0% found this document useful (0 votes)

27 views384 pages

Energy Concepts in Integrated Science II

Q: How do personal and community hygiene intersect with public health practices in disease prevention?

Personal and community hygiene practices are fundamental in preventing the transmission of infectious diseases. Personal hygiene, like handwashing, interrupts the transmission path by removing pathogens from hands, while community hygiene, such as proper waste disposal, reduces environmental contamination. These practices integrate into public health strategies focusing on cutting pathways of disease spread, thus enhancing collective health and wellbeing .

Q: Explain how geothermal and hydroelectric power exemplify different energy forms being harnessed for electricity production.

Geothermal power harnesses thermal energy from the Earth's interior, converting it into electricity through steam-driven turbines, thereby utilizing the Earth's natural heat. Hydroelectric power, on the other hand, captures gravitational potential energy from stored water in dams, converting it into kinetic energy, and finally electricity as water flows through turbines. Both demonstrate renewable energy exploitation by utilizing natural processes yet employ distinct energy forms—thermal and mechanical/gravitational energy, respectively .

Q: Illustrate how petroleum-based products are integrated into daily life and industries.

Petroleum-based products are deeply integrated into daily life and industries, forming the basis of numerous products like fuels (gasoline, diesel), and materials such as plastics, lubricants, and synthetic fabrics. Industrially, they are used in producing chemicals and pharmaceuticals. The widespread use underscores petroleum's vital role in not only energy generation but also manufacturing and consumer goods .

Q: Analyze the relationship between natural resources' renewability and their environmental impact.

Renewable resources, such as solar and wind energy, have minimal environmental impact due to their sustainable nature and perpetual availability. They tend to offer low emissions and high resilience against environmental degradation. Conversely, non-renewable resources, like fossil fuels, significantly impact the environment, contributing to depletion, pollution, and climate change due to their extensive extraction and consumption rates exceeding natural replenishment .

Q: Discuss the implications of energy transformations on environmental conservation.

Energy transformations have significant environmental implications, as converting energy from fossil fuels results in emissions that affect climate change. Alternatively, energy forms like solar, wind, and hydro are more sustainable as they reduce reliance on finite resources and minimize environmental degradation. Effective energy transformation strategies aim to lower carbon footprints and enhance energy efficiency for environmental conservation .

Q: Evaluate how potential and kinetic energy play roles in biological systems.

In biological systems, potential energy is stored within chemical bonds, such as in carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids. Upon respiration, these molecules react with oxygen, releasing the stored energy as kinetic energy, which is used for cellular processes, growth, and development. The conversion of potential to kinetic energy enables biological functions, illustrating the interconnectedness of energy forms in supporting life .

Q: How does the conservation of energy principle apply to chemical reactions?

The conservation of energy principle in chemical reactions states that energy can be converted from one form to another, such as from chemical energy to heat or light, but cannot be created or destroyed. During a chemical transformation, changes in the structure of reactants lead to energy flow between the reactants and their surroundings. This transfer is often observed as an increase or decrease in the energy levels of the products compared to the reactants .

Q: Assess the benefits and challenges associated with the use of reflective journals in educational settings.

Reflective journals offer significant benefits in education by promoting critical thinking, personal growth, and deeper learning connections, facilitating students' awareness of their learning process. However, challenges may include student resistance due to perceived time consumption, assessment difficulties, and potential lack of clarity in reflection guidelines. Despite these challenges, emphasizing structured reflection practices can enhance educational outcomes .

Q: What distinguishes nuclear energy from other forms of energy in terms of its source and release process?

Nuclear energy is distinct because it is stored in the nucleus of an atom, and the energy release occurs through nuclear reactions, such as fission or fusion. In fission, like in nuclear power plants, the nuclei of uranium atoms are split to release energy. Fusion, as seen in the sun, involves combining hydrogen nuclei. In both processes, the energy that holds the nucleus together is released, which is different from the energy changes in electronic and chemical processes involving electrons .

Q: In what ways can solar energy be considered both radiant and thermal energy?

Solar energy is classified as radiant energy because it is electromagnetic energy transmitted through sunlight. It becomes thermal energy when absorbed by a surface, causing an increase in temperature due to the vibration and movement of molecules. This dual nature allows solar energy to be harnessed for both light (radiant) and heat applications, such as solar thermal power generation .

The document is a course outline for 'Introduction to Integrated Science II', aimed at student teachers, focusing on essential science concepts such as energy, basic electronics, health, and the environment. It emphasizes the importance of addressing misconceptions in science education and includes various pedagogical strategies to enhance learning. The course also aims to develop professional attitudes and skills among student teachers, preparing them for effective teaching practices in science.

Uploaded by

hanifibrahim228

We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.

Available Formats

Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd

0% found this document useful (0 votes)

27 views384 pages

Energy Concepts in Integrated Science II

Uploaded by

hanifibrahim228

We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.

Available Formats

Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd

INTRODUCTION TO INTEGRATED

SCIENCE II

Written by
Prof. Sakina Acquah (PhD)
Ruth Asiamah (MPhil)
INTRODUCTION TO INTEGRATED SCIENCE II

COURSE INTRODUCTON

Congratulations student teacher, I welcome you to this course titled “Introduction to

Integrated Science II”. The state of science education for our students is at an important
crossroads. The youth of today will have to be contend with enormous scientific challenges.
Some of these issues include the lack of conceptual understanding among teachers and
students, expanding infections in our environments, alternative sources of energy and inability
to relate science to technology. Whereas the need for scientific advances is at its peak, there is
the need to help improve our student teachers’ learning in science to keep abreast with the
changes in the world.
The learning activities for this semester therefore seeks to relate science to the learners’
environment, make science culturally relevant, be gender and inclusivity friendly, provide for
professional scientific attitudes and skills such as critical thinking, honesty, patience, sincerity,
precision, and accuracy, have sensitive concepts explained within the appropriate local dialect
and/or practices, and address misconceptions that could prevent students of diverse abilities
and strengths from participating in any science lesson and integrate practical science activities.
Course Description
The course for semester two of year one ‘Introduction to Integrated Science II’ consolidates
the basic science concepts of the student teacher from year I, semester I, on the following
content areas: energy, basic electronics, health and hygiene, human and the environment as
well as science and technology and first aid. This course continues to emphasize on the essential
practices, attitudes and values of professional science teaching such as honesty, carefulness,
accuracy, sincerity, critical thinking, open mindedness and responsible citizenship. The student
teacher in this course continues to develop the portfolio and prepares to make the necessary
observation of professional practice in supported teaching in schools.
The course ‘Introduction to Integrated Science II’ will focus on the following UNITES:
UNIT 1 - ENERGY
UNIT 2 – BASIC ELECTRONICS AND FIRST AID
UNIT 3- HUMANS AND THE ENVIRONMENT
UNIT 4- SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
UNIT 5- WRITING PORTFOLIO
This course will be taught through the use of appropriate pedagogies such as group
demonstrations, discussions, talk-for-learning approaches to identify important concepts,
story-telling to trace events, concept mapping to define conceptual frameworks, pyramid
discussion, simulations and multimedia presentations.
(NTS 1b, 2b, 3a, p.13), (NTS 1d, p.12; 3e, p.14), (NTS, 3e, 3l, p.14), (NTS 2c, p.13), (NTS
3p, p.14), (NTS 1a, p.12)
The table below gives the course learning outcomes and the learning indicators.
Course learning outcomes Learning
indicators
On successful completion of the course,
student teachers will be able to: Indicators for each learning outcome

[Link] misconceptions, incorrect 1.1 Design diagnostic tool to unearth and

scientific ideas and bias about specified explain natural phenomenon using scientific
science concept (NTS 2c, p.13 &21; NTS knowledge.
3m, p.14) 1.2 Provide charts that show student-
teachers’ explanation of natural
phenomenon using scientific knowledge.
1. Demonstrate that energy causes changes 1.3 Prepare a schematic diagram of energy
(NTS2b, p.12, 2c, p.13 & 21) changes from ice to water vapour.
1.4 Provide a setup/drawing that shows the
effects of energy on matter
2. identify and name basic electronic 2.1Construct diverse sketches that show
appliances as well as basic knowledge and named parts of electronic devices.
understanding in recovery position of the 2.2Exhibit recovery positions of
first aid and cardiopulmonary resuscitation resuscitation.
(CPR) (NTS 2c, p. 13&21) 2.3 Show how CPR is done.
3. Demonstrate basic knowledge of the 3.1 Prepare an analytical report on land
relationship between the environment and degradation in the school community
fundamental science theories (NTS 1g, 2c, 3.2 Exhibit a critical review of one
p.12 &19) fundamental science theories

4. Demonstrate significant ability to design

and engage in practical activities in science
4.1 show models on electronic devices and
and technology and other alternative
energy sources by diverse learners.
interactive assessment practices. (CPR)
(NTS, 14, 19 & 23)
5. Demonstrate basic ability to work as a 5.1 Provide a checklist to identify the values
professional science teacher in school and to of patience, critical thinking, precision and
identify their own professional needs in accuracy in a peer review exercise.
terms of science professional practice, 5.2 Prepare a list of some examples of
knowledge, values and attitudes - through professional needs and some characteristics
this experience student teacher will be of professional teachers.
working towards meeting the NTS. (NTS 1b
p14& 18, 14)

I believe you all took part in the course “Introduction to “Integrated Science I” and you still
remember some of the concepts such as history of science in Ghana, safety precautions in the
laboratory and first aid, measurement of physical quantities, forces, earth movement etc. If you
remember that is very good but if you don’t remember or did not take part in the course, don’t
worry just remain focus and be persistent in your efforts to understand this course. Don’t forget
that you need a jotter, pen, pencil, eraser, table, chair and anything that can contribute towards
your successful completion of this course.
I wish you good luck with the hope that you will be passing through this course with joy and
happiness.
UNIT 1 – ENERGY
INTRODUCTION
Cherished student teacher, I welcome you to the first unit of the course “Introduction to
Integrated Science II”. This unit has been restricted to misconception/incorrect ideas about
energy, forms of energy, sources of energy, fuels, energy changes and energy transformation.
Successful completion of this unit will put you in the best position to be able to answer some
questions relating to energy. You will need to take your time to go through this unit step by
step because the understanding of one segment will enable you to better understand the next
segment. Try your hands on every activity in this unit and trust me, you will enjoy it.
On successful completion of this unit, student teachers will be able to;

Learning Outcomes learning indicators

[Link] misconceptions, incorrect 1.1 Design diagnostic tool to unearth and
scientific ideas and bias about specified explain natural phenomenon using scientific
science concept (NTS 2c, p.13 &21; NTS knowledge.
3m, p.14) 1.2 Provide charts that show student-
teachers’ explanation of natural
phenomenon using scientific knowledge.

2. Demonstrate that energy causes changes 2.1 Recognize misconceptions and incorrect
(NTS2b, p.12, 2c, p.13 & 21) ideas about energy and how to correct them.
2.2 explain forms of energy and give
examples
2.3 explain sources of energy with
examples
2.4 explain fuels with examples.
2.5 explain energy changes.
2.6 Demonstrate how various forms of
energy are transformed.

This Unit ‘ENERGY’ has being divided into six sections which are as follows:
SECTION 1-MISCONCEPTION/INCORRECT IDEAS ABOUT SPECIFIED
SCIENCE CONCEPTS
SECTION 2- ENERGY AND FORMS OF ENERGY
SECTION 3-SOURCES OF ENERGY
SECTION 4-FUELS
SECTION 5-ENERGY CHANGES
SECTION 6-ENERGY TRANSFORMATION
SECTION 1- MISCONCEPTION/INCORRECT IDEAS ABOUT SPECIFIED
SCIENCE CONCEPTS
Introduction
My dear student teacher, I welcome you once again to the first section of this unit which is
based on the Misconception/incorrect ideas about energy. In this section, I shall take you
through misconceptions, sources of misconception, types of misconceptions and overcoming
misconceptions. Take your pencils, pens, erasers, note books and find a comfortable place to
sit and let us get started. I assure you that you will enjoy the section.
Learning Objectives
By the end of the lesson, you will be able to:

• Explain concept and misconception

• Write sources of misconceptions
• Write misconceptions of energy
• Use science to explain and correct the misconceptions.
• List some sources of misconceptions.
• List some examples of misconceptions.
• Explain some effects of misconceptions in the teaching of science.
• List and explain the types of misconceptions.
• Describe how students’ misconceptions can be identified.
• Explain how students can be helped to overcome misconception

Background

With the increasing emphasis on science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM)
education and careers, it is important to assess students throughout their education in the core
subjects of mathematics and science, and identify persisting student misconceptions, errors,
and misunderstandings. It is important for many stakeholders in science and mathematics
education to understand that misconceptions, errors, and misunderstandings of science
concepts in higher grade levels relate to a lack of foundational understanding at earlier grades.

Growing up as a pupil or a student, you may have come across some ideas in some science
concepts which turned out to be false.

What word can you use to describe these false ideas?

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

If your answer was misconceptions, bravo! If you didn’t get it, don’t worry, we shall discuss it
for you to understand.
Can you explain the term concept? ----------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Concepts can be considered as ideas, objects or events that help us to understand the world
around us.
In your own words explain the word misconception.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Misconceptions can be described as ideas that provide an incorrect understanding of such ideas,
objects or events that are constructed based on a person’s experience (Martin et al., 2002)
including such things as preconceived notions, non-scientific beliefs, naïve theories, mixed
conceptions or conceptual misunderstandings (Hanuscin, n.d..).
Scientific misconceptions can be explained as commonly held beliefs about science that have
no basis in actual scientific fact. Scientific misconceptions can also be referred to as
preconceived notions based on religious and/or cultural influences. Many scientific
misconceptions occur because of faulty teaching styles and sometimes distancing nature of true
scientific texts.

Have you ever asked ourselves where these false believes come from? Write some of the
sources of these false believes. ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Compare your answers to what is discussed below.

Sources of misconceptions
Some possible sources for the development of misconceptions are as follows:
• Experiences of pupils which may not lead to correct conclusions or result in students
seeing all possible outcomes.
• Parents giving wrong answers to questions they have no ideas about. When parents or
other family members are confronted with questions from their children, rather than
admitting to not knowing the answer, it is common for them to give an incorrect
answer.
• Resource materials, the media and teachers.
The main issue is that all of the above sources are considered to be ‘trustworthy’, leading to
ready acceptance by students of what they are being taught.
Examples of some misconceptions in science

One common example from the basic school is students' understanding of the relationship
between the earth and the sun. Children are told by adults that the "sun is rising and setting”
This gives an image of a sun that travels around the earth. Later in life, students are told by
teachers that the earth rotates. At this point, students are faced with the difficult tasks of
accepting the new idea or concept. How to marry the two ideas become a challenge to the
student. Students are then faced with the difficult task of deleting a mental image that makes
sense to them in the early stages in life based on their own observations and what they were
told by teachers or parents, and replacing it with a model that is not as intuitively acceptable as
the first idea. This job is not a very simple one at all because students must disengage or delete
a whole mental framework of knowledge that they have used to understand the world.

TYPES OF MISCONCEPTIONS

Misconceptions can be categorized as follows:

1. Preconceived notions
2. Nonscientific beliefs
3. Conceptual misunderstandings
4. Vernacular misconceptions
5. Factual misconceptions

Preconceived notions

Preconceived notions can simply be described as thinking about a concept in only one way. It
is also a general conception rooted in everyday experiences. Example water flowing
underground must flow in streams because the water they will see on the earth's surface flows
in streams. Once a person knows how something works it is difficult to imagine it working in
a different way.

Nonscientific beliefs

Nonscientific beliefs are the beliefs learned outside scientific evidence. They also comprise of
the views learned by students from sources such as religious or mythical teachings rather than
scientific education. Example, a religious instruction about an abbreviated history of the earth
and its life forms. Another example is the history of the world based on the bible.

Conceptual misunderstandings

Conceptual misunderstandings can be explained as ideas about what one thinks they understand
based on their personal experiences or what they may have heard. An example of this
misconception is when students are taught scientific concepts in a way that does not provoke
them to confront enigmas and conflicts resulting from their own preconceived notions and
nonscientific beliefs. One does not fully grasp the concept and understand it.

Vernacular misconceptions

Vernacular misconceptions happen when one word has two completely different meanings,
especially with regard to science and everyday life. These comes in when the use of words that
mean one thing in everyday life and another in a scientific context. (e.g., "work, fuel and
energy"). In the study of geology, the students have difficulty with the idea that glaciers retreat.
This is because they imagine the glacier stopping, turning around, and moving in the opposite
direction as may be seen in movies during wars between two factions. Substitution of the word
"melt" for "retreat" helps reinforce the correct interpretation that the front end of the glacier
simply melts faster than the ice advances.

Factual misconceptions

Factual misconceptions can be described as ideas or beliefs that are learned at a young age but
are actually incorrect. They are delusions most at times learned at an early age and remained
unopposed into adulthood. Example "lightning never strikes twice in the same place" is clearly
drivel, but that notion may be buried somewhere in our belief system for a very long time.

