ Exhalation

Inhalation (Breathing in)

• Energy requiring process.
• Simultaneous contraction of intercostals muscles and diaphragm results in the movement of ribs outwards and
upwards.
• This action increases the volume of thoracic cavity, thus increasing the lung volume.
• It reduces air pressure in the lungs and air rushes into the lungs through air passage.
Exhalation (Breathing out)
• Due to relaxation of intercostals muscles and diaphragm, the ribs return to their original position and diaphragm
becomes dome-shaped.
• These movements reduce the volume of thoracic cavity and lungs return to their original volume.
• Air rushes out of the lungs due to increase in pressure above that of atmospheric pressure inside the lungs.
Gas Exchange in Alveoli
• Blood rich in carbon dioxide, i.e., the deoxygenated blood enters the capillary network of alveoli.
• Alveolar air has a higher concentration of oxygen and lower concentration of CO2 than the blood in capillaries.
• Therefore, O2 diffuses into the capillaries and combines with haemoglobin of red blood cells to form
oxyhaemoglobin, to be transported throughout the body.
• CO2 from blood capillaries diffuses out into the alveolar air.
Gas Exchange in Tissues
• In the cells, continuous metabolism of glucose and other substances results in the production of CO2 and
utilization of O2.
• The concentration of oxygen in the cells and tissue fluid decreases while the concentration of CO2 increases than
in the capillaries.
• Therefore, oxyhaemoglobin breaks down releasing O2 which diffuses out from the blood capillaries into the
tissue fluid and then into each and every cell.
 TRANSPORTATION

• The system which pumps the fluid tissue to transport it throughout the body is called the
circulatory system. Human circulatory system comprises of heart, blood and a network of blood
vessels.
• The system transports oxygenated blood from lungs and the heart throughout the body via
arteries. The oxygenated blood is supplied to all the organs by arteries branching out as
capillaries.
• The deoxygenated blood is returned to veins through capillaries. These veins carry deoxygenated
blood to the heart and the lungs.
Human Heart
The heart is the central organ for pumping the blood throughout the body. Heart is made up of strong
cardiac muscles. It is located in the chest cavity with its lower part pointing towards the left. Its size is
that of the person’s fist. It pumps blood rich in carbon dioxide to the lungs and oxygen-rich blood to other
parts of the body.
• The heart consists of four chambers namely auricles and ventricles. The two upper chambers of the heart
are known as the auricles.
• The two lower chambers of the heart are the ventricles. Left and right parts of the heart are separated by a
muscular partition called as septum.
• Heart has a number of valves which allow the blood to flow in one direction. These prevent the
oxygenated blood from mixing with de-oxygenated blood.
Blood vessels
Blood vessels are tubelike structures which form an intricate network to transport blood to various parts
of the body. They are classified as arteries, veins, and capillaries.
a) Arteries: are the blood vessels which carry pure oxygenated blood from the heart to different tissues in
the body.
• Arteries are with thick walls as the heart pumps blood with greater pressure into the arteries. In
turn arteries also offer some pressure on the blood. This is called as peripheral resistance.
• Pulmonary artery carries impure blood to the lungs from heart
• b) Veins: arise from the bodily tissues. Thus deoxygenated blood is carried by veins and is
returned to heart.
• All the veins carry impure blood to the heart except for pulmonary veins which carry pure blood
from lungs to the heart.
• Veins have wider inner diameters and valves to prevent the back flow of blood. Blood is just
allowed to go towards the heart and not in any other way. The walls of veins are thinner when
compared to the walls of the artery.
• Pulmonary veins carry pure blood from lungs to the heart. Pulmonary veins need not have thicker
walls as such as blood is not pumped by the heart in to these veins.
• They carry pure blood from lungs. They have valves in them so as to prevent backward flow of
the blood. There are totally four pulmonary veins and all of them are connected to left atrium of
our heart.
c) Blood capillaries: are the structures which branch out form arteries on entering the tissues. Blood
capillaries supply pure blood to inner parts of the tissue. These capillaries in turn collectively form a
single vein from the tissue. The heart pumps deoxygenated blood into the lungs through pulmonary
arteries.
Pulmonary artery carries impure blood to the lungs from heart . Blood gets purified in the
lungs. Pulmonary veins carry pure oxygenated blood from lungs to the heart.
Functions of the heart
• All parts of our body require oxygen to carry out life processes. We take in oxygen by the process of
respiration. But this oxygen should be carried over to all parts of the body. The oxygen in the lungs binds
to haemoglobin present in the blood. This oxygenated blood is taken to heart. This oxygen-carrying
blood should be transported to all the parts of our body. To pump this blood with pressure we need a
central pumping organ called as heart. This is the reason why our heart pumps continuously.
• It is a central pumping organ of the circulatory system which pumps oxygenated (pure) blood into the
blood vessels to be carried over to different parts of the body.
• It receives deoxygenated (impure) blood from different parts of the body and sends it to the lungs for
purification.
Blood:
Blood and lymph are the important modes of transport in the circulatory system. Blood is a fluid tissue
made from plasma and formed elements.
• Plasma is a pale yellowish fluid that contains albumin (the chief protein constituent), fibrinogen
(responsible, in part, for the clotting of blood) and globulins (including antibodies). Plasma is obtained by
separating the liquid portion of blood from the cells. Plasma serves a variety of functions like maintaining
a satisfactory blood pressure and volume, serving as the medium for exchange of vital minerals,
maintaining a proper pH in the body. It also helps in transporting gases, nutrients and nitrogenous waste.
• Red blood cells in the blood are flattened disc-like structures responsible of transporting oxygen and
carbon dioxide gases. Red blood cells consist of red iron-containing pigment called as haemoglobin.
Haemoglobin is a respiratory pigment that carries oxygen through red blood cells. Oxygenated blood is
carried to tissues.
• White blood cells are otherwise known as leukocytes. WBCs help the body in fighting against the
diseases. Different types of WBCs are Granulocytes, Monocytes and Lymphocytes. Granulocytes are
further divided into Neutrophils, Eosinophils and Basophils. Monocytes can transform themselves into
two types of cells namely, Dendritic cells and Macrophages. Lymphocytes can be of two types namely B-
lymphocytes and T-lymphocytes.
• Platelets are the non-nucleated, irregular cells that bring about clotting of the blood. These are also called
as thrombocytes as they release thromboplastin which plays an important role in clotting of blood.
Platelets immediately come to the place of injury and lyse themselves to release thromboplastin. The
remnants aggregate in large amounts to form a plug on the injury preventing the blood loss.
Functions of blood

