Complex Numbers

MATH 1141-Introduction to Linear Algebra and Analytical

Geometry

Department of Mathematics and Statistics

The UWI

Complex Numbers
Introduction

Equations without real solutions, such as x 2 + 1 = 0 or

x 2 − 10x + 40 = 0 were observed early in history and complex
numbers arose most directly out of solving polynomial equations.
The word complex number was introduced by the mathematician
Gauss.
The set of all complex numbers, commonly denoted by C, form a
field just like the real numbers R and rational numbers Q where we
have the following inclusions: Q ⊂ R ⊂ C.
The field of complex numbers arose most naturally was from trying
to construct the smallest field such that any polynomial equation
with real coefficients could be solved. This also gave the
fundamental theorem of algebra which roughly states that any n-th
order polynomial with real or complex coefficients has exactly n
roots in C.

Complex Numbers
Definition of Complex Numbers

Definition
A complex number, usually denoted by z, is an ordered pair
(x, y ) of real numbers x and y , written z = (x, y ).
x is called the real part of z and y the imaginary part of z,
written as x = Re(z) and y = Im(z).

Two complex numbers are equal if their real parts are equal and
their imaginary parts are equal, i.e, if z1 = (x1 , y1 ) and
z2 = (x2 , y2 ) are equal then x1 = x2 and y1 = y2 .

Complex Numbers
Imaginary Number i

Definition
The complex number (0, 1) is called the imaginary unit and is
denoted by i,
√
i = (0, 1) (what happened to i = −1?)

Warning! This complex number i and the unit vector ~i are not the
same thing.
The complex numbers (x, y ) looks a lot like the elements of R2 .
As sets, C and R2 are exactly the same, however what makes C
different from R2 is how we define its addition and multiplication.

Complex Numbers
Arithmetic of Complex Numbers
Definition
The addition of two complex numbers z1 = (x1 , y1 ) and
z2 = (x2 , y2 ) is defined by:

z1 + z2 = (x1 , y1 ) + (x2 , y2 ) = (x1 + x2 , y1 + y2 )

and the multiplication is defined by:

z1 z2 = (x1 , y1 )(x2 , y2 ) = (x1 x2 − y1 y2 , x1 y2 + x2 y1 )

In particular, these two definitions imply that:

(x1 , 0) + (x2 , 0) = (x1 + x2 , 0)
and
(x1 , 0)(x2 , 0) = (x1 x2 , 0)
Where x1 , x2 ∈ R. This is exactly like what happens when you add
and multiply together real numbers. So we can identify the real
number x with the complex number (x, 0).
Complex Numbers
Different Notation for Complex Numbers

Can we also identify the complex number i = (0, 1) with a real

number? To see this consider the following:

i 2 = (0, 1)(0, 1) = (−1, 0)

2 can be viewed as the real number -1, i.e.
It appears this i √
2
i = −1 ⇒ i = −1. We can now rewrite our original definition of
addition and multiplication of complex numbers in terms of the
notation z = x + iy :

z1 + z2 = (x1 + iy1 ) + (x2 + iy2 ) = (x1 + x2 ) + i(y1 + y2 )

and

z1 z2 = (x1 + iy1 )(x2 + iy2 ) = (x1 x2 − y1 y2 ) + i(x1 y2 + x2 y1 )

Complex Numbers
Example

Don’t learn off these formulas! Instead all you have to remember is
that you’re only allowed to add real terms to real terms and
imaginary terms to imaginary terms, and for multiplication all you
need to know is that i 2 = −1.
Example
Let z1 = 8 + 3i and z2 = 9 − 2i. Then Re(z1 ) = 8, Im(z1 ) = 3,
Re(z2 ) = 9 and Im(z2 ) = −2.

z1 + z2 = (8 + 3i) + (9 − 2i) = 17 + i
z1 z2 = (8+3i)(9−2i) = 72−16i +27i −6i 2 = 72+6+11i = 78+11i

Complex Numbers
Complex Conjugate and Magnitude

Definition
The complex conjugate of a complex number z = x + yi is
denoted and defined to be:

z̄ = x + yi = x − yi

Definition
The absolute value or modulus or magnitude of a complex
number z = x + yi is defined by:
p
|z| = x 2 + y 2

Notice that |z| is the same as the norm || · || of a vector (a, b) in

R2 .