BREAK DOWN OF MISCONCEPTIONS

Before embracing the concepts held to be correct by the scientific community, students must
confront their own beliefs along with their associated paradoxes and limitations and then
attempt to reconstruct the knowledge necessary to understand the scientific model being
presented.

This process requires that the teacher:

• Identify students' misconceptions.

• Provide a forum for students to confront their misconceptions.
• Help students reconstruct and internalize their knowledge, based on scientific models.

Identify student misconceptions

The following may be used to identify some misconceptions in science:

• Questioning and listening.

• "Real type" feedback, which can involve the use of coloured cards or electronic survey
systems.
• Just-in-time teaching. Students are asked various questions prior to class, the instructor
uses these responses to adapt his or her teaching to the students' prior knowledge and
misconceptions.
• Small group discussions and office hours provide effective forums for identifying
student misconceptions.
Help Students to Confront their Misconceptions

Questions and discussion can be used to probe for additional misconceptions. This will bring
out a variety of preconceptions in students as you carefully listen to the answers and
explanations they give. A science teacher should not underestimate the importance and the
persistence of these barriers to true understanding. Confronting them is difficult for the student
and the teacher.

How can we help students to overcome their misconceptions?

Can you give any suggestions?----------------------------------------------------------------------------

Helping Students Overcome Their Misconceptions

The big issues are that once a misconception has been formed, it is extremely difficult to change
(Eggen and Kauchak, 2004) and that possessing misconceptions can have serious impacts on
learning (Hanuscin, n.d.). Students come into the classroom with prerequisite knowledge
(existing schemas) and as they progress through their education these schemas are
progressively (or sequentially) built upon.

Below are some suggestions in helping students to overcome misconceptions:

• Develop your own pretest of misconceptions for your course. Instructors’ manuals,
textbook material and your own knowledge of the field.
• Remember to focus on the FACTS, on why “right is right” before you address a
potential misconception in class.
• Activate the misconception but minimize the focus on the misconception. You want to
minimize the familiarity backfire effect.
• Then REFUTE – focus on why “wrong is wrong.”
• Now, you need to fill the gap you created in the student’s knowledge base. Go back to
the facts – to why “right is right” or even talk about why the misconception might have
developed. Note that throughout you want to focus on making sure that your refutation
and your information to fill the gap are both plausible and believable.
• End with the INOCULATION. Talk about logical fallacies that others might use when
they bring up this misconception in everyday conversations. Remember that you know
what’s right, why it’s right, and why the misconception is wrong.
ACTIVITY

Misconceptions in energy
Use True or False to answer the questions below:
• Energy is a fuel. ----------------------------------------------------------------------
• Energy is a force.---------------------------------------------------------------------
• Energy is associated only with movement. --------------------------------------
• Energy is a substance or fluid. -----------------------------------------------------
• Energy is a product of an activity.-------------------------------------------------
• Energy is found only in living objects.--------------------------------------------
• Energy causes things to happen.----------------------------------------------------

Solution
In strict scientific views, all these statements are false.

• Energy is a fuel. Fuel is a source of energy, but the fuel itself is not energy. Fuel is a
resource, such as oil, coal, or foods that we eat. Fuel sources have potential energy in
the chemical bonds that make up the substance.
• Energy is a force. A force is a push or a pull. Energy is needed to create the force, but
it is not the force. A force, through movement, changes the state of energy in an object
(e.g., from potential to kinetic energy).
• Energy is associated only with movement. Non-moving objects have potential energy
(sometimes called stored energy).
• Energy is a substance or fluid. Energy is a state; it is not matter (i.e., it does not contain
molecules). For example, steam, liquid water, and ice are all the same substance
(contain the same molecular structure), but because of their different states of energy,
they appear different.
• Energy is a product of an activity. Energy is transferred as result of an activity such as
electricity generation or eating food. Energy is not created.
• Energy is found only in living objects. This statement is not correct because everything
has energy. The composition of an object or its placement determines what kind of
energy it has (e.g., chemical, thermal, gravitational). Living things are unique in that
they have the natural capacity to convert energy to another form from the food they
consume.
• Energy causes things to happen. It is acceptable to say energy is needed to lift an object
or move things, but other conditions (such as force) are needed as well.

SUMMARY OF SESSION 1
We have learnt that:
1. Concepts can be considered as ideas, objects or events that help us understand the world
around us.
2. Misconceptions can be described as ideas that provide an incorrect understanding of
such ideas, objects or events that are constructed based on a person’s experience
(Martin et al., 2002) including such things as preconceived notions, non-scientific
beliefs, naïve theories, mixed conceptions or conceptual misunderstandings (Hanuscin,
n.d..).
3. Some possible sources for the development of misconceptions are as follows:
-Experiences of pupils which may not lead to correct conclusions or result in students
seeing all possible outcomes.
-Parents giving wrong answers to questions they have no idea about. When parents or
other family members are confronted with questions from their children, rather than
admitting to not knowing the answer, it is common for them to give an incorrect answer.
-Resource materials, the media and teachers.
4. Misconceptions can be categorized as follows:
-Preconceived notions
-Nonscientific beliefs
-Conceptual misunderstandings
-Vernacular misconceptions
-Factual misconceptions
5. Preconceived notions can simply be described as thinking about a concept in only one
way. It is also a general conception rooted in everyday experiences.
6. Nonscientific beliefs are the beliefs learned outside scientific evidence.
7. Conceptual misunderstandings can be explained as ideas about what one thinks they
understand based on their personal experiences or what they may have heard.
8. Vernacular misconceptions happen when one word has two completely different
meanings, especially with regard to science and everyday life.
9. Factual misconceptions can be described as ideas or beliefs that are learned at a young
age but are actually incorrect.
Activity
1. Define concept.
2. What is misconception?
3. List the types of misconceptions.
4. Explain preconceived notions.
5. Write the full meaning of FLICC as used by experts to demystify misconceptions.

Zoller, U. (1990). Students' misunderstandings and misconceptions in college freshman

chemistry. J. Res. Sci. Teaching. 27(10):1053-1065.
SECTION 2- ENERGY AND FORMS OF ENERGY

Introduction
Dear student teacher, I trust you enjoyed the lesson in section I on Misconception/Incorrect
Ideas about Specified Science Concept very well. In continuing the lesson on Energy, I am
going to take you through the concept of Energy and forms of energy. Under this topic, we
shall consider Energy, kinetic energy with examples, potential energy with examples, nuclear
energy and solar energy. As usual, don’t forget to take your pens, pencils, note books, erasers
and a bottle of water in case you are thirsty. Sit beside your desk contentedly and enjoy this
lesson as the previous one.
Objectives
By the end of this section, you will be able to:
1. Explain the term energy
2. List and explain the two main forms of energy.
3. Explain kinetic energy.
4. Explain potential energy
5. Describe nuclear energy and write some pros and cons of the use of nuclear.
6. List and explain some applications of nuclear energy
7. Explain solar energy.
8. Write and explain some applications of solar energy
9. Write and explain some advantages and disadvantages of solar energy

Background information
Answer the following questions:

• Have you done a three day dry fasting before? ---------------------------------------------

• How did you feel? ------------------------------------------------------------------------------
• Was there any difference between how you felt during the fast and after the fast?
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
• After you have eaten at the end of the fast, how did you feel? ------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
• Have you also wondered why some people or nations fight with other nations?
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
ANSWER
The key to all the above questions is called ENERGY.
What is energy?
Energy is essential for life processes, chemical reactions and industrial activities. Nations that
have enormous reserves of energy are ranked high among wealthy nations. Energy is available
in various forms in nature but requires high scientific and technological knowledge, skills and
positive attitudes to tap it, conserve it and transport it into homes and workplaces for use. It is
important for us to understand the various forms of energy, and its sources and applications in
our daily activities.
The sun is the main source of energy for the Earth. The radiant energy from the sun is the
source of energy for photosynthesis in plants. In this process energy in the form of glucose is
stored for the plant and other consumers such as animals.
The energy from the sun is scientifically utilized to power gadgets, such as solar lamps,
electronic calculators and spacecraft, and also to help conserve energy in cells for use,
especially during the night.
Energy conceptions and misconceptions
Answer yes or know to the following statement; --------------------------------------------------
1. Energy is found only in living objects. -----------------------------------------------------
2. Energy is associated only with movement. ------------------------------------------------
3. Energy is a force. ------------------------------------------------------------------------------
4. Energy causes things to happen. -------------------------------------------------------------
5. Energy is a product of an activity.-----------------------------------------------------------
6. Energy is a fuel. --------------------------------------------------------------------------------
7. Energy is a substance or fluid.----------------------------------------------------------------

Scientifically all the above statements are wrong.

Following are explanations of why these energy descriptions are “wrong”:
1. Energy is found only in living objects. This statement is false because everything we
see around us has energy. Both living and non-living things have energy. The
composition of an object or its placement determines what kind of energy it has (e.g.,
chemical, thermal, gravitational). Living things are exceptional in such a way that it has
the ability to convert one energy to the other.
2. Energy is associated only with movement. This statement is also false. This is because
stationary objects also have some form of energy known as potential energy (sometimes
called stored energy).
3. Energy is a force. What is a force? We learnt in the basic school that a force is a push
or a pull. Energy is needed to generate that force, but it is not the force. A force, through
movement, changes the state of energy in an object (e.g., from potential to kinetic
energy).
4. Energy causes things to happen. It is acceptable to say energy is needed to lift an object
or move things, but other conditions such as force are needed as well.
5. Energy is a product of an activity. Energy is transferred as result of an activity such as
electricity generation or eating food. Energy is not created.
6. Energy is a fuel. Fuel is a source of energy, but the fuel itself is not energy. Fuel is a
resource, such as oil, coal, or foods that we eat. Fuel sources have potential energy in
the chemical bonds that make up the substance.
7. Energy is a substance or fluid. Most of us see energy as fluid. Energy is a state; it is not
matter (i.e., it does not contain molecules). For example, steam, liquid water, and ice are
all the same substance (contain the same molecular structure), but because of their
different states of energy, they appear different.

What then is energy?

Energy makes change; it does things for us. It moves cars along the road and boats over the
water. Our phones, laptops, television sets, radio sets etc. are all powered by energy. It bakes
a cake, meat pie, rock bands, chips etc. in the oven for our snacks and parties and keeps water,
drinks, food and many more cold and frozen in the fridges and freezers. It plays our favorite
songs on the radio and lights our homes. It also heat our homes for us. Energy makes our bodies
grow and allows our minds to think.
Living organisms require energy to stay alive, such as the energy humans get from food.
Human civilization requires energy to function, in which it gets from energy resources such as
fossil fuels, nuclear fuel, or renewable energy. The processes of Earth's climate and ecosystem
are driven by the radiant energy the Earth receives from the sun and the geothermal energy
contained within the earth.

Source; Wikipedia.
The Sun is the source of energy for most of the life on
Earth. As a star, the Sun is heated to high temperatures
by the conversion of nuclear binding energy due to the
fusion of hydrogen in its core. This energy is
ultimately transferred (released) into space mainly in
the form of radiant (light) energy.

Lightning. Source; Wikipedia.

Common symbols E
SI unit joule

With the above explanations, define energy in your own words.

In physics, energy can be defined as the quantitative property that must be transferred to an
object in order to perform work on, or to heat the object. Energy is a conserved quantity; the
law of conservation of energy states that energy can be converted in form, but cannot be created
nor destroyed.
In chemistry, energy is a characteristic of a substance as a consequence of its atomic, molecular
or aggregate structure. Chemical transformation is accompanied by a change in one or more of
these kinds of structure. It is however consistently accompanied by an increase or decrease of
energy of the substances involved. Some energy is transferred between the surroundings and
the reactants of the reaction in the form of heat or light; thus the products of a reaction may
have more or less energy than the reactants.
In biology, energy is an attribute of all biological systems from the biosphere to the smallest
living organism. Within an organism it is responsible for growth and development of a
biological cell or an organelle of a biological organism. Energy is thus often said to be stored
by cells in the structures of molecules of substances such as carbohydrates (including sugars),
lipids, and proteins, which release energy when reacted with oxygen in respiration.

Basic overview of energy and human life

Kinetic energy is energy of motion, while potential energy is energy of position.
Henrik Sorensen / Getty Images.

Forms of energy
Energy is found in different forms, such as light, heat, sound and motion. There are many forms
of energy, but they can all be put into two major categories:
• Kinetic energy
• Potential energy

KINETIC ENERGY POTENTIAL ENERGY

Kinetic energy is the energy that an object Potential energy is the energy that is
possesses due to its motion. It is energy of stored in an object due to its position
motion of waves, electrons, atoms, relative to some zero position. An object
molecules, substances, and objects. possesses gravitational potential energy if
it is positioned at a height above (or below)
the zero height.
Electrical Energy is the movement of Chemical Energy is the energy stored in
electrical charges/electrons. Everything is the bonds of atoms and molecules. It is the
made of tiny particles called atoms. Atoms energy that holds these particles together.
are made of even smaller particles called Biomass, petroleum, natural gas, and
electrons, protons, and neutrons. Applying a propane are examples of stored chemical
force can make some of the electrons move. energy.
Electrical charges moving through a wire is
called electricity. Lightning is another
example of electrical energy
Radiant Energy is electromagnetic energy Stored Mechanical Energy is the energy
that travels in transverse waves. Radiant stored in objects by the application of a
energy includes visible light, x-rays, gamma force. Compressed springs and stretched
rays and radio waves. Light is one type of rubber bands are examples of stored
radiant energy. Solar energy is an example mechanical energy.
of radiant energy.
Thermal Energy, or heat, is the internal Nuclear Energy is energy stored in the
energy in substances––the vibration and nucleus of an atom––the energy that holds
movement of the atoms and molecules the nucleus together. The energy can be
within substances. Geothermal energy is an released when the nuclei are combined or
example of thermal energy. split apart. Nuclear power plants split the
nuclei of uranium atoms in a process called
fission. The sun combines the nuclei of
hydrogen atoms in a process called fusion.
Scientists are working on creating fusion
energy on earth, so that someday there
might be fusion power plants.
Motion Energy is the movement of objects Gravitational Energy is the energy of
and substances from one place to another. position or place. A rock resting at the top
Objects and substances move when a force of a hill contains gravitational potential
is applied according to Newton’s Laws of energy. Hydropower, such as water in a
Motion. Wind is an example of motion reservoir behind a dam, is an example of
energy. gravitational potential energy.

Sound is the movement of energy through

substances in longitudinal
(compression/rarefaction) waves. Sound is
produced when a force causes an object or
substance to vibrate––the energy is
transferred through the
substance in a wave
Source; Britannica
Activity
Look at the image below and use it to answer the questions that follows:

Source; Britannica

Match the type of energy with the example pictures in the graphic. Answer choices: Nuclear
Energy, Thermal Energy, Chemical Energy, Electrical Energy, Mechanical Energy, and
Electromagnetic Energy.
1. ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
2. ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
3. ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
4. ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
5. ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
6. ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Hope you were able to get the answers correct. If you didn’t get some correct, don’t worry
check from the answers below to know the correct answers:

Answer:

1. Mechanical energy
2. Thermal energy
3. Electromagnetic energy
4. Electric energy
5. Chemical energy
6. Nuclear energy

Explanation:

Mechanical energy: Mechanical energy can be described as the sum of kinetic or potential
energy which is used to do any kind of work.
Thermal energy: Thermal energy can be described as the energy which comes from heated
substances. It is also known as heat energy.

Electromagnetic energy: Energy in the form of electric and magnetic waves.

Electric energy: The energy which arises from the flow of electron on electric charge.

Chemical energy: Energy which is stored in chemical bonds.

Nuclear energy: Energy from fission and fusion reactions.

Summary:

There are six general forms of energy: chemical, mechanical, thermal, light, electrical, and
nuclear. Any form of energy can be converted into another form.
• The first energy form is chemical energy. It is a form of potential energy and is stored
in chemical substances. Example, gasoline which is used to power a car.
• The second form of energy is mechanical energy. This is the energy released by a
moving object. Example, the energy that causes a soccer ball to move when kicked.
• The third form of energy is thermal energy and is associated with the motion of
molecules. This means that it is caused by friction from molecules rubbing against each
other. Example, rubbing your hands against each other to get warm.
• The fourth form of energy is known as light energy. It is a form of electromagnetic
energy. Examples x-rays, radio waves etc.
• The next form of energy is electrical energy which is associated with the movement of
electrons. Examples- televisions, cd players etc.
• The last form of energy is nuclear energy. This form of energy is stored in the nucleus
of an atom. When the nucleus is split, energy is released. This is known as fission.
Energy can equally be released if the nucleus is fused together, this can be referred to
as fusion.