Blood plays a vital role in transporting many substances to all parts of the body.
• As the blood contains RBCs, it transports oxygen from lungs to cells and in turn carries carbon dioxide in
the opposite direction.
• Urea, the main excretory product formed in the liver is carried away by the blood to kidneys.
• Blood transports soluble digested food materials which are absorbed in the small intestine.
• Blood provides a medium of transport for the hormones secreted by different endocrine glands to reach
their target organs.
• Blood also transports water required by the cells to perform various biochemical reactions.

Types of circulation:
The two types of circulation are single circulation and double circulation.
• Single circulation is the type of circulation in which blood passes through the heart only once through the
heart. For example, it is seen in fishes. Fish is a lower vertebrate with a two chambered heart. Fish has a
two chambered heart comprising of one atrium and one ventricle. Gills help in purifying the
deoxygenated blood. These two chambered heart exhibits single mode of circulation. Impure blood is
pumped to gills for oxygenation. This oxygenated blood from gills is supplied directly to the body tissues
without sending to the heart.
• Incomplete double circulation is observed in amphibians and reptiles which have three-chambered hearts
with two atria and one ventricle.
• Double circulation is the type of circulation during which blood passes twice through the heart. Higher
vertebrates like birds and mammals exhibit double circulation.

Blood pressure
Blood pressure is the pressure exerted by the blood on the walls of the arteries.
• The pressure can be systolic pressure during contraction and diastolic pressure at a relaxed state.
• The pressure exerted by blood against the wall of an artery during ventricular contraction or systole is
called systolic pressure, and that exerted during ventricular expansion or diastole is called diastolic
pressure.
• Normal blood pressure is 120/80mmHg. If the blood pressure is less than 100/50 then it is termed to be
low blood pressure or hypotension. If it exceeds 140/90, it is termed to be high blood pressure or
hypertension.
• An instrument called the sphygmomanometer is used to measure blood pressure. The normal systolic
pressure is about 120 mm of Hg, and diastolic pressure is 80 mm of Hg.