Complex Numbers
Some Properties of Modulus and Conjugate of Complex
Numbers
Using the definitions for the magnitude and complex conjugate of
a complex number z we can derive the following useful results:

1 z z̄ = x 2 + y 2
√
2 |z| = z z̄
3 z z̄ if and only if z is real (i.e. Im(z) = 0)
4 |z| = |z̄|
5 z + z̄ = 2Re(z)
6 z − z̄ = (2i)Im(z)
7 z1 + z2 = z1 + z2
8 z1 − z2 = z1 − z2
9 z1 z2 = z¯1 z¯2

Proof left as an exercise.

Complex Numbers
Difference and Inverses

Definition
The Difference between two complex numbers is defined to be:

z1 − z2 = (x1 + iy1 ) − (x2 + iy2 ) = (x1 − x2 ) + i(y1 − y2 )

Definition
For a non-zero complex number z, the inverse, denoted by z −1 or
1
is given by:
z
z̄ x y
z −1 = = 2 2
− 2 i
z z̄ x +y x + y2

Complex Numbers
Quotient of Complex Numbers

The division or quotient of two complex numbers z and w (where

z 6= 0) is carried out by a process called rationalizing. That is we
multiply and divide by the complex conjugate of the denominator:
w w z̄  z̄ 
= =w = wz −1
z z z̄ z z̄
Again there is no need to commit these formulas to memory just
as long as you understand how to carry out the calculation.

Complex Numbers
Example

Example
For z1 = 8 + 3i and z2 = 9 − 2i we get
z1 − z2 = (8 + 3i) − (9 − 2i) = −1 + 5i and
z1 8 + 3i (8 + 3i)(9 + 2i) 66 + 43i 66 43
= = = = + i
z2 9 − 2i (9 − 2i)(9 + 2i) 81 + 4 85 85

Why multiply and divide by the complex conjugate of the

denominator (i.e. rationalize the fraction)? This is simply to
8 + 3i
convert the form which it is not clear what the real and
9 − 2i
66 43
imaginary parts are into a form + i where you can easily tell
85 85
what the real and imaginary parts are.

Complex Numbers
The Argand Diagram
Complex numbers can be represented as points in the plane. We
choose two perpendicular coordinate axes, the horizontal x-axis,
called the real axis, and the vertical y-axis called the imaginary
axis. The xy-plane in which the complex numbers are represented
in the way is called the complex plane or Argand diagram.

Complex Numbers
Addition of Complex Numbers as Vectors

Addition can now be visualized as illustrated in the diagram below.

Notice that this is the same as the vector addition of arrows in R2 .

Complex Numbers
Modulus of Complex Numbers as Vectors
We already saw thatpthe modulus of the complex number z was
defined to be |z| = x 2 + y 2
Definition
The argument of the complex number z = x + iy is denoted and
defined as:
y 
θ = arg (z) = tan−1
x

Complex Numbers
Principal Argument
Account must be taken of the signs of x and y individually in
determining in which quadrant θ lies. If x and y are both negative
pi
then θ lies in the range −π < θ < − rather than the first
2
pi
quadrant 0 < θ < , though both cases give the same value for
2
y
the ratio of .
x

Complex Numbers
Principal Argument

For z = 0 this angle θ is undefined. For a given z 6= 0 we must pay

attention to the quadrant in which z lies, since tan θ had period π,
so that the arguments of z and −z have the same tangent. For
example if z1 = 1 + i and z2 = −1 − i we have that
tan(θ1 ) = tan(θ2 ) = 1
For this reason one defines the principal value Arg (z) (with
capital A) of arg (z) by:
Definition
−π < Arg (z) ≤ π

So from now on whenever we speak of the argument of z it is

understood that we are talking about its principal value.

Complex Numbers
Examples
Example 1
Consider the diagram showing 4 complex numbers z1 , z2 , z3 , z4 in
π
the Argand diagram. The Arg (z1 ) = 0, Arg (z2 ) = ,
2
π
Arg (z3 ) = π (why not −π?) and Arg (z4 ) = − .
2

Complex Numbers
Examples
Example 2
Find the modulus and argument of the complex number z = 2 − 3i.
p p √
|z| = x 2 + y 2 = 22 + (−3)2 = 13.
 3
And the argument is given by: Arg (z) = tan−1 − . The two
2
angles whose tangents equal − 32 are −0.9828rad and 2.1588rad.
Since x = 2 and y = −3, z clearly lies in the forth quadrant
therefore Arg (z) = −0.9828 is the answer we want.