Now let us study some of these forms of energy into detailed;

Potential energy
Potential energy is defined as the energy possessed by a body by virtue of its position relative
to a reference point, such as the ground, or its position in a field of force. Potential energy may
either be a gravitational potential energy or an elastic potential energy, e.g. found in shooting
arrows from bows or springs.
Gravitational potential energy is determined by the mass of the body and acceleration due to
the force of gravity reacting on the body.
Potential energy = mass x acceleration due to gravity x height
P = mgh
Where m = mass, g = acceleration due to gravity and h = height from the object to the ground.
Gravitational Potential Energy
This is the energy stored in an object due to its position above the Earth surface.
Ep = m × g × h
m = mass (kg)
g = acceleration due to gravity (N/kg)
h = height from the object to the ground (m).
Ep = gravitational potential energy (J)

Worked examples and activities

1. A crane lifts a 75kg mass to a height of 8 m. Calculate the gravitational potential energy
gained by the mass (g = 9.8 N/kg).
Step by step solution
Ep = m × g × h
m = 75kg
g = 9.8 N/kg
h=8m
Ep = 75kg x9.8 N/kg x 8 m
= 5880J
Try Activity
2. A hoist lifts a 65000g mass to a height of 5 m. Calculate the gravitational potential
energy gained by the mass (g = 9.8 N/kg).
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
3. A ball with a mass of 500g is lifted onto a shelf which is 1.5m above the ground.
Calculate the gravitational potential energy gained by the ball (g = 9.8 N/kg).
Step by step solution
Ep = m × g × h
m = 500g changed kg = 0.5 kg
g = 9.8 N/kg
h = 1.5 m
Ep = 0.5 kg x9.8 N/kg x 1.5m
= 7.35J

TRY
4. A book with a mass of 1500g is elevated onto a shelf which is 2.5m above the ground.
Calculate the gravitational potential energy gained by the ball (g = 9.8 N/kg).
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------

5. What is the G.P.E of a 5kg rock that is lifted 10m above the ground?

Solution
Ep = m × g × h
m = 5 kg
g = 9.8 N/kg
h = 10 m
Ep = 5 kg x9.8 N/kg x 10m
= 490J
6. A helicopter is flying at a height of 1.5km. If it has 50MJ of G.P.E., what is the mass
of the helicopter?
Ep = m × g × h
m =?
g = 9.8 N/kg
h = 1.5 km change to m = 1500m
Ep = 50MJ change to J = 50 x 1,000,000 = 50,000,000J
Ep/ g × h = m
50,000,000J/ 9.8 N/kg x 1500m = m
m = 3,333kg
7. A boy throws a 0.2kg rock up with a speed of 5m/s. If all the kinetic energy becomes
gravitational potential energy, how high will the stone go?

K.E=EP
½ mv2 = mgh
Ep = m × g × h
m = 0.2 kg
g = 9.8 N/kg
h =?
v = 5m/s
Calculate the kinetic energy first.
KE = ½ mv2
= ½ x 0.2 x52
= 2.5 J
2.5 J = mgh
2.5 J = 0.2 Kg x 9.8N/Kg x h
h = 2.5 J / 0.2 Kg x 9.8N/Kg
h= 1.25m

Try
8. A diver at the top of a 10.0m high diving platform has a mass of 50.0kg. What is her
potential energy?
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------

Examples of gravitational potential energy

• A raised weight.
• Water that is behind a dam.
• A bucket of water placed on top of a table
• A car that is parked at the top of a hill.
• A bicycle parked on top of a mountain.
• A snow pack
Elastic potential energy ;Definitions

• Elastic potential energy is a stored energy as a result of the deformation of an elastic

object.
• Elastic potential energy can also be defined as a mechanical potential energy stored in
the configuration of a material or physical system as it is subjected to elastic
deformation by work performed upon it (Wikipedia).
• Elastic potential energy is defined by the product of the spring constant and the
compression or extension of the elastic material, such as spring or elastic material.
Elastic energy occurs when objects are temporary compressed, stretched or generally deformed
in any manner. Example of an elastic object is the stretching of a spring.

Elastic potential energy is equal to the force times the distance of movement.
Elastic potential energy = force x distance of displacement.
Because the force is = spring constant x displacement, then the Elastic potential energy =
spring constant x displacement squared. According to Hooke's law, the force required to stretch
the spring will be directly proportional to the amount of the stretch.
Elastic potential energy (measured in the unit joules) is equal to ½ multiplied by the stretch
length ("x") squared, multiplied by the spring constant "k."
1
Elastic potential energy = 2 k × the extension or compression of the elastic material, where k
is the elastic constant.
PE= ½ kx2

Worked example
A spring with a spring constant of 2.6 N/m is stretched a distance of 0.7m. What is the potential
energy in the system?
PE= ½ kx2
k = 2.6N/m
x= 0.7m
PE= ½ x 2.6N/m x 0.7 2m
=0.637J
2. A truck’s suspension springs each have spring constant of 769N/m. If the potential energy
of the front right spring is 250J, how far is the spring compressed?
PE= ½ kx2
k = 769N/m
x=?
PE=250J
PE= ½ x 769N/m x (x 2m)
250J= ½ x 769N/m x (x 2m)
250J= 384. 5 x (x2)
250/384.5= x2
√0.650195= √x2
0.81m=x
x = 0.81m
Many objects are designed specifically to store elastic potential energy.
Example:

• The coil spring of a wind-up clock.

• An archer's stretched bow.
• A bent diving board, just before a divers jump.
• The twisted rubber band which powers a toy airplane.
• A bouncy ball, compressed at the moment it bounces off a brick wall.

Kinetic energy
Potential energy can easily be converted into kinetic energy when, as a result of an external
force, the object or system is set in motion.
Definition of kinetic energy

Kinetic energy is a form of energy which an object or particle has due to its motion. This energy
is a property of an object or particle which moves. This energy can also be referred to the work
required to accelerate a body of a particular mass from a state of rest to its stated velocity. The
same amount of work is required for decelerating from the current speed to a position of rest.
This energy is dependent on the velocity of the object squared. The velocity doubles,
consequently the kinetic energy quadruples. The standard unit of this energy happens to be the
joule.

Kinetic Energy Formula

KE is the energy of a mass, m, motion is v2.

1
KE = 2 mv2

m = mass of the body (the measure of how much matter is in an object)

v = velocity of the object in motion (or the rate at which the object changes its position)

Your answer should always be stated in joules (J), which is the standard unit of measurement
for kinetic energy. It is equivalent to 1 kg * m2/s2.

Worked example
1. The mass of a bicycle is 10 kg, and it moves at a constant velocity of 10 km/h. What is
the kinetic energy of the bicycle?

1
KE = 2 mv2

m =10kg
v =10 km/h
KE = ½ x 10 x 102
KE = 500J
2. The kinetic energy of the car is 300,000 Joules and its velocity is 30 m/s. What is the
mass of the car?
1
KE = 2 mv2

m =?
v =10 km/h
KE = ½ x 10 x 102

KE = 500J

3. The kinetic energy of the car is 300,000 Joules and its velocity is 30 m/s. Find out the
mass of the vehicle?
KE = 300,000 J = 30,000 kg m2/s2

Velocity of the car, v = 30 m/s

KE = 1/2 mv2
KE /0.5v2 = m

m = (300,000 kg m2/s2)/ [0.5(30m/s) 2]

m = (300,000 kg m2/s2/ [(0.5) (900) m2/s2]
m = (300,000 kg m2/s2/450 m2/s2
m = 666.666 kg
The mass of the vehicle = 666.666 kg

4. What is the velocity of an object with a mass of 30 kg and a kinetic energy of 500 J?
KE = 0.5 x mv2
500 J = 0.5 x 30 x v2
500/15= v2
√v2 = √33.33
V=5.77
5. What is the mass of an object with a kinetic energy of 100 J and a velocity of 5 m/s?
KE = 0.5 x mv2
100 J = 0.5 x m x 52
100J/ 0.5 x25 m2/s2 = m
100J/12.5 m2/s2
m = 8kg

Nuclear Energy
Nuclear energy is the energy obtained from the splitting of the nucleus, or core, of an atom in
a reactor through a process known as nuclear fission. Nuclear energy is usually considered
another non-renewable energy source. Although nuclear energy itself is a renewable energy
source, the material used in nuclear power plants is not. Nuclear energy harvests the powerful
energy in the nucleus, or core, of an atom. Nuclear energy is released through nuclear fission,
the process where the nucleus of an atom splits. Nuclear power plants are complex machines
that can control nuclear fission to produce electricity.

The material most often used in nuclear power plants is the element uranium. Although
uranium is found in rocks all over the world, nuclear power plants usually use a very rare type
of uranium, U-235. When the atom is split it becomes two smaller, lighter atoms. Because
energy/matter can neither be created nor destroyed, the “lost” mass is converted into heat,
which is used to produce electricity. Nuclear power plants offer a controlled environment for
these reactions to occur. A nuclear reactor, or power plant, is a series of machines that can
control nuclear fission to produce electricity. The fuel that nuclear reactors use to produce
nuclear fission is pellets of the element uranium. In a nuclear reactor, atoms of uranium are
forced to break apart. As they split, the atoms release tiny particles called fission products.
Fission products cause other uranium atoms to split, starting a chain reaction. The energy
released from this chain reaction creates heat.
235U fission chain reaction-HyperPhysics.

Nuclear chain reactions are reactions where nuclear energy is obtained, generally through
nuclear fission. These chain reactions are what provide nuclear power plants with the energy
that is then turned into electricity for use by people. For such reactions, neutrons produced
during the fission process continue and then it initiate other fission in other atoms. These
reactions generally occur with heavier isotopes such as uranium-235 where there is a
continuous release and absorption of neutrons. The figure above is a visual representation of
what a nuclear fission chain reaction looks like. If at least one neutron from each fission strikes
another U-235 nucleus and initiates fission, the chain reaction is sustained and it is said to be
critical.

For thermal (slow-neutron) fission reactors, the typical prompt neutron lifetime is on the order
of 10−4 seconds, and for fast fission reactors, the prompt neutron lifetime is on the order of 10−7
seconds. These extremely short lifetimes mean that in 1 second, 10,000 to 10,000,000 neutron
lifetimes can pass.

Application
1. Radiology is the broad area of using images produced through radiation, to diagnose and
treat disease. The most well-known technique is X-rays, which is normally used to examine
whether bones are broken or not.
2. Nuclear energy produces electricity that can be used to power homes, schools, businesses,
and hospitals.
Non-ionizing and ionizing radiation.
Source- nuclear energy in everyday life

4. Naturally occurring radio-active materials are present in the earth’s crust, the floors and walls
of our homes, schools, and offices and in the food we eat and drink.
Our own bodies- muscles, bones and tissues, contain naturally occurring radioactive elements.

5. We use radiation in medical procedures, such as diagnostic x-rays, nuclear medicine, and
radiation therapy, is by far the most significant source of man-made radiation exposure.

6. Radiation can be used to improve the quality of life in many more ways than people realize.
Nuclear energy, which uses radioactive materials, has a variety of important uses in electricity
generation, medicine, industry, agriculture, as well as in our homes.
7. Terrestrial radiation: The earth is a source of terrestrial radiation. Radioactive materials
(including uranium, thorium, and radium) exist naturally in soil, water and rocks. Essentially
all air contains radon, which is responsible for most of the dose that people receive each year
from natural background sources, and all organic matter (both plant and animal) contains
radioactive carbon and potassium.
8. Cosmic Radiation: The sun and stars send a constant stream of cosmic radiation to earth,
much like a steady drizzle of rain. Differences in elevation of atmospheric conditions, and the
earth’s magnetic field can change the amount (or dose) of cosmic radiation that we receive.

Activity
Write down five advantages and five disadvantages of nuclear energy.
Advantages
1. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
2. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
3. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
4. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Disadvantages
1. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
2. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
3. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
4. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
5. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
I believe you have done very well. Compare your answers to the points below and mark
yourself. Each point is two marks. What did you get? If you got 10/10 in each activity, well
done. If you got less than 10, study the points below very well so you can get 10/10 next time.

Advantages
1. Nuclear produces reliable electricity/ Nuclear protects our air/produces low
pollution - Clean, reliable nuclear energy is a critical part of every nation’s
infrastructure because it runs nonstop. While some energy sources are dependent upon
weather conditions, like solar and wind power, nuclear energy has no such constraints.
It doesn’t matter if the wind isn’t blowing or if the day is cloudy. Nuclear power plants
are essentially unaffected by external climatic factors and create predictable and steady
energy output. A nuclear power plant in full-swing operation can produce energy non-
stop for an entire year, which allows for a good return on investment because there is
no delay in energy production.
2. Nuclear powers electric vehicles. Electrified transportation promises to reduce carbon
emissions. When powered by carbon-free nuclear energy, electric vehicles can reach
their full potential.
3. Low cost of operation
Apart from the initial cost of construction of operation of nuclear energy, it is one of
the most cost-effective energy solutions available. The cost to produce electricity from
nuclear energy is much lower than the cost to produce energy from gas, coal, or oil
unless those resources are located near the power plant they supply.
4. Nuclear fights climate change- Nuclear energy provides large amounts of 24/7
carbon-free electricity now, which is irreplaceable in protecting the environment. It
does not produce nitrogen oxide, sulfur dioxide, particulate matter and mercury which
are capable of polluting the air. Nuclear energy provides power 24/7 without a trace of
those pollutants.
5. Nuclear powers space exploration, sterilizes medical equipment, provides potable water
through desalination, supplies radioisotopes for cancer treatment and much more.
6. Sufficient Fuel Availability-Like fossil fuels, the uranium used to supply nuclear power
plants is in limited supply. However, our uranium reserves are estimated to last another
80 years, whereas fossil fuels have a much more limited lifespan.
7. Nuclear power plants are also reliable

Nuclear power is the most dependable source of electricity, sustaining the highest
national average reliability. Nuclear power plants only need to be refueled every 18-24
months, offering a reliable energy source that can power the electrical grid at all times.
This is because we have enough uranium on the planet to generate energy for the next
70-80 years. While that may not sound like a long time, it is longer than many fossil
fuels are estimated to last, and there are other nuclear energy sources being explored to
power nuclear power plants.

8. It provides an enormous capacity

Small amount of enriched fuel-grade uranium (4%) can release the equivalent of 100
tons of high-grade coal.
9. We can reuse the fuel from nuclear energy projects
The fuel (Uranium-235) used in nuclear energy does not entirely expire when placed in
the nuclear reactor. It is possible for facilities to reuse it again after generation.

10. It helps in the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions -During the manufacturing of
the nuclear energy facility, the building materials, refining processes, and transportation
networks needed, will produce some amount of greenhouse gas emissions. But once it
is done, the rapid development of this resource can start reducing our emissions
footprint without compromising the amount of power we can access.
11. It provides countries with an economic boost
Nuclear energy industry play an important role in job creation and economic growth. It
provides both near-term and permanent employment and economic benefits
12. The facilities that produce nuclear energy are exceptionally reliable.
This predominantly means nuclear power plants are producing maximum power more
than 93% of the time during the year. That's about 1.5 to 2 times more as natural gas
and coal units, and 2.5 to 3.5 times more reliable than wind and solar plants.
13. It is a safe resource to use
Threat of radiation is one of the main reasons why people shy away from the idea of
using nuclear energy. The reality of this industry is that it is very safe. It has one of the
lowest mortality rates in the world for every 1 trillion kilowatts it generates when
compared to other fuel resources.
14. It is a highly efficient source of energy
Nuclear power is one of the most efficient types of energy available today. An average
capacity factor of 91 percent beats other energy forms by a substantial margin. Natural
gas produces an average of 50 percent while coal produces energy at almost 59 percent.
15. The density of nuclear power is one of the highest ratings in the world.
The quantity of fuel that is required for nuclear energy to be generated is incredibly
small compared to other forms of energy production. According to Atomic Insights,
uranium provides 16,000 times more electricity than coal does when compared in a
pound-for-pound manner. When comparing new technologies to perform nuclear
fission or fusion, the comparison rate may be more than 2 million to 1. The ratio of
nuclear reactions to chemical reactions is closer to 10 million to 1.
16. It can be used in a variety of ways.
The primary use of nuclear power is usually for electricity generation, but there are a
variety of methods and applications that benefit from this technology. This advantage
is due to the stability of the energy created from the reaction since it can cover massive
distances.
Disadvantage

