1
Introduction
Chapter 1 – Introduction
1
Table of Contents
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Creating water sensitive cities 2
1.2.1 Vision for water sensitive city ............................................................................................. 2
1.2.2 Urban Stormwater management in a water sensitive city ................................................... 2
1.3 Overview on Water Sensitive Urban Design (WSUD) and ABC Waters Design 4
1.4 Stormwater Quality 6
1.4.1 Suspended Solids ................................................................................................................. 6
1.4.2 Nutrients .............................................................................................................................. 7
1.4.3 Litter .................................................................................................................................... 7
1.4.4 Metals .................................................................................................................................. 7
1.5 Stormwater Quality Objectives 9
1.6 References 10
Engineering Procedures for ABC Waters Design Features
Chapter 1 – Introduction
1.1 Introduction
Singapore is a good example of an urban environment with limited natural resources
facing the challenges of a growing population. The built urban environment is now a
critical focal point for Ecologically Sustainable Development practices. The pursuit of
sustainable urban environments involves development that does not deplete natural
resources, nor degrades the health and amenity of the pre-existing land and water
environments. As growing urban communities look to minimize their impact on already
stressed water resources, designing for resilience to the impacts of climate change
and the protection of downstream water environments plays a key role in securing the
future of water resources in Singapore.
Successful urban communities are extremely complex socio-physical systems that are
fully integrated and constantly evolving. Harmony of the built, social and natural
environments within a city is the result of complex interactions between the quality of
the natural and built environment, the social and institutional capital, and the natural
resources that support a city. The ability of a city to meet current and emerging
challenges in relation to achieving this harmony is closely linked to the strength of the
urban economy.
Following a series of practitioner envisioning workshops, Binney et al. (2010)
presented a vision for Cities of the Future comprising twelve principles arranged under
four themes as shown in Figure 1. Many of these principles would apply to the way we
manage urban stormwater, as a component of the total urban water cycle. The way we
manage urban water, particularly urban stormwater, influences almost every aspect of
our urban environment and the quality of life. Water is an essential element of place
making, both in maintaining/enhancing the environmental values of surrounding
waterways and in the amenity and cultural connection of the place.
Wong et al. (2011) noted that the link between sustainable urban water management
and the vitality and prosperity of urban environments is only beginning to be
recognized and these linkages include
• Access to secured and clean water supply
• Clean water environment
• Flood protection
• Urban design strategies
• Mitigating urban heat
• Creating productive landscapes
• Quality of public spaces.
Engineering Procedures for ABC Waters Design Features Page 1
Chapter 1 – Introduction
Figure 1 – Principles for a City of the Future.
Adapte from Binney, P., Donald, A., Elmer, V., Eert, J., Phillis, O., Skinner, R. and Young R. (2010)IWA Cities of
the Future Program, Spatial Planning and Institutional Reform Conclusions from the World Water Congress,
Montreal, September 2010.
1.2 Creating water sensitive cities
1.2.1 Vision for water sensitive city
Contemporary research in integrated urban water cycle management highlights that a
Water Sensitive City will involve significant departures from conventional urban water
management approaches and that the transformation of cities to water sensitive cities
will require a major social-technical overhaul of conventional approaches.
A holistic philosophy incorporating flexibility in supply and demand to meet the needs
of users and the environment is required. This philosophy will inform the collection,
storage, treatment and movement of water. It also underpins the technologies that
support these activities in a way that provides a sensory manifestation of process for
all to acknowledge and appreciate.
1.2.2 Urban Stormwater management in a water sensitive city
Traditional approaches to stormwater management are based on a single
management objective that considers stormwater as a source of potential hazard to
public safety. Stormwater management was essentially that of stormwater drainage
using two general methods, ie. (i) conveyance of stormwater to receiving waters in an
hydraulically efficient manner; and (ii) detention and retardation of stormwater. Recent
developments involving the concept of major/minor drainage systems (e.g. Institution
of Engineers, Australia, 2001) take into account an economic risk-based approach to
stormwater drainage but stormwater management essentially remained a single
objective exercise.