Complex Numbers
Triangle Inequality
Complex numbers as viewed on the Argand diagram have many
similarities to the arrow vectors in R2 . One of these similarity is
that of a triangle inequality:
|z1 + z2 | ≤ |z1 | + |z2 |

This inequality follows by noticing that the three points 0, z1 , and

z1 + z2 are the vertices of a triangle with sides of length |z1 |, |z2 |,
and |z1 + z2 |, and one side cannot exceed the sum of the other two
sides.

Complex Numbers
Example

Example
If z1 = 1 + i and z2 = −2 + 3i then using the triangle inequality
we have
√ √ √
|z1 + z2 | = | − 1 + 4i| = 17 = 4.123 < 2 + 3 = 5.020

Complex Numbers
Euler’s Formula

The complex exponential function is defined by the series:

z2 z3
ez ≡ 1 + z + + + ···
2! 3!
Substitute z = iθ into it to get:
θ2 θ3
e iθ = 1 + iθ − − + ···
2! 3!
θ2 θ4 θ3 θ5
=1− + − · · · + i(θ − + − ···)
2! 4! 3! 5!
and hence e iθ = cos θ + i sin θ, where this follows from the series
expansions of the sine and cosine functions. This equation is called
Euler’s equation.

Complex Numbers
De Moivre’s Formula

If instead we had chosen z = inθ, where n is any integer we would

have obtained:

e inθ = cos(nθ) + i sin(nθ)

⇒ (e iθ )n = cos(nθ) + i sin(nθ)
⇒ (cos θ + i sin θ)n = cos(nθ) + i sin(nθ)

This result is known as De Moivre’s formula (also called De

Moivre’s Theorem).

Complex Numbers
Polar Representation of Complex Numbers
From Euler’s formula, multiplying both sides by the real number r
gives re iθ = r (cos θ + i sin θ)
If we let r = |z| and θ = Arg (z) by applying a little trigonometry:
x = r cos θ and y = r sin θ.
Therefore z = r cos θ + ri sin θ = r (cos θ + i sin θ). Comparing this
to Euler’s formula shows that z = x + iy can be instead written as
z = re iθ . This is called the polar representation or polar form of
the complex number z.

Complex Numbers
Polar Coordinates

The relationships x = r cos θ and y = r sin θ describe how to

transform our rectangular xy-coordinate system to a new
coordinate system involving r and θ. This new coordinate system
is referred to as polar coordinates.
Example
Convert z = 1 + i into polar form.
√ √ 1 π
Solution: |z| = 12 + 12 = 2. Arg (z) = tan−1 = .
1 4
Therefore we can write in polar form
√ πi √
z = 2e 4 = 2(cos( π4 ) + i sin( π4 )).

Complex Numbers
Multiplication in Polar Form
The product of z1 = r1 e iθ1 and z2 = r2 e iθ2 is given by:
z1 z2 = r1 e iθ1 r2 e iθ2
= r1 r2 e i(θ1 +θ2 )
This implies that the magnitude of the complex number z1 z2 is
given by r1 r2 and its argument is given by θ1 + θ2 .
(i) |z1 z2 | = |z1 ||z2 |
(ii) arg (z1 z2 ) = arg (z1 ) + arg (z2 )

Complex Numbers
Division in Polar Form

The quotient of z1 and z2 is given by:

z1 r1 e iθ1 r1
= iθ
= e i(θ1 −θ2 )
z2 r2 e 2 r2
We can summarize this
relationship as:
z1 |z1 |
(iii) | | =
z2 |z2 |
z 
1
(iv) arg = arg (z1 )−arg (z2 )
z2
When adding and subtracting the
arguments ensure that the
answer is adjusted so that
−π < Arg (z 2 ) ≤ π and
 z1 z
1
−π < Arg ≤ π.
z2
Complex Numbers
Example

Let z1 = −2 + 2i and z2 = 3i. From the sketch z1 is in the second

quadrant and z2 lies on the positive imaginary axis.
Also we can calculate the
magnitudep as: √
|z1 | = √ (−2)2 + 22 = 8
|z2 | = 32 = 3 √
⇒ |z1 z2 | = |z1 ||z2√
|=3 8
z1 |z1 | 8
⇒| |= =
z2 |z2 | 3
We can also determine the
arguments as:
 2
Arg (z1 ) = tan−1 − =
2
π π 3π
+ =
4 2 4
π
Arg (z2 ) =
2
Complex Numbers
Example Cont’