1. Expensive to Build
Despite being relatively inexpensive to operate, nuclear power plants are incredibly
expensive to build and the cost keeps rising. In addition to the expense of building a power
plant, nuclear plants must also allocate funds to protect the waste they produce and keep
it in cooled structures with security procedures in place. All of these costs make nuclear
power quite expensive.
2. Accidents
One of the first things most people think of when they hear about nuclear power plant is
the disaster at Chernobyl. Even though we don’t know accurately how many people died
as a result of the Chernobyl incident, it’s projected that there have been as many as 10,000
deaths from the long-term effects of radiation in the region. The Fukushima power plant
crisis in 2011 showed that no matter how safe nuclear power plants are designed to be,
accidents can and do happen.
3. Produces Radioactive Waste
Although nuclear energy production does not create any emissions, it does produce
radioactive waste that must be securely stored so it doesn’t pollute the environment. While
radiation might sound scary, we are constantly exposed to small amounts of radioactivity
from cosmic rays or radon in the air we breathe. In small quantities, radiation isn’t
harmful—but the radioactive waste from nuclear energy production is incredibly
dangerous.
4. Impact on the Environment
Nuclear power plants have a greater impact on the environment than just the waste they
produce. The mining and enrichment of uranium are not environmentally friendly
processes. Open-pit mining for uranium is safe for miners but leaves behind radioactive
particles, causes erosion, and even pollutes nearby sources of water. Underground mining
isn’t much better and exposes miners to high amounts of radiation while producing
radioactive waste rock during extraction and processing.
5. Security Threat
Nuclear power presents a unique threat to our national security because it is powered by
nuclear energy. Terrorists might target nuclear power plants with the intention of creating
a disaster, and the uranium used to produce the power can be turned into nuclear weapons
if they end up in the wrong hands. For these reasons, security surrounding nuclear
materials and nuclear power plants is extremely important.
6. Limited Fuel Supply
There might be some important pros and cons of nuclear energy, but one of the most
important considerations to keep in mind is that nuclear energy is dependent on uranium
and thorium to produce energy. Unless we can find a way to create nuclear fusion or build
breeder reactors before our supply dries up, we will be unable to create energy with the
nuclear power plants we’ve built for the future. Ultimately, nuclear power is only a
temporary solution with a very high price tag. Nuclear energy is a popular way of
generating electricity around the world. Nuclear power plants do not pollute the air or emit
greenhouse gases. They can be built in rural or urban areas, and do not destroy the
environment around them.
7. Difficult to harvest
Nuclear energy is difficult to harvest. Nuclear power plants are very complicated to build
and run. Many communities do not have the scientists and engineers to develop a safe and
reliable nuclear energy program.
8. Very high level of insecurity when working with nuclear energy.
Aftermath of a nuclear accident can travel from one to so many generations to come.
9. The uranium needed for nuclear energy can also become a weapon:
Nuclear energy can be turned into a devastating weapon that can haunt countries and
communities for generations afterward. Do you remember Hiroshima and Nagasaki? This
was a big issue back then during the world war II. During the World War II, the United
States of America unleashed a nuclear weapon on Hiroshima and Nagasaki as a way to
end World War II immediately. Those bombs took hundreds of thousands of lives, and it
left fallout issues like cancer and birth defects in those population centers for decades.
Nuclear weapons are 3,000 times more powerful than what Americans developed with
their allies in the 1940s. The largest weapon ever detonated using this technology
produced 5.3 megatons of energy. This means that we must be very careful about its use.
As it is a good servant, if not guarded and it fall into the hands of evil people, it can be
used for mass murder. We must become proactive about the ways that we guard its use
so that it cannot fall into the hands of someone or a group who would use it for mass
murder.
10. It does not provide us with a renewable energy resource

We must find new reserves of uranium at some point to continue growing the nuclear
power industry. There might be more time to find replacement options than coal or natural
gas, but the clock is still ticking.
11. It has long-term storage costs to consider

It cost more to store nuclear waste than to produce nuclear energy.

12. High cost of uranium mining to support the nuclear energy industry.

The mining of a refine uranium is not a simple and clean process at all. In the USA alone,
over 1000 holes are drilled annually in order to get access to this natural resource. It costs
about $200 million to produce around 2.5 million pounds of usable product, which means
the harvesting expenditures are much higher than they are for coal or natural gas. The
most popular method is called in-situ leach mining, which is responsible for 45% of the
industry. About 20% of the mines use the open pit method, creating an entirely new set
of environmental issues that require management.
13. No alternative plan when nuclear energy is no longer viable.

Though we are stockpiling resources around the world to generate electricity, the nuclear
energy industry is far behind what coal, oil, and natural gas producers are offering.
14. It takes a long time to build a new nuclear facility.

Averagely, it takes about 14 ½ years to build a nuclear facility. This is from start to finish
(from planning phase to the moment it comes online).

SOLAR ENERGY
In five sentence write what you know about solar energy or energy from the sun.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------
Solar energy can be defined as radiant light and heat from the sun that is harnessed using a
range of ever-evolving technologies such as solar heating, photovoltaic, solar thermal energy,
solar architecture, molten salt power plants and artificial photosynthesis. Solar energy can also
be explained as the energy obtained from the radiation emitted by the Sun. Solar energy can
also be defined as the energy radiated from the sun in the form of heat and light and harnessed
for solar power.

Solar energy has been used in many traditional technologies for centuries. It has therefore
come into widespread use where other power supplies are absent, such as in remote locations
and in space. It is the source of almost all forms of renewable energy. There is no shortage of
solar-derived energy on Earth. Indeed, the storage and flow of solar energy on the planet are
very large relative to human needs from.

Application

1. Solar Electricity

This is one of the solar energy applications that has gained a lot of momentum in recent years.
As solar panel costs decline and more people become aware of the financial and environmental
benefits of solar energy, solar electricity is becoming increasingly accessible. A distributed
solar PV system is typically installed on the rooftops of homes or businesses. These solar power
systems generate electricity to offset the property owner’s usage and send any excess
production to the electric grid.

2. Heating, cooling and ventilation

Solar energy can be used to provide heating, ventilation and air conditioning systems for the
energy used in commercial buildings and residential buildings. Solar heating, cooling and
ventilation technologies can be used to offset a portion of this energy.

3. Solar Water Heating

Uses for solar energy extend to water heating systems. Most solar water heating solutions create
hot water that is consumed inside the home. Solar water heaters use a rooftop cell to absorb the
sun’s heat and transfer it to the water tank. Another application of solar energy is heating
swimming pools. Water is circulated to a collector where it is heated by sunlight and then
pumped back into the pool.

4. Solar Lighting

Solar lights have become ubiquitous and can be found everywhere from home landscaping and
security lights to road signs and street lights. These solar lighting technologies for your home
are inexpensive and readily available from basic to high-end designs everywhere from your
local hardware store to online shopping websites such as [Link].

Cooking

Solar cookers use sunlight for cooking, drying and pasteurization. They can be grouped into
three broad categories: box cookers, panel cookers and reflector cookers

Agriculture and horticulture

Agriculture and horticulture seek to optimize the capture of solar energy in order to optimize
the productivity of plants. Techniques such as timed planting cycles, tailored row orientation,
staggered heights between rows and the mixing of plant varieties can improve crop yields.
While sunlight is generally considered a plentiful resource, the exceptions highlight the
importance of solar energy to agriculture.

6. Portable Solar

In our connected world, phones and tablets are always with us and, let’s face it, often running
low on battery. Portable solar PV chargers can keep our personal electric devices charged on
the go. The technology already exists to integrate solar cells into our phones and has been in
watches since the 1970s. Researchers in Japan have even developed lightweight, water-
resistant solar cells that could someday be sewed into clothing to power our devices.

7. Solar Transportation

Solar energy can be used to power vehicles such as buses, trains, airplanes, and race cars. This
use of solar energy is not yet widely available, unless you own an electric car or EV and charge
it with solar panels (generally via a solar-connected battery).

8. Water treatment

Solar distillation can be used to make saline or brackish water potable.

Advantage of solar energy

1. The amount of sunlight reaching the Earth surface is plenty compared to the average
power consumed by humans. Additionally, solar electric generation has the highest
power density among renewable energies.
2. Solar power is pollution free when used.
3. Facilities can operate with little maintenance or intervention after initial setup.
4. Solar electric generation is economically competitive where grid connection or fuel
transport is difficult, costly or impossible. Examples include satellites, island
communities, remote locations and ocean vessels.
5. When grid-connected, solar electric generation can displace the highest cost electricity
during times of peak demand (in most climatic regions), can reduce grid loading, and
can eliminate the need for local battery power for use in times of darkness and high
local demand.
6. Grid-connected solar electricity can be used locally. This minimizes transmission or
distribution losses.
7. Once the initial capital cost of building a solar power plant has been spent, operating
costs are low compared to existing power technologies.
Disadvantages

1. High initial costs for material and installation and long ROI.
2. Needs lots of space as efficiency is not 100% yet.
3. No solar power at night so there is a need for a large battery bank
4. Devices that run on DC power directly are more expensive
5. Depending on geographical location the size of the solar panels vary for the same power
generation
6. Cloudy days do not produce much energy
7. Solar panels are not being massed produced due to lack of material and technology to
lower the cost enough to be more affordable
8. Solar powered cars do not have the same speeds and power as typical gas powered cars
9. Lower production in the winter months

Electricity and hydrogen

Electricity and hydrogen are different from the other energy sources because they are
secondary sources of energy. Secondary sources of energy—energy carriers— are used to
store, move, and deliver energy in easily usable form. We have to use another energy source to
make electricity or hydrogen. Hydrogen can also be separated from water and from renewables
but hydrogen made from these sources is currently too expensive to compete with other fuels.
Scientists are working on ways to make hydrogen from water and renewables more affordable.

Summary
Energy can be described as the ability to produce change or do work, and that work can be
divided into several main tasks we easily recognize: Energy produces sound, growth, it powers
technology, and it produces heat and motions.

In physics, energy can be defined as the quantitative property that must be transferred to an
object in order to perform work on, or to heat the object.
In chemistry, energy is a characteristic of a substance as a consequence of its atomic, molecular
or aggregate structure.
In biology, energy is an attribute of all biological systems from the biosphere to the smallest
living organism.
Energy is found in different forms, such as light, heat, sound and motion. There are many forms
of energy, but they can all be put into two major categories:
• Kinetic energy
• Potential energy
Potential energy is defined as the energy possessed by a body by virtue of its position relative
to a reference point, such as the ground, or its position in a field of force.
Kinetic energy is a form of energy which an object or particle has due to its motion.
Nuclear energy is the energy obtained from the splitting of the nucleus, or core, of an atom in
a reactor through a process known as nuclear fission.
The material most often used in nuclear power plants is the element uranium. Although
uranium is found in rocks all over the world, nuclear power plants usually use a very rare type
of uranium, U-235.
A nuclear reactor, or power plant, is a series of machines that can control nuclear fission to
produce electricity. The fuel that nuclear reactors use to produce nuclear fission is pellets of
the element uranium. In a nuclear reactor, atoms of uranium are forced to break apart. As they
split, the atoms release tiny particles called fission products. Fission products cause other
uranium atoms to split, starting a chain reaction. The energy released from this chain reaction
creates heat.

Solar energy can be defined as radiant light and heat from the sun that is harnessed using a
range of ever-evolving technologies such as solar heating, photovoltaic, solar thermal energy,
solar architecture, molten salt power plants and artificial photosynthesis. Solar energy can also
be explained as the energy obtained from the radiation emitted by the Sun. Solar energy can
also be defined as the energy radiated from the sun in the form of heat and light and harnessed
for solar power.

Activities
1. What is energy?
2. Write the two main forms of energy.
3. -----------------------------is the energy that is stored in an object due to its position
relative to some zero position.
4. The energy stored in the bonds of atoms and molecules is known as-------------------
5. Electrical energy, thermal energy and nuclear energy are examples of potential energy.
True/ false
6. Look at the image below and use it to answer the questions that follows:
Match the type of energy with the example pictures in the graphic. Answer choices:
Nuclear Energy, Thermal Energy, Chemical Energy, Electrical Energy, Mechanical
Energy, and Electromagnetic Energy.
7. A crane lifts a 75kg mass to a height of 8 m. Calculate the gravitational potential energy
gained by the mass (g = 9.8 N/kg).

8. A helicopter is flying at a height of 1.5km. If it has 50MJ of G.P.E., what is the mass
of the helicopter?

9. Write three examples of gravitational potential energy.

10. A spring with a spring constant of 2.6 N/m is stretched a distance of 0.7m. What is the
potential energy in the system?
11. The mass of a bicycle is 10 kg, and it moves at a constant velocity of 10 km/h. What is
the kinetic energy of the bicycle?
12. What is nuclear energy?
13. The material most often used in nuclear power plants is the element----------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
14. Nuclear power plants usually use a very rare type of uranium known as-----------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
15. ------------------------------- or power plant, is a series of machines that can control
nuclear fission to produce electricity.
16. Fission products cause other uranium atoms to split, starting a ----------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
17. What is solar energy?

Suggested solutions
1. Energy can be described as the ability to produce change or do work, and that work can
be divided into several main tasks we easily recognize: Energy produces sound, growth,
it powers technology, and it produces heat and motions
2. Kinetic energy and potential energy
3. Potential energy
4. Chemical Energy
5. False
6. Answer:
7. Mechanical energy
8. Thermal energy
9. Electromagnetic energy
10. Electric energy
11. Chemical energy
12. Nuclear energy
13. Step by step solution
Ep = m × g × h
m = 75kg
g = 9.8 N/kg
h=8m
Ep = 75kg x9.8 N/kg x 8 m
= 5880J
14. Solution
Ep = m × g × h
m =?
g = 9.8 N/kg
h = 1.5 km change to m = 1500m
Ep = 50MJ change to J = 50 x 1,000,000 = 50,000,000J
Ep/ g × h = m
50,000,000J/ 9.8 N/kg x 1500m = m
m = 3,333kg

15. Example of gravitational potential energy

A raised weight.
Water that is behind a dam.
A bucket of water placed on top of a table
A car that is parked at the top of a hill.
A bicycle parked on top of a mountain
16. Solution
PE= ½ kx2
k = 2.6N/m
x= 0.7m
PE= ½ x 2.6N/m x 0.7 2m
=0.637J
1
17. KE = 2 mv2
m =10kg
v =10 km/h
KE = ½ x 10 x 102
KE = 500J
18. Nuclear energy is the energy obtained from the splitting of the nucleus, or core, of an
atom in a reactor through a process known as nuclear fission.
19. Uranium.
20. U-235.
21. A nuclear reactor
22. chain reaction
23. Solar energy can be defined as radiant light and heat from the sun that is harnessed
using a range of ever-evolving technologies such as solar heating, photovoltaic, solar
thermal energy, solar architecture, molten salt power plants and artificial
photosynthesis.

References

"BP Statistical Review of World Energy (2017)," British Petroleum, June 2017.

Schiermeier, Q. (2008). "Energy Alternatives: Electricity without Carbon," Nature 454, 816

Thomas, T. (2016).""Advantages of Nuclear Energy Use," Physics 241, Stanford University,

Winter.

Cravens, G. (2008). Power to Save the World: The Truth About Nuclear Energy (Knopf).

D. M. Taylor, "Environmental Plutonium in Humans," Appl. Radiat. Isotopes 46, 1245 (1995).

HyperPhysics. (May 27, 2015). Uranium-235 Chain Reaction [Online]. Available:

[Link]
Atomic Archive. (June 16, 2015). Nuclear Chain Reactions [Online]. Available:
[Link]
UC Davis' Chem Wiki. (July 9, 2015). Fission and Fusion [Online]. Available:
[Link]
sion
SECTION 3-SOURCES OF ENERGY
Introduction
My dear student teacher, I welcome you once again to the third section of this unit which is
based on the sub-topic sources of energy. In this section, we will start our discussion by looking
at the two broad classes of sources of energy with their examples, advantages and
disadvantages. Take your pencils, pens, erasers, note books and find a comfortable place to sit
and let us get started. I assure you that you will enjoy the section.
Learning Objectives
By the end of the lesson, you will be able to:
1. Explain the term sources of energy
2. List sources of energy.
3. Groups sources of energy into renewable and nonrenewable.
4. Write and explain advantages of non-renewable energy sources.
5. Write and explain disadvantages of non-renewable energy sources.
6. Write and explain advantages of renewable energy sources
7. Write and explain disadvantages of renewable energy sources.

Sources of Energy
Background
We use many different energy sources to do work. Thousands of years ago, early humans
burned wood to provide light, heat their living spaces, and cook their food. Later, people used
the wind to move their boats from place to place. A hundred years ago, people began using
falling water to make electricity.
Today, people use more energy than ever from a variety of sources for a multitude of tasks and
our lives are undoubtedly better for it. Our homes are comfortable and full of useful and
entertaining electrical devices. We communicate instantaneously in many ways. We live
longer, healthier lives. We travel the world, or at least see it on television and the internet.
Briefly describe where the energy we use in our day to day activities comes from.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Source
Source can be explained as anything or place from which something comes from, start at, arises
from, begin from or obtained from. Or in simple terms the origin of something.
Source of energy can be explained as the place from which energy comes from, start at, arises
from, begin from or obtained from. Or the origin of energy.
Activity
Write any five sources of energy you know;
• ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
• ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
• ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
• ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
• ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Compare your answers to the sources of energy below;

• Fossil fuels( natural gas, coal and oil)

• sun (Solar energy)
• heat inside the earth/earth crust (Geothermal energy)
• Petroleum products
• Hydrocarbon gas liquids
• Uranium (Nuclear energy)
• wind(Wind energy)
• plants (Biomass)
• flowing water (Hydropower)

I believe you got everything right. If not, don’t worry, you will get it next time after going
through what I have listed above.

