MODULE 3

GAS PARTICLE INTERACTION

Gas is one of the four fundamental states of matter (the others being solid, liquid and plasma).
A pure gas may be made up of individual atoms (e.g. a noble gas like neon), elemental
molecules made from one type of atoms (e.g. Oxygen), or compound molecules made from a
variety of atoms (e.g. carbon dioxide)

A gas mixture, such as air, contains a variety of pure gases. What distinguishes a gas from
liquids and solids is the vast separation of the individual gas particles.

This separation usually makes a colour less gas invisible to the human observer.

The interaction of gas particles in the presence of electric and gravitational fields are
considered negligible, as indicated by the constant velocity vectors in the image.

The gaseous state of matter is found between the liquid and plasma states, the latter of
which provides the upper temperature boundary for gases.

Bounding the lower end of the temperature scale lie degenerative quantum gases,which are
gaining increasing attention.

Physical properties/ Macroscopic characteristics:

Most gases are difficult to observe directly, they are described through the use of four
physical properties or macroscopic characteristics:

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Gas particles are widely separated from one another, and consequently, have weaker
intermolecular bonds than liquids or solids.

These intermolecular forces result from electrostatic interactions between gas particles.

Like-charged areas of different gas particles repel, while oppositely charged regions of
different gas particles attract one another; Gases that contain permanently charged ions are
known as plasmas.

Gaseous compounds with polar covalent bonds contain permanent charge imbalances and
so experience relatively strong intermolecular forces, although the molecule while the
compound’s net charge remains neutral.
 Transient, randomly induced charges exist across non- polar covalent bonds of molecule
and electrostatic interactions caused by them are referred to as Vandar Waals forces.

The interaction of these intermolecular forces varies within a substance which determines
many of the physical properties unique to each gas.

A comparison of boiling points for compounds formed by ionic and covalent bonds leads
as to this conclusion.

The drifting smoke particles in the image provide some insight into low –pressure gas
behavior.

Compared to the other states of matter, gases have low density and [Link] and
temperature influence the particles within a certain volume.

This variation in particle separation and speed is referred to as [Link] particle

separation and size influences optical properties of gases as can be found in the following list
of refractive indices.

Finally, gas particles spread apart or diffuse in order to homogeneously distribute

themselves throughout container.

Particulate Control Equipment

The basic mechanisms of removing particulate matter from gas streams may be classified as:
(1) gravitational settling, (2) centrifugal impaction, (3) inertial impaction, (4) direct
interception, (5) diffusion, and (6) electrostatic precipitation.

Equipment presently available, which make use of one or more of the above mecha-nisms,
fall into the following five broad categories: (1) gravitational settling chambers, (2) cyclone
separators, (3) fabric filters, (4) electrostatic precipitators, and (5) wet collectors (scrubbers).

The gravitational settling chambers and cyclone separators will not generally achieve high
efficiencies for removing small-size particles. For most practical applications, only fabric
filters, electrostatic precipitators and high energy scrubbers are capable of meeting the
rigorous air pollution control regulations.

Gravitational Settling Chambers;

Gravitational settling chambers are generally used to remove large, abrasive particles (usually
>50 m) from gas streams. They offer low pressure drop and require simple maintenance, but
their efficiencies are quite low for particles smaller than 50 m. Since most of the
troublesome particles have much smaller sizes than 50 m, these devices are normally used
as precleaners prior to passing the gas stream through high efficiency collection devices. The
simplest form of horizontal type settling chamber is shown in fig.
 Fig; Horizontal flow settling chamber

In the settling chamber the gas stream, with its entrained particles, is allowed to flow at a low
velocity, allowing sufficient time for the particles to settle down. A more elaborate settling
chamber is the Howard type whose simplified diagram is shown in Fig. By inserting several
trays, the collection efficiency of the device is improved since the gas flow velocity in the
chamber remains substantially the same and yet each particle has a much shorter distance to
fall before reaching the bottom of the passage between trays.