Transport of gases
We take in oxygen during inhalation and it reaches lungs through respiratory tract. Haemoglobin, an
intracellular protein is the primary vehicle for transporting 97% of oxygen in the blood. 3% of Oxygen is
carried by plasma. Haemoglobin is contained in erythrocytes.
• The amount of oxygen bound to the haemoglobin at any time is related to the partial pressure of oxygen
to which the haemoglobin is exposed. In the lungs, at the alveolar-capillary interface, the partial pressure
of oxygen is high, and therefore the oxygen binds readily to haemoglobin. As the blood circulates to other
body tissue in which the partial pressure of oxygen is less, the haemoglobin releases the oxygen into the
tissue because the haemoglobin cannot maintain its full bound capacity of oxygen in the presence of
lower oxygen partial pressures.
• Red blood cells in the blood are flattened disc like structures responsible of transporting oxygen and
carbon dioxide gases. Red blood cells consist of red iron-containing pigment called as haemoglobin.
Haemoglobin is a respiratory pigment that carries oxygen through red blood cells. Oxygenated blood is
carried to tissues.
• The exchange of gases at tissue level is called as peripheral gas exchange. The capillaries of circulatory
system deliver the oxygen rich blood to the tissues of the body.
• This oxygen diffuses across the walls of the capillaries into tissues. In turn carbon dioxide diffuses into
the blood from tissues.
• The carbon dioxide diffused into the blood binds to haemoglobin present in the blood to form
carboxyhemoglobin.
• This de-oxygenated blood is carried to lungs for purification. In the lungs, carbon dioxide from carboxy
haemoglobin dissociates leaving behind haemoglobin.
• The cycle continues to carry oxygen from lungs to tissues and carbon dioxide from tissues to lungs by
haemoglobin.

Double circulation: In the human heart, blood passes through the heart twice in one cardiac cycle. This
type of circulation is called double circulation. One complete heartbeat in which all the chambers of the
heart contract and relax once is called cardiac cycle. The heart beats about 72 times per minute in a
normal adult. In one cardiac cycle, the heart pumps out 70 mL of blood and thus, about 4900 mL of blood
in a minute. Double circulation ensures complete segregation of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood d
 which is necessary for optimum energy production in warm-blooded animals.

Lymph:
• Lymph is similar to blood but RBCs are absent in lymph.
• Lymph is formed from the fluid that leaks from blood capillaries and goes to the intercellular space in the
tissues. This fluid is collected through lymph vessels and finally returns to the blood capillaries.
• Lymph also plays an important role in the immune system.
• Lymph-yellowish fluids escape from the blood capillaries into the intercellular spaces and contain less
proteins than blood.
• Lymph flows from the tissues to the heart assisting in transportation and destroying germs.

Transportation in plants:
Plants have specialized vascular tissues for transportation of substances. There are two types of vascular
tissues in plants.
• Xylem: Xylem is responsible for the transportation of water and minerals. It is composed of tracheid’s,
xylem vessels, xylem parenchyma and xylem fibre. Tracheid’s and xylem vessels are the conducting
elements. The xylem makes a continuous tube in plants that runs from roots to stem and right up to the
veins of leaves.
• Carry water and minerals from the leaves to the other part of the plant.
• Phloem: Phloem is responsible for the transportation of food. Phloem is composed of sieve tubes,
companion cells, phloem parenchyma and bast fibers. Sieve tubes are the conducting elements in phloem.
• Carries product of photosynthesis from roots to other part of the plant.