The above sources of energy can be grouped into two broad classes/ categories:

1. Renewable.
2. Nonrenewable

Activity

Group the sources of energy listed above into;

1. Renewable.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
2. Nonrenewable
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Let us go through the two main sources of energy and compare the results to what you have
and see if you were able to score.

Nonrenewable energy sources/ finite resource

Nonrenewable energy sources are energy source that cannot be easily replenished. It can also
be explained as a resource of economic value that cannot be readily replaced by natural means
at a quick enough pace to keep up with consumption. Non-renewable energy comes from
sources that will run out or will not be replenished in our lifetimes—or even in many, many
lifetimes. Earth minerals and metal ores, fossil fuels (coal, petroleum, natural gas) and
groundwater in certain aquifers are all considered non-renewable resources, though individual
elements are always conserved (except in nuclear reactions). The renewable energy can be used
to generate electricity, to heat our homes, to move our cars, and to manufacture products from
candy bars to MP3 players.
These energy sources are called nonrenewable because they cannot be replenished in a short
period of time. Petroleum, for example, was formed millions of years ago from the remains of
ancient sea life, so we can’t make more quickly. We could run out of economically recoverable
nonrenewable resources someday.
These non-renewable energy sources include;

• Petroleum products
• Hydrocarbon gas liquids
• Uranium (Nuclear energy)
• Fossil fuels( natural gas, coal and oil)

Source; Wikipedia. A coal mine in Wyoming, United States. Coal, produced over millions of
years, is a finite and non-renewable resource on a human time scale.

Most non-renewable energy sources are fossil fuels: coal, petroleum, and natural gas. Crude
oil, natural gas, and coal are called fossil fuels because they were formed over millions of years
by the action of heat from the earth's core and pressure from rock and soil on the remains (or
fossils) of dead plants and creatures such as microscopic diatoms. Carbon is the main element
in fossil fuels. For this reason, the time period that fossil fuels formed (about 360-300 million
years ago) is called the Carboniferous Period.
Hundreds of millions of years ago, even before the dinosaurs, Earth had a different landscape.
It was covered with wide, shallow seas and swampy forests. Plants, algae, and plankton grew
in these ancient wetlands. They absorbed sunlight and created energy through photosynthesis.
When they died, the organisms drifted to the bottom of the sea or lake. There was energy stored
in the plants and animals when they died.

Over time, the dead plants were crushed under the seabed. Rocks and other sediment piled on
top of them, creating high heat and pressure underground. In this environment, the plant and
animal remains eventually turned into fossil fuels (coal, natural gas, and petroleum). Today,
there are huge underground pockets (called reservoirs) of these non-renewable sources of
energy all over the world (through a process called nuclear fission) to create heat and,
eventually, electricity.

Advantages of non-renewable energy sources

• Lots available: Humans have invested a lot of time, effort and money into obtaining
fossil fuels, so we now have a ready supply.
• Easier to find: Fossil fuels can be found all over the world, with many areas already
identified as being rich in these resources.
• Very efficient: Fossil fuels can generate a lot of energy, even from just a small amount
of fuel.
• Simpler to transport: Fossil fuels can be easily transported, e.g. using underground pipes
to move oil and gas.
• Easy set-up: A fossil fuel plant can be set up at any location, as long as there is a
large/commercial quantity of fuel to generate power.

Disadvantages of non-renewable energy sources?

• Environmental pollution: Burning fossil fuels releases carbon dioxide, which is directly
linked to global warming – so fossil fuels are very damaging to the health of our planet.
• Huge amounts of fuel reserves: To keep power stations working, you need truckloads
of fuel. This can make energy generation very expensive.
• Public health issues: Because of all their nasty air pollution, burning fossil fuels can
lead to lung problems and asthma attacks in humans.
• They will run out: Once the earth's supplies of fossil fuels have been used up, they can't
be renewed (at least not for several hundred million years), so we won't be able to use
them for our rising power needs.
• Oil spills: The huge tankers transporting oil sometimes crash and spill their contents
into the sea and nearby coast. This is disastrous for the ocean and land, and can be
deadly for the animals that live there.
• Rising costs: As just a few countries hold a large amount of fossil fuels, fuel prices can
rise without warning.
• Health risks to workers: Mining for coal or drilling for oil can be very dangerous,
resulting in a large number of diseases, injuries and deaths every year.
Renewable energy sources
Renewable energy sources are energy sources that can be easily replenished. These include
biomass, geothermal, hydropower, solar, and wind. They are called renewable energy sources
because their supplies are replenished in a short time. Day after day, the sun shines, the wind
blows, and the rivers flow. We use renewable energy sources mainly to make electricity.

There are five main renewable energy sources:

• sun (Solar energy)

• heat inside the earth/earth crust (Geothermal energy)
• wind(Wind energy)
• plants (Biomass)
• flowing water (Hydropower)

Advantages

• It is in abundance
• It is a clean form of energy
• It does not run out
• It save money
• It has lower maintenance cost
• It provides numerous health and environmental benefits
• It is a safe form of energy
• It can be collected in multiple locations
• It is an economic force
• It provides lower reliance on foreign energy
• It can be used to recycle our waste products
Disadvantages

Natural resources, known as renewable resources, are replaced by natural processes and forces
persistent in the natural environment. There are intermittent and reoccurring renewables, and
recyclable materials, which are utilized during a cycle across a certain amount of time, and can
be harnessed for any number of cycles. The images below are some examples of renewable
energy sources.
Biomass Motion energy. Source –NRDC

Solar energy. Solar panels on the rooftops of East Austin, Texas Roschetzky/IstockPhoto

Source NRDC

At a smaller scale, we can harness the sun’s rays to power the whole house—whether through
PV cell panels or passive solar home design. Passive solar homes are designed to welcome in
the sun through south-facing windows and then retain the warmth through concrete, bricks,
tiles, and other materials that store heat. Some solar-powered homes generate more than enough
electricity, allowing the homeowner to sell excess power back to the grid. Batteries are also an
economically attractive way to store excess solar energy so that it can be used at night.
Scientists are hard at work on new advances that blend form and function, such as solar
skylights and roof shingles.

Fossil fuel (coal, natural gas, and petroleum)

Fossil fuel is a general term for buried combustible geologic deposits of organic materials,
formed from decayed plants and animals that have been converted to crude oil, coal, natural
gas, or heavy oils by exposure to heat and pressure in the earth's crust over hundreds of millions
of years. Fossil fuel is the deposition of organic matter in over millions of years to produce
crude oil. Fossil fuels are the leading non-renewable energy sources around the world. As of
2018, the world's primary energy sources consisted of petroleum (34%), coal (27%), natural
gas (24%), amounting to an 85% share for fossil fuels in primary energy-consumption in the
world. Non-fossil sources included nuclear (4.4%), hydroelectric (6.8%), and other renewables
(4.0%, including geothermal, solar, tidal, wind, wood, waste). Most non-renewable energy
sources are fossil fuels: coal, petroleum, and natural gas. Carbon is the main element in fossil
fuels. For this reason, the time period that fossil fuels formed (about 360-300 million years
ago) is called the Carboniferous Period.

Hundreds of millions of years ago, even before the dinosaurs, Earth had a different landscape.
It was covered with wide, shallow seas and swampy forests. Plants, algae, and plankton grew
in these ancient wetlands. They absorbed sunlight and created energy through photosynthesis.
When they died, the organisms drifted to the bottom of the sea or lake. There was energy stored
in the plants and animals when they died.

Advantages and Disadvantages

Fossil fuels are a valuable source of energy. They are relatively inexpensive to extract. They
can also be stored, piped, or shipped anywhere in the world.
However, burning fossil fuels is harmful for the environment. When coal and oil are burned,
they release particles that can pollute the air, water, and land. Some of these particles are caught
and set aside, but many of them are released into the air.
Burning fossil fuels also upsets Earth’s “carbon budget,” which balances the carbon in the
ocean, earth, and air. When fossil fuels are combusted (heated), they release carbon dioxide
into the atmosphere. Carbon dioxide is a gas that keeps heat in Earth’s atmosphere, a process
called the “greenhouse effect.” The greenhouse effect is necessary to life on Earth, but relies
on a balanced carbon budget.

The carbon in fossil fuels has been sequestered, or stored, underground for millions of years.
By removing this sequestered carbon from the earth and releasing it into the atmosphere,
Earth’s carbon budget is out of balance. This contributes to temperatures rising faster than
organisms can adapt.

Petroleum
Petroleum is a liquid fossil fuel. It is also called oil or crude oil. Petroleum is trapped by
underground rock formations. In some places, oil bubbles rise out of the ground. At the LaBrea
Tar Pits, in Los Angeles, California, big pools of thick oil bubble up through the ground.
Remains of animals that got trapped there thousands of years ago are still preserved in the tar!
Most of the world’s oil is still deep under the ground. We drill through the earth to access the
oil. Some deposits are on land, and others are under the ocean floor.

Once oil companies begin drilling with a “drill rig,” they can extract petroleum 24 hours a day,
seven days a week, 365 days a year. Many successful oil sites produce oil for about 30 years.
Sometimes they can produce oil for much longer. When oil is under the ocean floor, companies
drill offshore. They must build an oil platform. Oil platforms are some of the biggest manmade
structures in the world! Once the oil has been drilled, it must be refined. Oil contains many
chemicals besides carbon, and refining the oil takes some of these chemicals out.

We use oil for many things. About half of the world’s petroleum is converted into gasoline.
The rest can be processed and used in liquid products such as nail polish and rubbing alcohol,
or solid products such as water pipes, shoes, crayons, roofing, vitamin capsules, and thousands
of other items.

Advantages and Disadvantages

There are advantages to drilling for oil. It is relatively inexpensive to extract. It is also a reliable
and dependable source of energy and money for the local community.

Oil provides us with thousands of conveniences. In the form of gasoline, it is a portable source
of energy that gives us the power to drive places. Petroleum is also an ingredient in many items
that we depend on.

However, burning gasoline is harmful to the environment. It releases hazardous gases and
fumes into the air that we breathe. There is also the possibility of an oil spill. If there is a
problem with the drilling machinery, the oil can explode out of the well and spill into the ocean
or surrounding land. Oil spills are environmental disasters, especially offshore spills. Oil floats
on water, so it can look like food to fish and ruin birds’ feathers.

Natural Gas
Natural gas is another fossil fuel that is trapped underground in reservoirs. It is mostly made
up of methane. You may have smelled methane before. The decomposing material in landfills
also release methane, which smells like rotten eggs. There is so much natural gas underground
that it is measured in million, billion, or trillion cubic meters.
Natural gas is found in deposits a few hundred meters underground. In order to get natural gas
out of the ground, companies drill straight down. However, natural gas does not form in big
open pockets. Natural gas is trapped in rock formations that can stretch for kilometers.

To reach natural gas, some companies use a process called “hydraulic fracturing,” or
fracking. Hydraulic means they use water, and fracturing means to “split apart.” The process
uses high-pressure water to split apart the rocks underground. This releases the natural gas that
is trapped in rock formations. If the rock is too hard, they can send acid down the well to
dissolve the rock. They can also use tiny grains of glass or sand to prop open the rock and let
the gas escape.

We use natural gas for heating and cooking. Natural gas can also be burned to generate
electricity. We rely on natural gas to give power to lights, televisions, air conditioners, and
kitchen appliances in our homes. Natural gas can also be turned into a liquid form, called liquid
natural gas (LNG). LNG is much cleaner than any other fossil fuels.

Liquid natural gas takes up much less space than the gaseous form. The amount of natural gas
that would fit into a big beach ball would fit into a ping-pong ball as a liquid! LNG can be
easily stored and used for different purposes. LNG can even be a replacement for gasoline.

Advantages and Disadvantages

Natural gas is relatively inexpensive to extract, and is a “cleaner” fossil fuel than oil or coal.
When natural gas is burned, it only releases carbon dioxide and water vapor (which are the
exact same gases that we breathe out when we exhale!) This is healthier than burning coal.

However, extracting natural gas can cause environmental problems. Fracturing rocks can cause
mini-earthquakes. The high-pressure water and chemicals that are forced underground can also
leak to other sources of water. The water sources, used for drinking or bathing, can become
contaminated and unsafe

Natural gas is one non-renewable energy source.

Photograph by David Cupp

Coal
Coal is a black or brownish rock. We burn coal to create energy. Coal is ranked depending on
how much “carbonization” it has gone through. Carbonization is the process that ancient
organisms undergo to become coal. About 3 meters (10 feet) of solid vegetation crushed
together into 3 meter (1 foot) of coal.
Peat is the lowest rank of coal. It has gone through the least amount of carbonization. It is an
important fuel in areas of the world including Scotland, Ireland, and Finland.

Anthracite is the highest rank of coal. Anthracite forms in regions of the world where there
have been giant movements of the earth, such as the formation of mountain ranges. The
Appalachian Mountains, in the eastern part of the United States, are rich in anthracite.

We mine coal out of the ground so we can burn it for energy. There are two ways that we can
mine coal: underground mining and surface mining.

Underground mining is used when the coal is located below the surface of the Earth, sometimes
300 meters (1,000 feet) deep—that’s deeper than most of the Great Lakes. Miners take an
elevator down a mineshaft. They operate heavy machinery that cuts the coal out of the Earth
and brings it above ground. This can be dangerous work because cutting coal can release
dangerous gases. The gases can cause explosions or make it hard for miners to breathe.

Surface mining is used when the coal is located very near the surface of the earth. To get to the
coal, companies must first clear the area. They take away the trees and soil. The coal can then
be cut out of the ground more easily. Entire habitats are destroyed during this process.

About half the electricity in the United States comes from coal. It gives power to our lights,
refrigerators, dishwashers, and most other things we plug in. When coal is burned, it leaves
“byproducts” that are also valuable. We use the byproducts to make cement, plastics, roads,
and many other things.

Coal is the most plentiful fuel in the fossil family and it has the longest and, perhaps, the most
varied history. Coal has been used for heating since the cave man. Archeologists have also
found evidence that the Romans in England used it in the second and third centuries (100-200
AD).In the 1700s, the English found that coal could produce a fuel that burned cleaner and
hotter than wood charcoal.
During the 1300s in North America, the Hopi Indians used coal for cooking, heating and to
bake the pottery they made from clay. Coal was later rediscovered in the United States by
explorers in 1673.
Advantages and Disadvantages
Coal is a reliable source of energy. We can rely on it day and night, summer and winter,
sunshine or rain, to provide fuel and electricity.

Using coal is also harmful. Mining is one of the most dangerous jobs in the world. Coal miners
are exposed to toxic dust and face the dangers of cave-ins and explosions at work.

When coal is burned, it releases many toxic gases and pollutants into the atmosphere. Mining
for coal can also cause the ground to cave in and create underground fires that burn for decades
at a time.
Biomass Energy
Biomass energy, a renewable energy source, can also be a non-renewable energy source.
Biomass energy uses the energy found in plants. Firewood, charcoal and wastes from fruits and
seeds have been a traditional source of energy for cooking and baking in many homes. This is
called biomass. Biomass is converted into biogas with digesters to produce biogas for
domestic use.
Biomass energy relies on biomass feedstocks—plants that are processed and burned to create
electricity. Biomass feedstocks can include crops such as corn or soy, as well as wood. If people
do not replant biomass feedstocks as fast as they use them, biomass energy becomes a non-
renewable energy source.

Geothermal Heat Pumps

Geothermal technology is a new take on a recognizable process—the coils at the back of your
fridge are a mini heat pump, removing heat from the interior to keep foods fresh and cool. In a
home, geothermal or geoexchange pumps use the constant temperature of the earth (a few feet
below the surface) to cool homes in summer and warm houses.

Geothermal Energy; The three Gorges Dam, the largest renewable energy generating station in
the world. Source; Wikipia.

Other Non-renewable Energy Sources

Nuclear Energy
Nuclear energy is usually considered another non-renewable energy source. Although nuclear
energy itself is a renewable energy source, the material used in nuclear power plants is not.

Nuclear energy harvests the powerful energy in the nucleus, or core, of an atom. Nuclear energy
is released through nuclear fission, the process where the nucleus of an atom splits. Nuclear
power plants are complex machines that can control nuclear fission to produce electricity.
The material most often used in nuclear power plants is the element uranium. Although
uranium is found in rocks all over the world, nuclear power plants usually use a very rare type
of uranium, U-235. Uranium is a non-renewable resource.

Nuclear energy is a popular way of generating electricity around the world. Nuclear power
plants do not pollute the air or emit greenhouse gases. They can be built in rural or urban areas,
and do not destroy the environment around them.
However, nuclear energy is difficult to harvest. Nuclear power plants are very complicated to
build and run. Many communities do not have the scientists and engineers to develop a safe
and reliable nuclear energy program.

Nuclear energy also produces radioactive material. Radioactive waste can be extremely toxic,
causing burns and increasing the risk for cancers, blood diseases, and bone decay among people
who are exposed to it.

Summary
Source can be explained as anything or place from which something comes from, start at, arises
from, begin from or obtained from. Or in simple terms the origin of something.
Source of energy can be explained as the place from which energy comes from, start at, arises
from, begin from or obtained from. Or the origin of energy.