A growing public awareness of environmental issues in recent times has highlighted
the importance of environmental management of urban stormwater. It is well
documented that urban stormwater runoff are generally of poorer overall quality than
runoff from a rural catchment. The impact of poor stormwater quality is becoming an
increasing issue of concern amongst catchment managers. The impacts can include
Engineering Procedures for ABC Waters Design Features Page 2
Chapter 1 – Introduction
the deposition of suspended material, which can smother aquatic habitats, increased
concentrations of nutrients, oxygen-demanding materials, micro-organism and toxic
materials and the deposition of litter. Increase catchment runoff can lead to significant
changes to the morphology of creeks and rivers leading to degradation of aquatic
habitats. Stormwater contaminants causes dissolve oxygen depletion and increased
toxicity levels with the consequential degradation of ecological health of the receiving
waters.
Singapore is progressively moving towards attaining a higher level of self sustainability
in water resources. One of the strategies to achieve this is in the consideration of
urban stormwater as a resource. PUB had therefore embarked on a project which
would convert Marina Bay, located at the heart of Singapore City, into a freshwater
reservoir that harvests stormwater from one-sixth of the area of metropolitan
Singapore. Stormwater quality management and reducing potential impacts of
stormwater pollution are therefore important water resource management
considerations in Singapore. The management of urban stormwater to meet these
objectives can fundamentally be categorised into stormwater quantity and stormwater
quality management.
There have been a number of initiatives to change the traditional means by which
urban stormwater is managed. One such initiative is the practice of Water Sensitive
Urban Design (WSUD). WSUD reflects the new paradigm in the planning and design
of urban environments that is ‘sensitive’ to the issues of water sustainability and
environmental protection. Water Sensitive Urban Design is the process and Water
Sensitive Cities are the outcome. This Australian innovation of Water Sensitive Urban
Design has evolved from its early association with stormwater management to provide
a broader framework for sustainable urban water management (Wong 2006a, 2006b),
and building water sensitive cities. In line with WSUD in terms of stormwater
management, PUB’s ABC Waters Design Guidelines encourage the use of ABC
Waters Design Features to slow down rain water run-off and to keep Singapore’s
waterways and waterbodies clean.
Like WSUD, ABC Waters Design Guidelines bring ‘sensitivity to water’ into urban
design, as it aims to ensure that water is given due prominence within the urban
design process through the integration of urban design with the various disciplines of
engineering and environmental sciences associated with the provision of water
services including the protection of aquatic environments in urban areas. Community
values and aspirations of urban places necessarily govern urban design decisions and
therefore water management practices.
The practicalities of urban stormwater management often require that stormwater
quantity management issues such as flood protection, public safety and drainage
infrastructure economics are addressed. This should occur in the first instance before
stormwater quality issues are considered. This does not suggest that these two
fundamental issues are mutually exclusive. Many measures designed for stormwater
quantity control have inherent water quality management functions while others can be
retrofitted to serve the dual functions of stormwater quantity and quality management.
The guidelines for the planning and design of these stormwater quality management
systems (termed ABC Waters Design Guidelines) are to aid the developer, design
engineer or planner to meet urban stormwater management objectives. Stormwater
quality management involves the use of structural and non-structural changes to
catchment management. This document concentrates primarily on the implementation
of structural treatment measures although issues of catchment planning are discussed
in some detail in Chapter 3.
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Chapter 1 – Introduction
1.3 Overview on Water Sensitive
Urban Design (WSUD) and ABC
Waters Design
WSUD can be best explained as the interactions between the urban built form
(including urban landscapes) and the urban water cycle as defined by the three urban
water streams of potable water, wastewater, and stormwater. This is shown in Figure
1.1, which shows how WSUD fits into an Ecologically Sustainable Development
framework and lists key WSUD initiatives to address potable water, wastewater and
stormwater issues, whereby benefits from one element can often have flow on
benefits. For example, demand management will reduce the amount of potable mains
water consumed by a household, as well as reducing the amount wastewater
generated, and thereby the wastewater treatment needed.
The guiding principles of WSUD are centered on achieving integrated water cycle
management solutions for new urban release areas and urban renewal developments
aimed at:
i) Reducing potable water demand through water efficient fittings and
appliances, rainwater harvesting and wastewater reuse.
ii) Minimising wastewater generation and treatment of wastewater to a standard
suitable for effluent reuse opportunities and/or to release to receiving waters.
iii) Treating urban stormwater to meet water quality objectives for reuse and/or
discharge to receiving waters.
iv) Using stormwater in the urban landscape to maximise the visual and
recreational amenity of developments.