Fig; Howard settling chamber

Advantages :

Low initial cost

Easy to design

Low pressure drop

low maintenance cost

Disadvantages

Require large space

 Less collection efficiency

Only larger size particles can be collected

Cyclone Separators
Cyclone separators utilise a centrifugal force generated by a spinning gas stream to separate
the particulate matter from the carrier gas. The centrifugal force on particles in a spinning gas
stream is much greater than gravity; therefore, cyclones are effective in the removal of much
smaller particles than gravitational settling chambers, and require much less space to handle
the same gas volumes. There is a variety of cyclone designs, differing in the manner in which
the rotating motion is imparted to the gas stream. The simple reverse- flow type depicted in
Fig. consists of a vertical cylinder having a conical bottom and is fitted with a tangential inlet
located near the top, and an outlet at the bottom of the cone for discharging separated
particles. The gas outlet pipe is extended into the cylinder to prevent short-circuiting of gas
from inlet to outlet. In operation, the particle-laden gas upon entering the cyclone cylinder
receives a rotating motion. The vortex so formed develops a centrifugal force, which acts to
throw the particles radially towards the wall. The gas spirals downward to the bottom of the
cone, and at the bottom the gas flow reverses to form an inner vortex which leaves through
the outlet pipe.

Fig; Reverse-flow cyclone separator

Advantages :

1. Low initial cost

2. Require less floor area

3. Simple construction and maintenance

Disadvantages:

• Requires large head room

• Less efficiency for smaller particles

• Sensitive to variable dust load and flow rate.

 Fig; Generalised cyclone design configurations

Fabric Filters
In fabric filters, the open spaces in woven fabrics are usually many times the size of the
individual particle. Because of this, the collection efficiency in the initial stages is rather
poor. After a short period of operation, the captured particles form a bridge across the cloth
openings and a particle layer forms which improves the collection efficiency greatly. Fabric
filters usually provide collection efficiencies exceeding 99% and even efficiencies of 99.99%
are not [Link] the dust collected on the filter accumulates (dust cake) and becomes
the primary medium for removing the particles, the equation is not applicable. Careful
maintenance is necessary to prevent a deterioration of efficiency. Periodic mechanical
cleaning is needed and this usually does not remove all of the interstitial layer so that
collection efficiencies remain high throughout the useful life of the filter.

Fabric and Fibre Characteristics

Fabric filters may be classified according to the filtering media: woven fabric or felt cloth.
Woven fabrics have a definite long range repeating pattern and have considerable porosity in
the direction of gas flow. These open spaces must be bridged by impaction and interception
to form a true filtering surface. Felted cloth consists of randomly oriented fires, compressed
into a mat and needled to some loosely woven backing material to improve mechanical
strength. Each one of the randomly oriented fibres acts as a target for impaction and
interception. This type of filter usually requires substantially lesser cloth area for a given
loading than a woven type fabric filter. Felted filters are more expensive than the woven type
filters and they can not be used in high humidity service, especially if the particles are
hygroscopic because of the high tendency for clogging. The choice of fabric fibre is based
primarily on operating temperature and the corrosiveness or abrasiveness of the particles.
Some properties of common fires are shown in Table 3.1. Cotton is the least expensive fibre,
and is preferably used in low temperature just collection service where no special problems
are anticipated. Silicon coated glass fibre cloth is commonly employed in high-temperature
applications. The glass fires must be lubricated to prevent abrasion. All fibres may be applied
to the manufacture of woven and felt type fabrics.

Fabric Filter Systems

Fabric filter systems typically consist of a tubular bag or an envelope, suspended or mounted
in such a manner that the collected particles fall into a hopper when dislodged from the
fabric. The structure in which the bags hang is known as a baghouse. Generally, particle
laden gas enters the bag at the bottom and passes through the fabric while the particles are
deposited on the inside of the bag. Fig. 3.1 shows a typical baghouse design in which the
cleaning is accomplished by shaking at fixed intervals of time.