Some sources of energy are; Fossil fuels (natural gas, coal and oil)

• sun (Solar energy)

• heat inside the earth/earth crust (Geothermal energy)
• Petroleum products
• Hydrocarbon gas liquids
• Uranium (Nuclear energy)
• wind(Wind energy)
• plants (Biomass)
• flowing water (Hydropower)

The above sources of energy can be grouped into two broad classes/ categories:

3. Renewable.
4. Nonrenewable.
Most non-renewable energy sources are fossil fuels: coal, petroleum, and natural gas. Crude
oil, natural gas, and coal are called fossil fuels because they were formed over millions of years
by the action of heat from the earth's core and pressure from rock and soil on the remains (or
fossils) of dead plants and creatures such as microscopic diatoms. Carbon is the main element
in fossil fuels.

Advantages of non-renewable energy sources

Disadvantages of non-renewable energy sources?

Advantages of renewable energy resources

• Higher upfront cost-one needs higher upfront money in order to harvest this energy.
• Intermittency –the resources are not available 24/7 all year round.
• Storage capabilities-higher cost of storage facilities.
• It still generate some amount of pollution
• It may not be a permanent energy resource
• It is an energy resources that is difficult to access for many people
• It can take a lot of space to install
Activities
1. Explain the term sources of energy
2. Write seven sources of energy you know.
3. Sources of energy can be grouped into. These are --------------------------------------- and-
---------------------------------------------------
4. Group the sources of energy listed in question 2 into renewable and nonrenewable.
5. Write two advantages of non-renewable energy.
6. Write two disadvantages of non-renewable energy.
7. Write two advantages of renewable energy.
8. Write two disadvantages of renewable energy.
Suggested solutions
1. Source of energy can be explained as the place from which energy comes from, start at,
arises from, begin from or obtained from. Or the origin of energy.
2. Fossil fuels( natural gas, coal and oil), sun (Solar energy), heat inside the earth/earth
crust (Geothermal energy), petroleum products, hydrocarbon gas liquids, uranium
(Nuclear energy), wind(Wind energy), plants (Biomass) and flowing water
(Hydropower).
3. Sources of energy can be grouped into two broad classes/ categories:

Renewable.

Nonrenewable

4. These non-renewable energy sources include;

• Petroleum products
• Hydrocarbon gas liquids
• Uranium (Nuclear energy)
• Fossil fuels (natural gas, coal and oil) etc.
Renewable energy sources:

• sun (Solar energy)

• heat inside the earth/earth crust (Geothermal energy)
• wind(Wind energy)
• plants (Biomass)
• flowing water (Hydropower)

5. Advantages of non-renewable energy sources

• Lots available
• Easier to find
• Very efficient
• Simpler to transport
• Easy set-up
6. Disadvantages of non-renewable energy sources?
• Environmental pollution: Burning fossil fuels releases carbon dioxide, which is directly
linked to global warming – so fossil fuels are very damaging to the health of our planet.
• Huge amounts of fuel reserves: To keep power stations working, you need truckloads
of fuel. This can make energy generation very expensive.
• Public health issues: Because of all their nasty air pollution, burning fossil fuels can
lead to lung problems and asthma attacks in humans.
• They will run out: Once the earth's supplies of fossil fuels have been used up, they can't
be renewed (at least not for several hundred million years), so we won't be able to use
them for our rising power needs.
7. Advantages
• It is in abundance
• It is a clean form of energy
• It does not run out
• It save money
• It has lower maintenance cost
• It provides numerous health and environmental benefits
• It is a safe form of energy
• It can be collected in multiple locations
• It is an economic force
• It provides lower reliance on foreign energy
• It can be used to recycle our waste products
8. Disadvantages
• Higher upfront cost-one needs higher upfront money in order to harvest this energy.
• Intermittency –the resources are not available 24/7 all year round.
• Storage capabilities-higher cost of storage facilities.
• It still generate some amount of pollution
• It may not be a permanent energy resource
• It is an energy resources that is difficult to access for many people
• It can take a lot of space to install.

References

"BP Statistical Review of World Energy (2017)," British Petroleum, June 2017.

Schiermeier, Q. (2008). "Energy Alternatives: Electricity without Carbon. " Nature 454, 816

Thomas, T. (2016). ""Advantages of Nuclear Energy Use," Physics 241, Stanford University,
Winter.

Cravens, G. (2008). Power to Save the World: The Truth About Nuclear Energy .Knopf.

Taylor, D. M. (1995)."Environmental Plutonium in Humans," Appl. Radiat. Isotopes 46, 1245

HyperPhysics. (May 27, 2015). Uranium-235 Chain Reaction [Online]. Available:

[Link]

Atomic Archive. (June 16, 2015). Nuclear Chain Reactions [Online]. Available:
[Link]
UC Davis' Chem Wiki. (July 9, 2015). Fission and Fusion [Online]. Available:
[Link]
sin
SECTION 4-FUELS
Introduction
My dear student teacher, I welcome you once again to the fourth section of this unit which is
based on the topic Fuels. In this section, we will start our discussion by looking at the concept
of fuels, examples of fuels, properties of fuel, types of fuel and their characteristics,
classification of fuels and the appropriate fire extinguisher, fire extinguisher, types and its
operation. As always take your pencils, pens, erasers, note books and find a comfortable place
to sit and let us get started. I assure you that you will enjoy the section.
Learning Objectives
By the end of the lesson, you will be able to:
1. Explain the concept fuels.
2. List some examples of fuels.
3. Explain the properties of fuel.
4. Write and explain the types of fuel and their characteristics.
5. Write and explain the classification of fuels and describe the appropriate fire extinguisher to
quench them.
6. Explain fire extinguisher, describe the types and demonstrate how they operate

Background

In five sentences explain where the entire world gets its energy from.

Read the explanation below to see if what you wrote is similar to it.

The sun gives us energy in abundance. It shines on the entire earth and the energy from it is
converted into chemical energy by plant through a process known as photosynthesis. In the
olden days or even in the villages, we burn dried plants or wood, producing energy in the form
of heat and light. As we burn the wood, energy stored in the wood from the sun during
photosynthesis is released. Currently, the world is moving away from the use of wood as the
main source of energy towards the use of natural gas or oil in our homes, and we use mainly
oil and coal to heat water to produce steam to drive the turbines for our huge power generation
systems. Fuels such as coal, oil, and natural gas are often referred to as fossil fuels. The various
types of fuels (like liquid, solid and gaseous fuels) that are available depend on various factors
such as costs, availability, storage, handling, pollution and landed boilers, furnaces and other
combustion equipment.

Fuel when burnt produces heat. Thus, the substances classified as fuel must necessarily contain
one or several of the combustible elements: carbon, hydrogen, sulphur, etc. In the process of
combustion, the chemical energy of fuel is converted into heat energy. To utilize the energy of
fuel in most usable form, it is required to transform the fuel from one state to another, i.e. from
solid to liquid or gaseous state, liquid to gaseous state, or from its chemical energy to some
other form of energy via single or many stages. In this way, the energy of fuels can be utilized
more effectively and efficiently for various purposes.

With the above explanation, defined energy.

Definitions of fuel

Fuel can be defined as any material that stores potential energy in a form that can be practicably
released and used as heat energy.

Fuels can be explained as dense repositories of energy that are consumed to provide energy
services such as heating, transportation and electrical generation.

Fuels can also be explained as materials that react with other substances to release heat by way
of chemical or nuclear energy:

• Substances that react with other proximate substances to release energy, through the
process of combustion, are known as chemical fuels. These are divided both by their
physical properties (as a solid, liquid, or gas), and by how they occur (as a primary or
natural fuel, or as a secondary or artificial fuel) -Wikipedia.
• Substances that can release nuclear energy by fission or fusion, are known as nuclear
fuels.

Fuel is any substance that can provide heat and produce energy when it is burned. The energy
that is released is mostly in the form of chemical energy or heat energy.

The heat energy that fuels release can be used for domestic, industrial and manufacturing
purposes.
Pause and think

Have done a three day fasting before? Yes /No ----------------------------------------------------

If yes, describe how you felt.------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Describe what happened to your body when you ended the fast.

Well done for your honesty. You will bear with me that during the fasting, especially when you
got to the middle and the ending of the fasting, you were extremely weak. It was like your body
was lacking something very import to drive it. But when you finally ate, the body was now
back on track and ready to move.

What was your body lacking?

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------

If your answer was food, well done. Yes, your body needed food to move on.

We don’t have to forget that our bodies also need energy. Every cell requires energy to perform
its functions. The cells get the energy from organic molecules such as carbohydrates, lipids,
proteins, nucleic acids etc. This process of using fuels is known as cellular respiration. And
these organic molecules are obtained via nutrition, which is why we call food as the fuel of our
bodies.

Even though most fuels ultimately get their energy from the sun they are usually considered to
be a primary energy source.
Fuel –Wikipedia

Examples of Fuel

• Natural gas.
• Hydrogen.
• Methanol.
• Gasoline.
• Diesel.
• Biodiesel.

Each fuel releases its own set of energy i.e. all of them do not release the same amount of
energy upon combustion. The energy produced by combustion of one kg of fuel is known as
its calorific value. Fuels can be differentiated based on their calorific value for their efficient
usage. The cost of fuels are also different from one another. Fuels can therefore be categorized
based on a number of criteria.

Calorific values of fuels

The calorific value of a fuel is the total energy released as heat when the substance undergoes
combustion. The table below gives some colorific values of some fuels.

FUEL GJ PER TONNE (NET) GJ PER TONNE (GROSS)

Coal 25.7 27
Coke 29.8 29.8
Wood (domestic) 14.7 16.3
Wood (industrial) 19 20.3
Biodiesel 37.2 38.7
Bioethanol 26.8 29.7
Crude oil 43.4 45.7
Petroleum products 43.9 46.2
Ethane 46.6 50.7
Butane and propane (LPG) 46 49.3
Properties of ideal fuel:

• It is readily available.
• It is cheap.
• It burns easily in the air at a moderate rate.
• It releases a large amount of energy.
• It should not leave behind any undesirable substances which can be harmful to us.
• It should not affect the environment adversely.

Types of fuel

In your own point of view, how will you classify fuels?

Fuels can be generally classified into two factors:

1. On the basis of their state:

• Solid Fuels
• Liquid Fuels
• Gaseous Fuels
2. On the basis of their occurrence:
• Natural Fuels
• Artificial Fuels

A summary of types of fuels with examples

Natural Fuels(Primary) Artificial Fuels (Secondary )

Solid Fuels
Wood, Coal, Peat, Dung
Tanbark, Bagasse, Straw, Charcoal, Coal, Briquettes
Oil Shale
Liquid Fuels
Gasoline, Diesel Fuel , Heating Oil, Jet Fuel,
Petroleum Petrochemical Feedstocks, Waxes, Lubricating Oils,
Asphalt, Coal Tar, Shale-Oil, Alcohols, Etc.
Gaseous Fuels
Coal gas, Producer Gas, Water Gas, Hydrogen,
Acetylene, Blast Furnace Gas, coke oven gas, CNG,
Natural Gas
propane, methane
Oil Gas
Solid Fuel

Charcoal

Fuels which are found in their solid state at room temperature are generally referred to as Solid
Fuels. Solid fuels can also be explained as solid materials that combust to produce energy. They
were the fuels responsible for the invention of fire. This type of fuel is the first to be used by
man. Wood was used to create fire. Charcoal is still a very important fuel source for all
manufacturing products and power industry. Wood is still widely used in houses to cook food
and provide warmth.

Coal was another one of the influential fuels known to man as it leads the way for the industrial
revolution, from firing furnaces to running steam engines. As we speak, they are still used
commonly in our homes and in the industries.

The most common examples of solid fuels are:

Wood
Coal
Oil shale
Tanbark
Bagasse
Straw
Charcoal
Coke
Briquettes

• Coke: High-carbon material derived from coal.

• Waste: Everyday waste can be converted to a fuel source as long as it does not contain
toxic materials.
• Wood: Includes firewood, charcoal, woodchips, pellets, sawdust, and so on.
• Charcoal: Produced by heating wood in the absence of oxygen.
• Coal: Combustible sedimentary rock.
• Biomass: Natural plant materials, such as wheat, straw and other fibrous material.
• Peat: Organic matter and decayed vegetation that can be burned when dry.

Characteristics of wood

They are easily available and most commonly used solid fuel. They have been used since
ancient time after the discovery of the fire. Out of the 39 Types of fuels known, wood is used
in almost every village, town and cities in the world. Wood is used for industrial purposes.

Calorific Value of wood

The colorific value of wood was determined by Engineer A. Marjhevskee.

Kinds of Wood Lowest Calorific Value (cal/kg) Highest Calorific Value (cal/kg)
Oak 4729 4750
Birch 4695 4831
Elm 4674 4833
Alder 4745 4839
Pine 4818 5310
Fir 4887 4900
Lrch 4775 4840

Coal classification

Coal is classified into three types as follows;

1. Anthracite
2. Bituminous
3. Lignite.
Coal is further classified as semi-anthracite, semi-bituminous and sub-bituminous. Anthracite
is the oldest coal from a geological perspective. It is a hard coal composed mainly of carbon
with little volatile content and without moisture. It is soft and composed mainly of volatile
matter (combustible constituents of coal that vaporize when coal is heated). It has low fixed
carbon (thus carbon in its free state, not combined with other elements).

Chemical and physical properties of coal

The chemical properties of coal refer to the various elemental chemical constituents such as
carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and sulphur. The physical properties of coal include the heating
value, moisture content, volatile matter and ash.

Advantages:

• They have reasonable ignition temperature

• The ash contents are high
• Easier to transport
• Low production cost.
• Easier to store without any risk of spontaneous explosion.
• Moderate ignition temperature.
• They burn with clinker formation

Disadvantages:

• Large portion of energy is wasted.

• High cost of handling
• Difficult to control.
• High content of ash
• It burns with clinker formation

Liquid Fuel

They are fuels derived from the fossilized remains of dead plants and animals by exposure to
heat and pressure in the Earth’s crust. Liquid fuels can also be explained as fuels we burn to
produce mechanical energy and kinetic energy. The fumes of the liquid fuel are flammable
instead of liquid. The most common type of liquid fuel is petroleum, which is formed from
dead plants and animals. Examples of petroleum include:

• Gasoline/petrol: Produced by removing crude oil from petroleum and distilling it in

refineries.
• Diesel: A mixture of aliphatic hydrocarbons extracted from petroleum, and processed
to reduce the sulphur level.
• Kerosene: Extracted from petroleum.

Natural gas can be compressed to a liquid and is much 'cleaner' than other hydrocarbon fuels.
However, to maintain the fuel in a liquid state it requires a constant high pressure.

Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) is a mixture of propane and butane, and is more easily
compressed than natural gas.

Biodiesel

This is a diesel fuel based on vegetable oil or animal fat, although it yields around 10% less
energy than conventional diesel.

Alcohols

The most common types of alcohol fuels are:

• Methanol: Produced from methane, methanol is the lightest and simplest form of
alcohol.
• Ethanol: Most commonly found in drinks, but can be combined with gasoline for use
as a fuel.
• Butanol: Usually produced by fermenting biomass using bacteria, butanol has a high
energy content.

Hydrogen

Liquefied hydrogen is commonly used as liquid rocket fuel. Large volumes of hydrogen are
required for successful combustion.

Types of liquid fuel

Petroleum
Oils from distillation of petroleum
Coal tar
Shale-oil
Alcohols, etc.

The properties of liquid fuels

DENSITY It is the ratio of the mass of the fuel to the volume of the fuel at a reference
temperature of 15°C. It is important for assessing ignition qualities and
other quantitative calculations. It is measured by an instrument called a
hydrometer.
SPECIFIC It is the ratio of the weight of a given volume of oil to the weight of the
GRAVITY same volume of water at a given temperature.
VISCOSITY It is a measure of its internal resistance to flow. Viscosity depends on the
temperature and decreases as the temperature increases. It is measured by
viscometer.
FLASH It is the lowest temperature at which the fuel can be heated so that the
POINT vapour gives off flashes momentarily when an open flame is passed over
it. The 66 °C is the flash point for furnace oil.
POUR POINT It is the fuel's lowest temperature at which it will pour or flow when cooled
under prescribed conditions. It is a rough estimation of the lowest
temperature at which fuel oil is ready to be pumped.
SPECIFIC It is the amount of calories needed to raise the temperature of 1 kg of oil by
HEAT 10oC. Unit - kcal/kg0C.
CALORIFIC It measures the heat or energy produced. Gross calorific value (GCV)
VALUE assumes all vapour produced during the combustion process and it is fully
condensed. Net calorific value (NCV) assumes the water leaves with the
combustion products without fully being condensed. Fuels should be
compared based on the net calorific value.
SULPHUR The amount of sulphur in the fuel oil depends on the source of the crude oil
and on the refining process. The sulphur content for the residual fuel oil is
in the order of 2 - 4 %.
ASH It is related to the inorganic material or salts (compounds of sodium,
CONTENT vanadium, calcium, magnesium, silicon, iron, aluminium, nickel etc.) in the
fuel oil and ash levels in distillate fuels are negligible.
CARBON It indicates the tendency of oil to deposit a carbonaceous solid residue on a
RESIDUE hot surface.
FLASH POINT
The flash point is the temperature at which the fuel has enough vapour to be set alight by a
flame. Others like wood, paper, coal, charcoal grass, plastics, oils and paints are combustible
but not very flammable because they have low flash points. Some organic solvents and their
flash points

Solvent + 13 flashpoint/°C
Methanol + 10
Benzene -11
Propanone (acetone) -18
Carbon di sulphide -30
Ethanal (acetaldehyde) -38
Ethoxyethane (diethylether) -45
Petroleum ether (40° -60°C) -5

Advantages

• Higher calorific value per unit mass as compare to solid fuels.