A key principles espoused by the framework presented in Figure 1.1 is a holistic
approach to urban water cycle management that include all water flows, such as water
supply, stormwater and wastewater. Singapore has covered good mileage in area (i)
and (ii) through the Water Efficiency Strategies and NEWater initiatives. PUB’s ABC
Waters Design Guidelines aim to achieve (iii) and (iv). All streams of water should be
managed as a resource as they have quantitative and qualitative impacts on land,
water and biodiversity, and the community’s aesthetic and recreational enjoyment of
waterways. This applies at all level of urban water governance, ie. community,
institutional and government.
Stormwater is to be managed both as a resource and for protection of the
environmental and use values of receiving waters. When applied to the design and
operation of urban developments, ABC Waters Design strategy adopts an integrated
approach of combining stormwater quantity and quality management measures across
the range of scale in an urban environment. The outcome is a more site-responsive
range of design solutions including detention and/or retention of stormwater at, or
near, its origin, with subsequent slow release to groundwater or downstream receiving
bodies.
This integrated approach has begun to gain favour over the traditional conveyance-
oriented approach because it has the potential to reduce development costs and
minimise pollution and water balance problems by ensuring hydrological regimes are
changed minimally from pre-development conditions. However, the adoption of the
integrated approach has been constrained because it is perceived to have post-
development operation and maintenance costs, and in some cases can cause a
reduction in developable land.
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Chapter 1 – Introduction
This reduction in developable land may be the case if detention/retention facilities are
used solely to control the amount of stormwater runoff. Detention/retention facilities
however, have increasingly been used in a multi-purpose role, providing recreational
and aesthetic value, thereby offsetting any loss in developable land by increasing land
value for nearby residential areas.
Furthermore, the integrated approach aims to control pollutants such as nutrients,
pesticides, heavy metals and bacteria. Diffuse source pollution control can be
achieved by detention/retention techniques that settle and capture particulates and
prevent erosion by maintaining the hydrological regime.
Ecologically Sustainable Development
Water Sensitive Urban Design
Urban Design & Built Form
Urban Water Cycle
Potable Water Wastewater Stormwater
Integrated Management for
Potable Water Wastewater Stormwater
Conservation minimisation management
Demand Demand Rain/stormwater
management management reuse
Rain/stormwater Rain/stormwater Stormwater quality
reuse reuse improvement
Water reuse Water reuse Stormwater quantity
management
Greywater Greywater
Protect groundwater
Reclaimed Reclaimed
quality
Groundwater use Infiltration inflow
reduction to protect
Aquifer storage and
groundwater
recovery
To Protect Aquatic Ecosystem
Figure 1.1 Water Sensitive Urban Design Framework
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Chapter 1 – Introduction
1.4 Stormwater Quality
Stormwater pollutants from urban developments originate from a variety of sources in
the catchment. Table 1.1 summarises the sources of some of the more common
urban runoff pollutants. Suspended solids, nutrients, BOD5 and COD and micro-
organisms are usually considered the most significant parameters in terms of
ecological impacts. Oils and surfactants, and litter have aesthetic impacts which are
more renowned for generating community concern and action. Organic load in
stormwater originates mainly from leaves and garden litter. As a significant amount of
inorganic pollutants is sediment bound, effective treatment of suspended solids is
often a minimum criterion in stormwater quality management with the expectation that
a significant amount of organic and inorganic pollutant will also be treated.
Table 1.1
Typical Urban Runoff Pollutant Sources
DO Synthetic
Pollutant Source Solids Nutrients Pathogens Metals Oils
Demands Organics
Soil Erosion
Cleared Land
Fertilisers
Human Waste
Animal Waste
Vehicle Fuels and Fluids
Fuel Combustion
Vehicle Wear
Industrial and Household
Chemicals
Industrial Processes
Paint and Preservatives
Pesticides
Wastewater Facilities
As described by Schueler (1995), as much as 70% of the impervious area is related to
transport-related functions such as roads, driveway, car-parks etc. This component of
the impervious areas in an urbanised catchment is identified as a prominent source of
stormwater pollutants such as suspended solids and associated trace metals,
polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and nutrients. Urban commercial activities have
also been identified as the main source of litter generation. An overview of some key
urban stormwater pollutants as presented in the following sections below.
1.4.1 Suspended Solids
Suspended solids comprise of inorganic and organic materials. Sources of inorganic
suspended solids include soil particles from erosion and land degradation, streets,
households and buildings, and airborne particulate matter. Contributors to organic
suspended solids are bacteria and microorganisms such as those found in sewage.