Fig 3.1 Typical baghouse

Large baghouses are constructed with several compartments, so that one compartment maybe
isolated for cleaning as needed while the other compartments are operating. The bags should
be arranged in each compartment in such a manner that the available space is utilised
effectively and proper access to each bag is provided for its replacement. Hoppers are
provided for dust collection and the dust is removed usually by rotary or screw valves.

table 3.1 Properties of some fibre materials

The method of cleaning fabric filters varies according to manufacturer and type of filter. The
cleaning may be accomplished by shaking the bags or by increasing the air pressure on the
bag in a manner that causes the bag to collapse or otherwise deform sufficiently to dislodge
the accumulated dust. Cleaning generally takes less than one minute with the bulk of the dust
being removed in a few seconds. A good cleaning schedule ensures longer bag life and
efficient filtration.
advantages make fabric filters the best choice in many cases:
(1)very high efficiencies,
(il) retention of finest particles,
(ili) collection of particulates in dry form, and
(iv) relatively low pressure drop.
The main disadvantages are:
(i) their large size,
(ji) high construction costs, and
(iii) their application only to process temperatures generally below 285°C.

Electrostatic Precipitators
The electrostatic precipitator is one of the most widely used devices for controlling
particulate emissions at industrial installations ranging from power plants, cement and paper
mills to oil refineries. In most cases, the particulates to be collected are by-products of
combustion. In others, they are dust fibres or other small particles such as acid mists from
process industries.

Electrostatic precipitation is a physical process by which particles suspended in gas stream

are charged electrically and, under the influence of the electrical field, separated from the gas
stream. A typical wire and pipe precipitator is illustrated in Fig. 3.3.

The precipitation system consists of a positively charged (grounded) collecting surface and a
high-voltage discharge electrode wire suspended from an insulator at the top and held in
position by a weight at the bottom. At a very high DC voltage, of the order of 50 kV, a
corona discharge occurs close to the negative electrode, setting up an electric field between
the emitter and the grounded surface. The particle-laden gas enters near the bottom and flows
upward. The gas close to the negative electrode is, thus, ionised upon passing through the
corona. As the negative ions and electrons migrate towards the grounded surface, they in turn
charge the passing particles. The electrostatic field then draws the particles to the collector
surface where they are deposited.

Periodically, the collected particles must be removed from the collecting surface. This is done
by rapping or vibrating the collector to dislodge the particles. The dislodged particles drop
below the electrical treatment zone and are collected for ultimate disposal. Usually, a large
number of these collectors are placed in parallel in a single housing forming a multiple
cylindrical unit. Although the multiple unit is not as widely used as the parallel
plateprecipitator described in the next paragraph, it finds frequent use in collecting liquid
particles.

fig3.3 Schematic diagram of a wire and pipe precipitator

For industrial applications, vertical plates exposed to horizontal gas flow are normally used.
In this type of collector, the gas flows between two vertical parallel plates between which are
suspended a number of vertical wires held in place by weights attached at the bottom. These
wires form the discharge electrode, while the vertical plates form the collection electrode.
Fig. 3.4 shows the schematic diagram of a typical parallel-plate arrangement.

Fig 3.4 Schematic diagram of a parallel plate precipitator

Advantages

• Higher collection efficiency for smaller than 10μm particle size.

• High removal yield for coarse and fine dust.

• Varying load does not influence pressure drop and efficiency.

• Collected dust can possibly be re-used in the process.

• Residual emissions are determined by incoming concentrations.

• Relatively easy to use.

Disadvantages:

• High temperature gases need to be cooled

• High maintenance and fabric replacement cost

• Large size equipment

• Fabric is liable to chemical attack.

FACTORS AFFECTING SELECTION OF CONTROL EQUIPMENT

There are a number of factors to be considered prior to selecting a particular inair pollution
control equipment. In general, they can group into three categories.

o Environmental

o Engineering

o Economic

1. Environmental

Equipment location, availability space, ambient conditions, availability of adequate utilities

and ancillary system facilities.

Maximum available emissions ( air pollution regulation )

Contribution of air pollution control system to waste water and solid waste.

Contribution of air pollution control system to plant noise levels.

2. Engineering

Design and performance characteristics of the particular control system ( size and

weight, pressure drop , reliability and dependability, temperature limitation,maintenance

requirement)

Gas stream characteristics ( volume, flow rate, temperature, pressure,

humidity,composition, viscosity, density, reactivity, corrosiveness and toxicity)

Contaminant characteristics ( physical and chemical properties, concentration,particulate

shape and size distribution in the case of particulates )

3. Economic

Capital cost ( equipment, installation, engineering, etc. )

Operating cost ( utilities, maintenance, etc. )

Expected equipment lifetime and salvage value.