• Burn without dust, ash, clinkers.
• Can be stored indefinitely without any loss.
• They are clean in use and economic to handle.
• Heat loss in chimney is very low due to greater cleanliness.
• They require less furnace space and excess air for complete combustion
• Easy to fire. Fire can be extinguished easily by stopping liquid fuel supply.
• Easy to transport through pipe.
• Controlling the combustion is easier.
• Transportation easier through pipes and stored indefinitely without loss.
• Loss of energy is comparatively lower.
• Require less furnace/heater space for combustion

Disadvantages:

• Storage methods are costlier.

• Greater risk of fire hazards.
• Special storage tanks are required for storing liquid fuels.
• They give bad odour.
• Specially constructed burners and spraying apparatus are required for efficient burning
of liquid fuels.
• Cost of liquid fuel is much higher compared to solid fuel.
• Special burning equipment required for more efficient combustion.

Gross calorific values for different fuel oils

Fuel oils Gross Calorific Value (kCal/kg)

Fuel Oil 11,100

Diesel Oil 10,800

L.D.O 10,700

Furnace Oil 10,500

LSHS 10,600

Percentages of sulphur for different fuel oils (adapted from Thermax India Ltd.)

Fuel oil Percentage of Sulphur

Kerosene 0.05 - 0.2
Diesel Oil 0.05 - 0.25
L.D.O 0.5 - 1.8
Furnace Oil 2.0 - 4.0
LSHS < 0.5
STORAGE OF FUEL OIL

It can be potentially hazardous to store furnace oil in barrels. It is better to store it in cylindrical
tanks. The average recommended storage size is to provide for at least 10 days of normal
consumption. Industrial heating fuel storage tanks are generally vertical mild steel tanks
mounted above the ground. For safety and environmental reasons, walls must be built around
tanks to contain accidental spillages. Tanks must be cleaned regularly to get rid of sludge built
over time. It can be done annually for heavy fuels and every two years for lighter fuels. All
leaks from joints, flanges and pipelines must be attended to as soon as they are detected. Fuel
oil should be free from possible contaminants such as dirt, sludge and water before it is fed to
the combustion system.

Fuel Gas/ Gaseous fuel

Fuel Gas as the name suggests are fuels that are in a gaseous state under normal conditions.
Gaseous fuels occur in nature, besides being manufactured from solid and liquid fuels. Most
gaseous fuels are composed of hydrocarbons, methane, carbon monoxide, propane, hydrogen
or a mixture of them all. Gaseous fuels are distributed through pipes from point of origin to
point of use, although some are liquefied for storage. Odorizes are often added to fuel gases so
that they can be detected, since an undetected buildup of gas can lead to an explosion.

Natural gas (mainly made of methane) is the most commonly used type.

Some other examples are:

• Biogas: A mixture of gases derived from organic matter breaking down in the absence
of oxygen.
• Blast furnace gas: Derived from the manufacture of metallic iron in blast furnaces.
• Coal gas: Derived from coal.
• Water gas: A mixture of carbon monoxide and hydrogen produced from synthetic gas.
• Syngas: Synthetic gas consisting of hydrogen, carbon monoxide, and often carbon
dioxide.

Advantages:

• Transportation through pipes is easy.

• Sparking combustion is really easy.
• Higher heat content.
• Clean after use.
• No special burner technology is required.

Disadvantages:

• Large storage tanks required.

• As they are highly inflammable, the chance for fire hazards are extremely high and
strict safety measures need to be followed.

Other examples of fuels

Biofuel

Biofuel can be solid, liquid or a gas. The only condition is that it must be derived from Biomass.
So essentially it is fuel derived from living matter that can be replenished. One such example
is ethanol made from sugarcane wastes.

Fossil Fuel

Fossil fuels are the dead and decayed remains of plants and animals subjected to decades of
pressure and temperature under the earth’s crust. Primarily fossil fuels are hydrocarbons. They
are convenient and effective. These are conventional fuels. They are also non-replenishable.
They have formed over thousands of years in the earth’s core where fossilized remains of
animals and plants have been exposed to high pressure and temperatures. These are fast
depleting and our dependence on them is a major concern for all of humanity.
Types of fossil fuels:

• Coal
• Oil
• Natural Gas

Let us look at some other types of fuel:

Nuclear Fuel

Nuclear Fuel Element

Any material consumed to give out nuclear energy is a nuclear fuel. Most nuclear fuels contain
heavy fissile elements that are capable of nuclear fission. When these fuels are struck by
neutrons, they are in turn capable of emitting neutrons when they break apart. This makes
possible a self-sustaining chain reaction that releases energy at a controlled rate in a nuclear
reactor or with a very rapid uncontrolled rate of a nuclear weapon. Some common examples of
nuclear fuel are uranium-235 (235U) and plutonium-239 (239Pu).

Ethanol

It is also referred to as ethyl alcohol or grain alcohol. This is a flammable, colorless liquid
which is made up of the fermentation of sugars in certain plants. Ethanol can be made from a
variety of plants, including switch grass, corn stalks and leaves (called corn Stover) and some
varieties of cactus. The ethanol derived from these sources is called cellulosic ethanol. Ethanol
can also be processed from our abundant new supplies of natural gas.
Do you know that most of the gasoline we buy every day already contains ethanol? Most of
them contains Up to 10 percent (E10). One of the advantages of adding ethanol to gasoline is
that it increases octane, which boosts engine power and performance. There are over 20 million
flex-fuel vehicles on the road, all built to run safely and efficiently on E85, a fuel blend that’s
between 51 percent and 83 percent ethanol. In most countries like the U.S., there are more than
3,000 stations that sell E85 (85 percent of ethanol). All vehicles built since model year 2001
can also safely run on E15 (a blend of up to 15 percent ethanol), which more stations around
the country are beginning to offer. At the pump, E85 often sells for 15-30 percent less than
regular gasoline. Ethanol does have less energy content than gasoline, but the engine efficiency
gains from ethanol mean that E85 can cost less per mile to use.

Methanol

It is also known as methyl alcohol or wood alcohol. This combustible, colorless liquid is the
simplest alcohol. For that reason, the process for converting raw materials to methanol is
simpler than with ethanol, making the potential cost savings to the consumer very attractive.
Anything that once was biomass can be converted to methanol for use as a fuel. The raw
material “feedstocks” are coal, natural gas and farm waste.

Did you know that the garbage we throw away in our landfills can or emits methane gas over
time?

Yes, it does emit methane gas over sometime. This gas can be captured and converted to
methanol. On the centrally, ethanol can be drank by humans but methanol is toxic and not fit
for humans to drink. It is rather used in the production of antifreeze, solvent and window
cleaner. It is also the main component in windshield wiper fluid, which we dump directly into
the atmosphere.

It is known that race car drivers use methane cars most of the times. Give your views on this.

Gasoline

Out of every 42 gallons of crude of crude oil, only 19 gallons ends up as gasoline. After being
extracted from the ground, crude is shipped to an oil refinery, where it is heated to temperatures
above 350°C in a pressurized chamber and distilled into gasoline. Nevertheless, before it can
be sold, this unfinished gasoline needs to be blended with additives to boost its low octane
rating in order to achieve increased efficiency and avoid harming engines with pre-ignition
and/or knocking. Without this being done, it can cause severe engine damage. In the U.S., lead
was used as additive to methanol, however, it was banned in 1920s through to the mid-1990s.
Currently, it is now mixed with aromatics, ethanol, or some combination of the two to boost its
octane rating. The use of aromatics is still controversial because some scholars because it is
toxic and carcinogenic nature.

Diesel

Similar to gasoline, diesel fuel must also be refined before it can be used. 12 gallons of diesel
fuel can be obtained from every 42-gallon barrel of crude oil. During the refinery process, crude
oil is heated to a temperatures between 200°C and 350°C and then distilled into diesel fuel.
Diesel is by and large acknowledged as being more efficient than gasoline but it emits fewer
greenhouse gases such as NOx, which is one of the main components in smog and engines that
use diesel have trouble starting in cold weather.

Natural gas

Methane (CH4) is the main component of natural gas, and it’s often found in the same wells
that bring up oil. Methane is a simple molecule that burns cleanly, and currently there’s so
much of it underground in the United States that oil drillers find it unprofitable to capture, so
it’s burned off into the atmosphere. As a fuel, methane, in its gas form, has to be compressed
(CNG) to be used in vehicles. CNG is mostly used in heavy-duty or commercial vehicles. Some
types of vehicles, such as delivery trucks, use liquefied natural gas (LNG), which is cooled to
-162°C. Individuals can also convert existing cars to run on natural gas (as CNG), but an EPA
certified kit costs between $5,000 and $10,000.

Hydrogen

Hydrogen is one of the most common element on Earth. Hydrogen (H2) can be used as a
transportation fuel for electrochemical cells. Hydrogen is pumped into fuel cell as a gas, and
when it go up in flames, it combines with oxygen to produce only water and heat, with zero
toxic emissions. Nevertheless, hydrogen is hardly ever found in its pure state. It is often times,
already bonded to other molecules such as water (H2O). You need energy to split this bond (H-
O), and currently that is difficult to balance out. Hydrogen requires only a 4 percent mixture
with air to burn, so it’s easy to detonate and burns very quickly. Some of the disadvantages of
the usage of hydrogen as a fuel is that during storage, it leaks and one needs a higher amount
of energy to compress it into an energy density appropriate for vehicle refueling. The vehicles
that use hydrogen as fuels are also very expensive than vehicles that run on gasoline or alcohols.

Biodiesel
This is vegetable oil that has had a glycerol removed, a process that involves adding methanol
and lye. This makes the mixture less viscous and gives it additional energy density. This makes
the fuel easier to use in vehicles year-round, even in winter. Straight vegetable oil (SVO) also
is a “drop-in” fuel, but cold weather can cause the fuel to gel. Note that biodiesel replaces diesel
fuel, not gasoline.

Classification of Fire

Fire can be explained as the rapid oxidation of any combustible material. It is a chemical
reaction that involves fuel, heat, and oxygen. They are generally referred to as the fire
triangle/ the combustion triangle. If they are combined in the right proportions they always
produce fire. When one side of the fire triangle is removed, the fire will be extinguished.

[Link]
dwellings_fig1_309367060

[Link]

Fire

A fire cannot ignite without an object or material present to enable the fire to burn. Some of
the combustible materials which will help to fuel a fire include:

• Wood
• Paper
• Oil
• Fabrics

While some materials burn more rapidly than others, a fire can still spread relatively easily,
particularly in the home. Even wallpaper can help to fuel a fire – a material that cannot be
easily removed from the home.

Heat

Heat will also help to ignite a fire and keep it burning. As a combustible material succumbs to
a fire, heat will be naturally produced.

Oxygen

Despite 21% of the Earth’s atmosphere being made up of oxygen, this small amount is just
enough to both ignite a fire and sustain it, should the other two elements be present, too. A fire
will only require 16% oxygen to burn, and so this oxidizing agent will significantly accelerate
the chemical reaction taking place.

The removal of one of these fire component quenches the fire.

How to safely remove heat, fuel and oxygen from a fire

To prevent the ignition and subsequent spread of fire, it’s important that one or more elements
are removed from The Fire Triangle. The action you should take depends on the element you
wish to remove.

Removing fuel
Source; Australian academic science

Use fire-resistant materials from one place to another all over your premises/house where
possible. This will help in preventing the fire from spreading and igniting non-fire-resistant
materials. Fire-resistant materials can be used in the manufacturing of a variety of items,
including: clothes, building materials, office, furniture, wall, ceiling etc.

Removing heat

Source; Australian academic science

Fast-moving gusts of air will help to remove the heat from a fire. This is like blowing out
candle. Things are always not that simplistic. Several fires are too large to be blown out as
simple as that. For this method to be effective or realistic, water/ appropriate material for that
type of fire should be applied instead to remove the heat from a fire. A water fire extinguisher
would be the safest way of doing this. However, water fire extinguishers cannot be used on all
types of fire, and so extra care should be taken on electrical or cooking fires.

Removing oxygen
Source; Australian academic science

Oxygen can effectively sustain a fire, and so it’s important that it’s removed from the triangle
to prevent the spread of a fire. Its removal can be achieved by using either a carbon dioxide or
a foam fire extinguisher. For cooking or kitchen fires, a fire blanket will aid in the suffocation
of the fire.

The fire tetrahedron

Scholars have also introduced a 4thelement in the equation, known as the uninhibited chain
reaction, thereby giving the fire chemical reaction an additional side. This is referred to as the
fire tetrahedron.

Source: Wikipedia

The fire tetrahedron symbolizes the addition of a component in the chemical chain reaction, to
the three already present in the fire triangle. Once a fire has started, the resulting exothermic
chain reaction sustains the fire and allows it to continue until or unless at least one of the
elements of the fire is blocked. Foam can be used to deny the fire the oxygen it needs. Water
can be used to lower the temperature of the fuel below the ignition point or to remove or
disperse the fuel. Halon can be used to remove free radicals and create a barrier of inert gas in
a direct attack on the chemical reaction responsible for the fire.

In the same way, as soon as one of the four elements of the tetrahedron is removed, combustion
stops.

Did you know that the fire we use on a day to day bases is grouped into different classes?

A fire class is a system of categorizing fire with regard to the type of material and fuel for
combustion. This is used to determine the type of extinguishing agent that can be used for that
fire class.

There are six classes of fire. These are:

Classes of fire
• Class A - fires involving solid materials such as wood, paper or textiles.
• Class B - fires involving flammable liquids such as petrol, diesel or oils.
• Class C - fires involving gases.
• Class D - fires involving metals.
• Class E - fires involving live electrical apparatus
• Class F – fire involving cooking oils and fats
Image Description Europe Unite Australia Suitable Way of
(Europea d n suppression extinguishe
n States r
Standard
EN 2)
Combustibl Class A Class Class A Most water, wet
e materials A suppression chemical
(wood, techniques suppression,
paper, or dry
fabric, chemical
refuse) powder
Flammable Class B Class Class B Inhibiting carbon
liquids B chemical dioxide fire
chain extinguisher
reaction,
such as dry
chemical or
Halon
Flammable Class C Class Class C Inhibiting CO2 and dry
gases B chemical powder
chain extinguisher
reaction,
such as dry
chemical or
Halon
Flammable Class D Class Class D Specialist dry powder
metals D suppression extinguisher
required
Electrical Not Class Class E As ordinary Carbon
fire classified C combustibles dioxide
(formerly , but CO2,
Class E) conductive NOVEC
agents like 1230, FM-
water not to 200 and dry
be used chemical
powder
extinguisher
s
Cooking Class F Class Class F Suppression Wet
oils and fats K by removal chemical
of oxygen or
water mist
The tables below give summaries of the classes of fire and the best fire extinguisher(s) to use.

[Link]
[Link]

Ordinary combustibles - Class A

Class A fires consist of ordinary combustibles such as wood, paper, fabric, and most kinds of
trash. They may be extinguished by water, wet chemical suppression, or dry chemical powder
or monoammonium phosphate.

Flammable liquid and gas - Class B

A carbon dioxide fire extinguisher rated for flammable liquids and gasses

These are fires whose fuel is flammable or combustible liquid or gas. They are classified as
"Class B". In the European/Australian system, flammable liquids are designated "Class B"
having flash point less than 100 °C, while burning gases are separately designated "Class C".
These fires follow the same basic fire tetrahedron (heat, fuel, oxygen, chemical reaction) as
ordinary combustible fires, except that the fuel in question is a flammable liquid such as
gasoline, or gas such as natural gas. A solid stream of water should never be used to extinguish
this type because it can cause the fuel to scatter, spreading the flames. The most effective way
to extinguish a liquid or gas fueled fire is by inhibiting the chemical chain reaction of the fire,
which is done by dry chemical and Halon extinguishing agents, although smothering with CO2
or, for liquids, foam is also effective. Halon has fallen out of favor in recent times (except for
aircraft fire extinguishment systems) because it is an ozone-depleting material; the Montreal
Protocol declares that Halon should no longer be used. Chemicals such as FM-200 are now the
recommended halogenated suppressant.
Electrical - Class C (US) /Class E (Australia)

Electrical fires are fires involving potentially energized electrical equipment. The US system
and the Australian system describes these systems as "Class C" and "Class E" respectively.
This category of fire possibly will be triggered by short-circuiting machinery or overloaded
electrical cables. These fires can be hazardous or even fatal to firefighters using water or other
conductive agents. This is because electricity may be conducted from the fire, through water,
to the firefighter's body, and then earth. Electrical shocks.