We can’t
 y obtain these arguments by simply using the formula
−1 −π
tan since for z1 this would give and wrongly tell us that
x 4
z1 was in the 4th quadrant. If we tried to use this formula for z2
3
we would run into the problem of having . A quick sketch easily
0
π
shows that the argument of z2 is . This gives
2
3π π 5π
arg (z1 z2 ) = arg (z1 ) + arg (z2 ) = + =
z  4 2 4
1 3π π π
arg = arg (z1 ) − arg (z2 ) = − =
z2 4 2 4

Complex Numbers
Example Cont’
z  z  z  z 
1 1 1 1
arg is between −π < arg ≤ π ⇒ arg = Arg .
z2 z2 z2 z2
5π
However arg (z1 z2 ) = does not fall into the range
4
−π < Arg (z1 z2 ) ≤ π. We must adjust this angle to determine the
principal value argument within the required range to get
3π 5π 3π
Arg (z1 z2 ) = − . The angles and − represent the exact
4 4 4
same position on the Argand diagram.

Complex Numbers
De Moivre’s Theorem Uses

Recall De Moivre’s Theorem which we proved earlier

e inθ = (cos θ + i sin θ)n = cos(nθ) + i sin(nθ)

Since we showed that any complex number z can be written in the

polar form z = re iθ this gives us a way to solve some polynomial
equations as well as derive useful trigonometric identities.
We consider the expression of a multiple angle function in terms of
a polynomial in the single angle function, and its converse.

Complex Numbers
De Moivre’s Theorem Uses
Example
Express sin(3θ) and cos(3θ) in terms of powers of cos θ and sin θ.

Solution: Using de Moivre’s theorem,

cos(3θ) + i sin(3θ) = (cos θ + i sin θ)3
= (cos3 θ − 3 cos θ sin2 θ) + i(3 sin θ cos2 θ − sin3 θ)
We can equate the real and imaginary coefficients separately, i.e.
cos(3θ) = cos3 θ − 3 cos θ sin2 θ
= cos3 θ − 3 cos θ(1 − cos2 θ)
= 4 cos3 θ − 3 cos θ
and
sin(3θ) = 3 sin θ cos2 θ − sin3 θ
= 3 sin θ − 4 sin3 θ
This method can clearly be applied to finding power expansions of
cos(nθ) and sin(nθ) for any positive integer n.
Complex Numbers
De Moivre’s Theorem Uses

We now derive relationships between sin and cos in terms of e iθ

and e −iθ . Consider the case where z = e iθ :
1
zn + = e inθ + e −inθ = (cos θ + i sin θ)n + (cos θ + i sin θ)−n
zn
= cos(nθ) + i sin(nθ) + cos(−nθ) + i sin(−nθ)
= cos(nθ) + i sin(nθ) + cos(nθ) − i sin(nθ)
= 2 cos(nθ)

and
1
zn − = e inθ − e −inθ = (cos θ + i sin θ)n − (cos θ + i sin θ)−n
zn
cos(nθ) + i sin(nθ) − (cos(−nθ) + i sin(−nθ))
= cos(nθ) + i sin(nθ) − cos(nθ) + i sin(nθ)
= 2i sin(nθ)

Complex Numbers
De Moivre’s Theorem Uses

In the particular case where n = 1 we get the important results:

1
z+ = e iθ + e −iθ = 2 cos θ
z
1
z − = e iθ − e −iθ = 2i sin θ
z
Which is more commonly written as:
e iθ + e −iθ
cos θ =
2
e iθ − e −iθ
sin θ =
2i

Complex Numbers
Example

Example
Find an expression for cos3 θ in terms of cos(3θ) and cos θ.

Solution:
 e iθ + e −iθ 3
cos 3 θ =
2
1 3iθ
= (e + 3e iθ + 3e −iθ + e −3iθ )
8
1 3iθ 3
= (e + e −3iθ ) + (e iθ + e −iθ )
8 8
1  e 3iθ + e −3iθ  3  e iθ + e −iθ 
= +
4 2 4 2
1 3
= cos(3θ) + cos θ
4 4

Complex Numbers
nth Roots of Unity

The equation z 2 = 1 has the familiar solutions z = +1, −1.