The level of suspended solids in urban runoff is comparable to raw sewage and,
inorganic soil particles are particularly of concern. Large amounts of inorganic soil
particles are often associated with urban construction and the development of
supporting services including roads, sewers and drainage systems. Levels of
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Chapter 1 – Introduction
inorganic soil particles generated from these activities are at least two to six times, and
can be up to several hundred times, pre-development levels.
Turbid waters often result from the presence of suspended solids. In general the
community associates turbid waters with environmental pollution and degradation of
the water's aesthetic value.
Nutrients and toxins such as phosphorus, heavy metals and organic chemicals utilise
sediment as the medium for transportation in urban runoff. The deposition of
sediments can result in the release of these toxins and nutrients at a later time when
the ambient conditions related to the redox potential of the sediment and water column
becomes favourable for their release. This mechanism provides the opportunity for
pollutant re-mobilisation in later flow events enhancing the risk of further downstream
degradation.
Suspended solids also reduce the penetration of light through water, and this
adversely affects the feeding and respiration of aquatic plants.
1.4.2 Nutrients
Nutrients are fed into the water system through many different sources. These include
sewerage, plant matter, organic wastes, fertilisers, kitchen wastes (including
detergents), nitrous oxides produced from vehicles exhausts and ash from bushfires.
Nutrients contain natural compounds consisting of nitrogen and phosphorus.
There are problems associated with high levels of nutrients in waterbodies. Nutrients
promote growth of aquatic plant life including floating macrophytes, which if in large
concentrations, produce algal blooms on the water surface. Algae are microscopic
plants which occur naturally in waterways. With an increase in nutrients algal growth
becomes excessive often resulting in a build up of toxins. Toxic algal blooms cause
the closure of fisheries, water farming industries and public beaches.
1.4.3 Litter
Litter is generally the most noticeable indicator of water pollution to the community.
Litter is also commonly thought of as the pollutant most detrimental to waterways
because of its visibility. Pollution of the environment including the export of litter and
gross pollutants has intensified over the last 30 years due to the production of easily
disposable, non-biodegradable packaging and household and industrial items. The
sources of litter are varied and they include dropping of rubbish, overflows of rubbish
containers and material blown away from tips and other rubbish sources.
1.4.4 Metals
Analysis of contaminants associated with urban dust and dirt by Dempsey et al (1993)
found highest concentrations of Cu, Zn and TP to be associated with particles in the
74 µm to 250 µm. The particle size range with high Pb association extends to 840 µm.
One possible explanation for a higher contaminant concentration is that the particular
size range has a higher specific surface area (and thus contaminant binding sites).
For example, Sansalone and Buchberger (1997) found that specific surface area of
solids transported from an urban roadway surface decrease with increasing particle
size as is normally the case for spherical particles. With irregularly shaped particles,
there is the general tendency for larger sized particles to have higher specific surface
area than are normally expected.
Table 1.2 reproduces the table of particle sizes and associated pollutants presented by
Dempsey et al (1993) for dust and dirt generated from road surfaces. The data
presented in the Table 1.2 indicates that treatment measures with capability of settling
particles of sizes down to 74 µm will be necessary to facilitate treatment of metals and
nutrients in stormwater runoff generated from these areas. The particle size
distribution of sediment transported in stormwater is dependent on the geology of the
catchment and other studies (eg. Oliver et al (1993)) have found high concentrations
Engineering Procedures for ABC Waters Design Features Page 7
Chapter 1 – Introduction
of nutrients in colloidal particles which are much finer than 74 µm. Under such
circumstances, treatment measures involving significant periods of detention and
enhanced sedimentation, using wetland macrophytes, will be necessary (Lloyd, 1997).
Table 1.2
Pollutants Associated with Urban Dust and Dirt (mg/g per mg/L)
(ref. Dempsey et al, 1993)
Particle Size Range
Contaminant <74 µm 74-105 µm 105-250 µm 250-840 µm 840-2000 µm >2000 µm
Cu 7,100 12,000 66,000 5,900 1,600 344
Zn 28,000 41,000 31,000 11,000 4,100 371
Pd 37,000 55,000 62,000 86,000 19,000 15,000
Total P 3,000 4,800 5,400 2,500 3,000 3,900
Engineering Procedures for ABC Waters Design Features Page 8
Chapter 1 – Introduction
1.5 Stormwater Quality Objectives
The specific objectives or performance targets of ABC Waters Design Strategies for
Singapore catchments are still evoluting. However, best practice involves a risk-based
approach to the protection of environmental values and beneficial uses of urban
waterways and aquatic ecosystems. In Australia, reference is made to the objectives
of ANZECC/ARMCANZ (2000) and the setting of acceptable risk ambient water quality
values based on comparison with reference ecosystems, will be a necessary first step
towards setting stormwater management objectives.