Transportation in plants

Ascent of sap: The upward movement of water and minerals from roots to different plant parts is called
the ascent of sap. Many factors are at play in the ascent of sap and it takes place in many steps. They are
explained as follows :
• Root pressure: The walls of cells of root hairs are very thin. Water from soil enters the root hairs
because of osmosis. Root pressure is responsible for the movement of water up to the base of the stem.
• Capillary action: A very fine tube is called capillary, water, or any liquid, rises in the capillary because
of physical forces and this phenomenon is called capillary action. Water, in stem, rises to some height
because of capillary action.
• Adhesion-cohesion of water molecules: Water molecules make a continuous column in the xylem
because of forces of adhesion and cohesion among the molecules.
• Transpiration pull: Loss of water vapour through stomata and lenticels, in plants, is called transpiration.
Transpiration through stomata creates vacuum which creates a suction, called transpiration pull. The
transpiration pull sucks the water column from the xylem tubes and thus, water is able to rise to great
heights in even the tallest plants.
• Transport of food: Transport of food in plants happens because of utilization of energy. Thus, unlike the
transport through xylem, it is a form of active transport. Moreover, the flow of substances through
phloem takes place in both directions, i.e. it is a two-way traffic in phloem.
Transpiration is the process of loss of water as vapor from aerial parts of the plant.
Functions
• Absorption and upward movement of water and minerals by creating pull.
• Helps in temperature regulation in plant.
Transport of food from leaves (food factory) to different parts of the plant is called Translocation.
 EXCRETION

• Removal of harmful waste from the body is called excretion.

• Many wastes are produced during various metabolic activities.
• These need to be removed in time because their accumulation in the body can be harmful and even lethal
for an organism.
EXCRETION IN ANIMALS
In different animals, different organs of excretion are present. These are as follows:
• In Amoeba and other single-celled animals, contractile vacuole serves the function of excretion and
osmoregulation.
• In sponges, the waste materials diffuse out of the body through the osculum.
• In animals like Hydra (belonging to Cnidaria), the oral opening serves as the excretory organ.
• In flatworms, excretory structures are single cells called flame cells.
• In higher animals, excretory organs consist of tubular structures called nephridia., earthworm.
• In human beings, kidneys are the excretory organs. Each kidney consists of microscopic thin tubules
which form nephrons. Each kidney contains about 1 million nephrons.
EXCRETION IN AMOEBA
”In organisms like Amoeba and Paramecium, most of the metabolic wastes are removed through the
general surface of the body by the simple process of diffusion. Specialized organs of excretion are
lacking.
”In Amoeba, waste materials and excess water are removed by the process of diffusion with the help of
a contractile vacuole. The contractile vacuole thus increases in size. When full, it moves closer to the
plasma membrane and finally releases the contents in water after coming in contact with the plasma
membrane. Later, a new contractile vacuole appears.
EXCRETION IN HUMAN BEINGS
Various organs are present in human to get rid of wastes.
Lungs - For excretion of carbon dioxide and water vapor produced during respiration; carbon dioxide
produced during respiration in cells is carried by
• Haemoglobin in the blood.
• Water in which it gets dissolved.
CO2 from the surface of the lungs is removed by exhalation during breathing.
• Skin -For excretion of urea, salts and excess water by means of sweat glands present in the skin.
• Kidneys - For excretion of liquid wastes, such as urine; the kidneys are part of a set of organs known as
the urinary system.
• Liver - For removing urea, bile pigments and toxins, liver is the largest gland in the body and is a
detoxifying gland.
EXCRETORY SYSTEM IN HUMANS
Excretory system consists of the following organs
• A pair of kidneys
• Ureters
• Urinary bladder
• Urethra
 • Kidneys are bean-shaped structures, about 10 centimetres long.
• They are located just above the waist on either side of the backbone. The right kidney is placed slightly
above the left .
• It measures about 10 cm long, 5 cm wide and 4cm thick, weighing about 135 to 150 gms, constituting
1% of body weight. Its inner concavity is called hilum.
• The ureter, Blood vessels, nerve etc. enter or leave the kidney through hilus (hilum). Remains covered
by the peritoneum only on the ventral or front side are termed retroperitoneal.
• A narrow tube called the ureter runs from the inner side of each kidney.
The ureters, in turn, are connected to a large sac called the urinary bladder. Urine is collected and stored in
urinary bladder.
• Leading from the bladder is another muscular tube called the urethra, which works as the outlet
passage.
• The end of the urethra is normally held closed by means of a ring of muscle (a sphincter), which
controls the release of urine from the bladder.
• Urine drains continuously out of the kidney into the ureters where it is forced downwards into the
bladder by wave-like contractions of the ureter walls.
• The bladder stretches and expands in volume as it fills with urine, and when it is nearly full the
stretching stimulates sensory nerve endings in its walls so that nerve impulses are sent to the brain. This
is how a person knows when his bladder must be emptied.
• The sphincter muscle around the urethra is then voluntarily (i.e., consciously) relaxed to let urine drain
from the bladder, through the urethra, and out of the body. This is called urination.
The waste material is separated by the kidneys from the blood which is fed into it through the renal
artery. The cleaner blood after the removal of wastes is sent back through the renal vein.
Structure of Kidneys:
• A kidney in section shows a dark-coloured outer zone called the cortex, and a pale-coloured inner zone
called the medulla.
• Each kidney is made of a large number of excretory units called nephrons. Each nephron consists of
two parts - a rounded, cup-shaped body called the Bowman’s capsule, and the tubular part or the
collecting tubule.
• Bowman’s capsule contains a ball of finely-divided and intertwined blood capillaries which are formed
by the repeated branching of the renal artery.
• These structures are called glomeruli (singular glomerulus). The blood capillaries bring waste and
excess water from body to the kidneys.
• The medulla is distinct by the presence of 15-16 conical pyramids with broader end towards cortex..