However, now that we have the concept of complex numbers we
can solve the general equation z n = 1.
From the fundamental theorem of algebra, we know that the
equation has n solutions. Notice that the real number +1 can be
written in polar form as 1 = e i0 . However since e iθ = e i(θ+2kπ)
where k is any integer. This allows us to rewrite the equation
z n = 1 as

z n = 1 = e 2ikπ

Complex Numbers
nth Roots of Unity

Now taking the nth root on each side of the equation we find

z = e 2ikπ/n

Hence, the solutions/roots of z n = 1 are

√
1 = 1, e 2iπ/n , ..., e 2i(n−1)π/n
n

corresponding to the values of k = 0, 1, 2, ..., n − 1. These are

called the nth roots of unity and are often written as
1, ω, ω 2 , ..., ω n−1 where ω n = 1. We can also instead write the nth
roots of unity in the form
√
n 2kπ 2kπ
1 = cos + i sin
n n
where k = 0, 1, ..., n − 1.

Complex Numbers
Example

Example
Find the solutions to the equation z 3 = 1.

Solution: By applying the previous method for n = 3 we have

z = e 2ikπ/3

For k = 0, 1, 2. Hence the three solutions are given by:

z1 = e 0i = 1
√
2iπ/3 1 3
z2 = e =− + i
2 √2
1 3
z3 = e 4iπ/3 =− − i
2 2

Complex Numbers
Given that |z 3 | = |z|3 , all the roots of unity (one) have modulus
equal to 1, i.e. they all lie on a circle in the Argand diagram of
radius 1. This circle is called the unit circle.

Complex Numbers
nth Roots of a Complex Number

Now suppose that z = re iθ , we can derive in a similar way what

the nth roots of z are for any arbitrary complex number:
√
n
1
z = zn
1
= (re iθ ) n
√
= n r e iθ/n
√
= n r e i(θ+2kπ)/n
√  θ + 2kπ θ + 2kπ 
= n r cos + i sin
n n
where k = 0, 1, ..., n − 1. This result will be very useful when
solving polynomial equations with complex coefficients.

Complex Numbers
Solving for Complex Roots of Polynomials

Complex equations in the form of a polynomial relationship must

first be solved for z in a similar fashion to the method for finding
the roots of real polynomial equations. Then the complex roots of
z may be found using the previous formula.
Example
Solve the equations z 6 − z 5 + 4z 4 − 6z 3 + 2z 2 − 8z + 8 = 0.

Solution: We first factorize to give

(z 3 − 2)(z 2 + 4)(z − 1) = 0

Hence z 3 = 2, z 2 = −4, z = 1. The solutions to the quadratic

equation z 2 = −4 are z = ±2i. Notice that we can solve this one
easily without the need to use any fancy formula unlike the next
case.

Complex Numbers
Example Cont’
To determine the cubic complex roots of z 3 = 2 we first write 2 in
polar form. This is easy enough since 2 is a positive real number so
its argument is θ = 0 and its magnitude is r = |2| = 2. Taking
n = 3 gives:
√
3
√3
 2kπ 2kπ 
2 = 2 cos + i sin
3 3
where k = 0, 1, 2. This gives the following roots

z1 = 21/3
√ 
1/3 1  3
z2 = 2 − + i
2 √2
 1 3 
z3 = 21/3 − − i
2 2
The complex numbers z1 , z2 and z3 , together with z4 = 2i,
z5 = −2i and z6 = 1 are the solutions to the original polynomial
equations.
Complex Numbers
Remark

Notice that z2 and z3 in the previous example are complex

conjugate of each other and also z4 and z5 are complex conjugate
of each other.

Example
Suppose z is a complex root (assuming that Re(z) 6= 0) of a
polynomial equation an z n + an−1 z n−1 + · · · + a1 z + a0 = 0 where
the coefficients ai ’s are all real numbers. Then show that the
complex conjugate z̄ is a second root of the same polynomial
equation.

Solution: Left as an exercise. Hint: Substitute z̄ into the equation

then take conjugates on both sides.
This means that if you obtain a complex root of any polynomial
equation, then its complex conjugate is automatically another root
of that equation.
Complex Numbers