In cases of receiving water bodies of environmental significance, the relevant
management authority will prescribe water quality guidelines, developed from in-depth
investigations. It is envisaged that a similar approach directed at the protection of
urban waterbodies in Singapore such as the Marina Bay Reservoir would be
appropriate. In most cases, it will be required for land development agencies and
enterprises to demonstrate that the development and associated stormwater
management strategy has adequately addressed the environmental threats of the
project to the receiving waters, and also the opportunities for improved environmental
outcomes from the project.
Guidelines for treatment objectives for stormwater quality have been defined in many
states in Australia and overseas, to represent achievable targets using best practice.
Treatment objectives for stormwater are often expressed in mean annual reductions of
pollutant loads from typical urban areas with no stormwater treatments installed and
are summarised in Table 1.3 for Australian states. These objectives are used in
conjunction with any local site-specific conditions to determine the environmental
objectives for stormwater at a site and are recommended for interim applications in
Singapore.
It is expected that the treatment objectives will be revised progressively to reflect
expected best practice improvements in design. Achieving these objectives does not
necessarily suggest that the ultimate receiving water quality outcomes for protecting
the health of aquatic ecosystems have been attained. However, it is often seen as a
practical approach to institutionalising best practices in stormwater quality
management, particularly in built up catchments.
Table 1.3 Stormwater treatment objectives for Victoria and New South Wales,
Australia
Pollutant Stormwater treatment objective
Suspended solids 80% retention of average annual load
Total phosphorus 45% retention of average annual load
Total nitrogen 45% retention of average annual load
Litter Retention of litter greater than 50mm for flows up to the 3-month
ARI peak flow
Coarse sediment Retention of sediment coarser than 0.125 mm* for flows up to
the 3-month ARI peak flow
Oil and grease No visible oils for flows up to the 3-month ARI peak flow
* Based on ideal settling characteristics
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Chapter 1 – Introduction
1.6 References
Binney, P., Donald, A., Elmer, V., Ewert, J., Phillis, O., Skinner, R. and Young, R.
(2010) IWA Cities of the Future Program, Spatial Planning and Institutional Reform
Conclusions from the World Water Congress, Montreal, September 2010.
Dempsey, B.A., Tai, Y.L. and Harrison, S.G. (1993). Mobilisation and removal of
contaminants associated with urban dust and dirt, Water Sci. Tech., 28(3-5): 225-230.
Institution of Engineers, Australia (2001) Australian Rainfall and Runoff, D H Pilgrim
(ed)., ISBN 0 85825 761 0.
Lloyd, S.D.(1997), Influence of Macrophytes on Sediment Deposition and Flow Pattern
within a Stormwater Pollution Control Wetland, Masters of Engineering Science thesis,
Department of Civil Engineering, Monash University, 161 p.
Newman, P., (2001) Sustainable Urban Water Systems in Rich and Poor Countries:
Steps towards a new approach. Water Science and Technology, 43(4): 93-100.
Sansalone, J.J. and Buchberger, S.G.(1997), Characterisation of solid and metal
element distributions in urban highway stormwater, Water Science and Technology,
36(8-9):155-160.
Schueler, T. (1995), Site Planning for Urban Stream Protection, Center for Watershed
Protection, Silver Spring, Maryland, 232p.
Wong, T.H.F., (2006a) Introduction. In T.H.F. Wong (Ed), Australian Runoff Quality: A
Guide to Water Sensitive Urban Design, Engineers Australia, Canberra, ISBN 0 85825
852 8, April 2006, Chapter 1: 1-8.
Wong, T.H.F., (2006b) Water Sensitive Urban Design – the journey thus far. Australian
Journal of Water Resources, 10(3): 213-221.
Wong, T., Allen, R., Brown, R., Deletic, A., Griggs, D., Hodyl, L., McIIrath, B.,
Montebello, T., Smith, L. (2011), Transitioning to a resilient, liveable and sustainable
greater Melbourne (localised case studies), report prepared for the Living Victoria
Ministerial Advisory Council, March 2011.
Wong, T H F and Ashley, R (2006), International Working Group on Water Sensitive
Urban Design, submission to the IWA/IAHR Joint Committee on Urban Drainage,
March 2006.
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