•
Bowman’s capsule is made of two layered squamous epithelium, glomerulus and together called as
Malpighian body or renal corpuscle. Filtration slits are formed by the association of podocytes and
capillaries wall. Blood enters glomerulus through afferent arteriole (of larger diameter) and leaves
through via efferent arteriole (smaller diameter).
• The collecting tubules of many nephrons join to form the collecting duct. Collecting ducts collect urine
from the nephrons and transport in the medulla of the kidney.
Structure of Nephron
• Each kidney is made up of a large number of excretory filtration units called nephrons or uriniferous
tubules.
• These are considered as functional unit of kidney.
• Each nephron has a cup shaped upper end, called Bowman’s capsule containing a bundle of capillaries
called glomerulus. These blood capillaries arise from the artery, which brings waste and excess water
from body to kidney. Bowman’s capsule leads into tubular structures. The tubular parts of many nephrons
drain into a common collecting duct.
The function of glomerulus is to filter the blood passing through it.
Structure of a nephron

The function of tubular part of nephron is to allow the selective reabsorption of useful substances into the
blood capillaries.
Blood having Metabolic Waste → Afferent Arteriole → Glomerulus → Bowman’s Capsule → PCT
(Proximal Convoluted Tubule) → Loop of Henle → DCT (Distal Convoluted Tubule) → Collecting Duct
→ Ureter → Urinary bladder → Urethra → Urine excreted out
Formation of urine: The purpose of excretion is to filter out waste products from the blood.
1. The waste material is brought to kidneys by the renal arteries.
2. Blood is filtered, from the blood capillaries into Bowman’s capsule.
3. As this filtrate passes through the tubular parts of nephron, some useful products, such as glucose,
amino acids, salts, and major amount of water are selectively reabsorbed by blood capillaries surrounding
the nephron.
4. The nephrons drain the remaining liquid waste (urine) into the collecting duct which eventually enters
a long tube, the ureter. Human urine contains water and nitrogenous substances, most of which is urea.
From the ureter, urine passes into the urinary bladder. Urine is stored in the urinary bladder until the
pressure of the expanded bladder leads to the urge to pass it out through the urethra. The bladder is
muscular, so it is under nervous control. As a result, we can usually control the urge to urinate.

EXCRETION IN PLANTS
Plants use completely different strategies for excretion than those of animals. Some of the important plant
wastes and the methods by which they are removed are as follows
1. The gaseous waste products are CO2 and O2 produced because of respiration and photosynthesis
respectively. These gaseous wastes are removed through stomata in leaves and lenticels in stem and
released in air.
2. Plants get rid of excess water by the process of transpiration.
For other solid and liquid waste, plants use the fact that many of their tissues consist of dead cells and
that they can even lose some parts such as leaves.
3. Many plants waste products are stored in cellular vacuoles.
4. Some waste products are removed along with falling leaves and other plant parts.
5. Other waste products are stored as resins and gums in old xylem tissue.
6. Plants also excrete some waste substances into the soil around them.