Electrical fire can be quenched in the same way as an ordinary combustible fire, but remember
not to use the type of extinguisher that contains water, foam, and other conductive agents. The
possible type of extinguisher to fight this type of fire are carbon dioxide-CO2, NOVEC 1230,
FM-200 and dry chemical powder extinguishers such as PKP and even baking soda are
especially suited to extinguishing this sort of fire. As soon as electricity is cut off to the
equipment involved, it will generally become an ordinary combustible fire.

Metal- Class D

Class D fires involve flammable metals such as alkali metals ( lithium and potassium), alkaline
earth metals( magnesium , calcium ), and group 4 elements (titanium and zirconium). This kind
of fire is most at times hazardous because of lack of knowledge of their characteristics by a
number of people hence not properly prepared to fight them. Therefore, even a small metal fire
can spread and become a larger fire in the surrounding. Certain metals burn in contact with air
or water (for example, sodium), which exacerbates this risk. Masses of combustible metals do
not usually represent great fire risks because heat is conducted away from hot spots so
efficiently that the heat of combustion cannot be maintained. In consequence, significant heat
energy is required to ignite a contiguous mass of combustible metal. Generally, metal fires are
a hazard when the metal is in the form of sawdust, machine shavings or other metal "fines",
which combust more rapidly than larger blocks. Metal fires can be ignited by the same ignition
sources that would start other common fires.

Care must be taken when extinguishing metal fires. Water and other common firefighting
agents can excite metal fires and make them worse. They can be fought with dry powder
extinguisher containing sodium chloride granules, graphite powder and powdered copper that
work by smothering and heat absorption. These dry powder extinguishers should not be
confused with those that contain dry chemical agents. The two are not the same, and only dry
powder should be used to extinguish a metal fire. Using a dry chemical extinguisher in error,
in place of dry powder, can be ineffective or actually increase the intensity of a metal fire.

Cooking oils and fats (kitchen fires) - Class K

Class K (American system) / Class F (European/Australian systems) fires involve unsaturated
cooking oils in well-insulated cooking appliances located in commercial kitchens.

Technically, they are a subclass of the flammable liquid/gas class but they have special
characteristics of higher flash point. A special class K extinguisher will safely smother the fire
by turning the oil into a foam. A water mist can also be used to extinguish such fires. As with
Class B fires, a solid stream of water should never be used to extinguish this type because it
can cause the fuel to scatter, spreading the flames. Fire blankets may be used to stop a fire in a
kitchen or on a stove.

FIRE EXTINGUISHERS

Fire extinguishers are specialized pieces of equipment that are designed to put out fires of
different classes. Do you have the right fire extinguishers for your unique risks? When you run
a business, you are responsible for the safety of your employees and guests. In the cause of an
accident, you may wish you have a fire extinguisher on site, but you may not be as prepared as
you think. The common fire extinguisher is one of the most well-known and widely used safety
tools. However, you cannot buy the first fire extinguisher you see and expect it to keep your
business safe. Every single business is dissimilar and so are the possible dangers they face.
When buying fire extinguishers for your business, it’s important to buy the right type of fire
extinguisher for your needs. Every fire extinguisher is rated for the types of fires it’s effective
in putting out. Once you are aware of what types of fires your business may encounter, you can
buy the proper extinguisher for protecting against them.

Operating fire extinguisher

There are a number of different types of portable fire extinguishers, each can be identified by
the colour coding and labelling. Check that the extinguisher you intend to use is suitable for
the type of fire encountered.

Steps

Below are four basic steps for using modern portable fire extinguishers:

The acronym PASS is used to describe these four basic steps.

1. Pull (Pin) -P
Pull pin at the top of the extinguisher, breaking the seal. Some units require the
releasing of a lock or latch, or pressing a puncture lever. When in place, the pin keeps
the handle from being pressed and accidentally operating the extinguisher.
Immediately test the extinguisher. (Aiming away from the operator) This is to ensure
the extinguisher works and also shows the operator how far the stream travels.

When the safety pin on the fire extinguisher is removed and the lever pressed down, the
bottle containing the acid is broken. The acid on coming into contact with the sodium
hydrogen trioxocarbonate (IV) solution in the cylinder produces carbon (IV) oxide.

2 NaHCO3 (aq) + H2SO4 (aq) → Na2SO4 (aq) + 2 H2O (l) + 2 CO2 (g)

The gas produced fills the rest of the cylinder and gushes out of the nozzle in the form
of a jet spray which can be directed at the fire.

2. Aim-A
Approach the fire standing at a safe distance. Aim the nozzle or outlet towards the base
of the fire.
3. Squeeze-S
Squeeze the handles together to discharge the extinguishing agent inside. To stop
discharge, release the handles.
4. Sweep-S
Sweep the nozzle from side to side as you approach the fire, directing the extinguishing
agent at the base of the flames. After an A Class fire is extinguished, probe for
smouldering hot spots that could reignite the fuel.

[Link]

Visit the site above to watch a video on how to operate a fire extinguisher.

Types of extinguishers

Water extinguishers

Water extinguishers are the types of extinguisher used to fight Class A fires. The class A fires
are the fires fuelled by solid materials such as paper, wood and textiles.

Types of water extinguishers

• Water jet
• Water spray
• Water with additives
• Water mist or fog.
Water jet extinguishers work by spraying a jet of water at the burning materials, cooling them
and preventing re-ignition. Water jet extinguishers cannot be used on live electrical equipment.

Water spray extinguishers use a very fine spray of water droplets, each droplet is surrounded
by air which is non-conductive.
Water extinguishers with additives are water extinguishers with foaming chemicals added.
The water loses its natural surface tension meaning that it can soak into the burning materials
more effectively.

Water mist or fog extinguishers apply water in the form of mist, or fog, the droplets are much
smaller than those from the water spray extinguisher. The smaller the droplet the larger its
surface area in relation to its size, the quicker the droplet evaporates which absorbs the heat
energy faster.

Water fire extinguishers work by pressurised water cooling the burning material. To use them
safely, direct the jet at the base of the flame and keep it moving across the area of the fire. If
the fire is spreading vertically, aim the water fire extinguisher at the fire’s lowest point then
follow upwards. Watch out for hot spots that could still exist after the main fire appears to be
extinguished.

[Link]

Operations

(a) Remove the safety clip

(b) Remove from the wall / stand mountings by holding the top handle with the left hand.
(c) Place it on the ground at 6 meter or less from the scene of fire.
(d) Hold the pipe in left hand and press the knob hard enough to puncture the C02 cartridge
seal disc.
(e) Direct the jet at the base of the fire by lifting the extinguisher with tight hand.
(f) Move around the fire to extinguish the last clinker.
(g)Use the entire contents of the extinguisher.
(h) Place the empty extinguisher in the horizontal position after use.

[Link]

All water extinguishers have a red label.

Foam extinguishers

Foam fire extinguishers can be used on Class A and B fires. They are most suited to
extinguishing liquid fires such as petrol or diesel and are more versatile than water jet
extinguishers because they can also be used on solids such as wood and paper. The foam
extinguishes liquid fires by sealing the surface of the liquid, preventing flammable vapour
reaching the air and starving the fire of fuel. They are not suitable for use on free flowing liquid
fires.

Foam extinguishers have a cream label.

[Link]

Visit the site above to watch videos on how to quench fire using foam extinguisher.

Powder extinguishers

Powder extinguishers are a good multi-purpose fire extinguisher because they can be used on
Class A, B and C fires. Fires involving electrical equipment can also be quenched by powder
extinguishers. One must watch out because they do not cool the fire so it can re-ignite. They
can also create a loss of visibility and can also create breathing problems. For these reasons,
they are not usually recommended for use inside buildings except there is absolutely no
alternative.

Powder extinguishers have a blue label.

Carbon dioxide extinguishers (CO2)

CO2 extinguishers are perfect for places with a lot of electrical equipment such as offices or
server rooms because they are safe to use on fires involving electrical apparatus. These types
of extinguishers do not leave any residue, unlike a foam extinguisher. Class B fires involving
flammable liquids such paraffin or petrol can also be put off using CO2 extinguisher. CO2
extinguishers work by smothering the fire and cutting off the supply of air.

Carbon Dioxide Extinguishers (CO2) have a black label.

Wet chemical extinguishers

Class F fires (involving cooking oils and fats, such as lard, sunflower oil, olive oil, maize oil
and butter), Class A fires (wood, paper and fabrics) and Class B fires (flammable liquids) can
be quenched by wet chemical extinguishers. The wet chemical rapidly knocks the flames out,
cools the burning oil and chemically reacts to form a soap-like solution, sealing the surface and
preventing re-ignition.

Wet chemical extinguishers have a yellow label.

Fire blankets

Woven fibre-glass and asbestos blankets are used to put out small fires in the laboratory, the
workshop and the home. Fire blankets are primarily for use on hot oil fires such as frying pans
or small deep fat fryers. They can also be used on someone whose clothing has caught fire.
They work by smothering the fire, stopping access to the oxygen fuelling it and extinguishing
it.

Solved Questions

Q: What is a calorific value?

a. The Amount of heat energy produced on complete combustion of 1 Kg of fuel

b. Amount of heat energy produced on complete combustion of 100 Kg of fuel
c. The Amount of heat energy produced on complete combustion of 1 g of fuel
d. Amount of heat energy lost on complete combustion of 1 Kg of fuel

Solution: The correct option is “A”. Calorific value is the quantity of heat produced by the
complete combustion of a given mass of a fuel, usually expressed in joules per kilogram. It can
be defined as the amount of heat energy produced on complete combustion of 1 Kg of fuel.

Q: What are the characteristics of an ideal fuel?

Ans: The characteristics of good fuel are as follows

• High calorific value.
• Proper ignition temperature (neither be too low nor too high)
• Cause no pollution to the atmosphere on combustion.
• A controllable rate of combustion.
• Easily available in plenty and cheap in cost.
• Easy to handle and transport

Summary

Fuel can be defined as any material that stores potential energy in a form that can be practicably
released and used as heat energy.

Fuels can be explained as dense repositories of energy that are consumed to provide energy
services such as heating, transportation and electrical generation.

The cells in our bodies get the energy from organic molecules such as carbohydrates, lipids,
proteins, nucleic acids etc. This process of using fuels is known as cellular respiration. And
these organic molecules are obtained via nutrition, which is why we call food as the fuel of our
bodies.

Examples of Fuel are:

• Natural gas.
• Hydrogen.
• Methanol.
• Gasoline.
• Diesel.
• Biodiesel.

The calorific value of a fuel is the total energy released as heat when the substance undergoes
combustion.

Properties of ideal fuel:

Fuels can be generally classified into two factors:

3. On the basis of their state:

• Solid Fuels
• Liquid Fuels
• Gaseous Fuels
4. On the basis of their occurrence:
• Natural Fuels
• Artificial Fuels

Coal is classified into three types as follows;

1. Anthracite
2. Bituminous
3. Lignite.

The flash point is the temperature at which the fuel has enough vapour to be set alight by a
flame. Others like wood, paper, coal, charcoal grass, plastics, oils and paints are combustible
but not very flammable because they have low flash points.

Classes of fire are as follows:

• Class A - fires involving solid materials such as wood, paper or textiles.

• Class B - fires involving flammable liquids such as petrol, diesel or oils.
• Class C - fires involving gases.
• Class D - fires involving metals.
• Class E - fires involving live electrical apparatus
• Class F – fire involving cooking oils and fats

Activities
1. Defined fuel.
2. --------------------------------------- any substance that can provide heat and produce
energy when it is burned.
3. What name do we give to the fuel of the body?
4. Write three examples of fuel
5. Write the colorific values of coal, coke, wood and crude oil.
6. List three properties of fuels.
7. Name the two main classes of fuels.

The image above is an example of which of the classes of fuels?

8. The youngest coal from a geological perspective is----------------------------------
9. Describe the flash point of a fuel.
10. Fires involving solid materials such as wood, paper or textiles are known as-------------
---------------------------------------------------------------
11. With the aid of a table, describe the class of fire and the appropriate fire extinguisher to
use to quench them.
Solutions
1. Fuel can be defined as any material that stores potential energy in a form that can be
practicably released and used as heat energy. Or Fuels can be explained as dense
repositories of energy that are consumed to provide energy services such as heating,
transportation and electrical generation.
2. Fuel.
3. Food.
4. Examples of Fuels are natural gas, hydrogen, methanol, gasoline, diesel, biodiesel.
5. The colorific values (net) of coal, coke, wood and crude oil are 25.7, 29.8, 14.7, and
43.9 respectively.
6. Properties of ideal fuel:
It is readily available.

It is cheap.

It burns easily in the air at a moderate rate.

It releases a large amount of energy.

It should not leave behind any undesirable substances which can be harmful to us.

It should not affect the environment adversely.

7. Fuels can be generally classified into two factors:

On the basis of their state:

On the basis of their occurrence

8. It is an example of the state of fuel.

9. Lignite
10. The flash point is the temperature at which the fuel has enough vapour to be set alight
by a flame.
11. Class A fires.
References
The Fire Triangle Archived 2012-04-06 at the Wayback Machine, Hants Fire brigade, accessed
June 2009
"Wildland Fire Facts (2018): There Must Be All Three". National Park Service. Retrieved 30
August 2018.

"What is a fire illuminate shape? triangle". FireRescue1. Retrieved 2017-02-14.

"The Fire Tetrahedron (A pyramid)". Information about the Fire Triangle/Tetrahedron and
Combustion. Safelincs Ltd. Retrieved 30 August 2012.
[Link] Archived 2009-01-26 at the
Wayback Machine Titanium MSDS
Schobert, Harold (2013). Chemistry of Fossil Fuels and Biofuels. Cambridge University Press.
ISBN 978-0521114004.
Forbes, Robert James (1958). Studies in Early Petroleum History. Brill Publishers. p. 149.
"Fossil fuel". EPA. Archived from the original on 12 March 2007. Retrieved 2007-01-18.
SECTION 5
ENERGY AND ENERGY CHANGES
Introduction

My dear student teacher, I welcome you once again to the fifth section of this unit ‘Energy’.
This section is based on the topic Energy and Energy Changes. In this section, we shall begin
our discussion by looking at heat capacity, specific heat capacity, systems and their
surroundings, enthalpy changes, endothermic and exothermic reactions, Hess’s law of constant
heat summation and bond energy / bond dissociation energy. As we do always, take your
pencils, pens, erasers, note books and find a comfortable place to sit and let us get started. I
assure you that you will enjoy this section also.

Learning Objectives
By the end of the lesson, you will be able to:
1. Explain the concept heat capacity and specific heat capacity and work some examples .
2. Describe systems and their surroundings and give some day- to- applications.
4. Explain enthalpy changes and should be able to solve problems in enthalpy changes.
5. Explain endothermic and exothermic reactions give some examples
5. State and explain Hess’s law of constant heat summation
6. Explain fire extinguisher, describe the types and demonstrate how they operate
7. Explain bond energy / bond dissociation energy and explain the steps in calculating bond
energy.

Background
Energy can change from one form to another. For example chemical energy might change to
heat energy. Light energy can change to chemical energy. For example in the garden there are
plants and flowers growing. Light energy from the sun lands on the leaf. Inside the leaf a
chemical change happens. It is this chemical energy which helps the plant grow.
Remember we don't make or destroy energy. The energy may be changed into different sorts,
but it is not lost or made.
Thermodynamics is a branch of physical science which deals with the associations between
heat and all forms of energy such as mechanical, electrical, or chemical energy etc.

Thermodynamics is the study of energy transfer or energy changes in chemical reactions.

Thermodynamics can also be defined as a branch of physics that deals with heat, work, and
temperature, and their relation to energy, radiation, and physical properties of matter.

Energy changes measured in joules (J) or kilojoules (kJ).

Heat Capacity and Specific Heat Capacity

Heat capacity/ thermal capacity is defined as the quantity of heat to be given to a mass of a
material to produce a unit change in its temperature. The SI unit is joule per kelvin.

Specific heat capacity

Pause and think

Wading and swimming pool both full of water at the same temperature and being supplied with
the same amount of heat. Which of the pools in your opinion will have a higher temperature?

Why?---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Answer

The wading pool would certainly rise in temperature more quickly than the swimming pool.
The heat capacity of an object depends both on its mass and its chemical composition. Because
of its much larger mass, the swimming pool of water has a larger heat capacity than the wading
pool so it will need more heat to rise to the same temperature as that of the wading pool which
has a smaller mass.

In your own words, describe specific heat capacity.---------------------------------------------------

Specific Heat-symbol Cp
Different substances such as metals, wood, plastics, water, and sand respond to heat in different
ways. If a metal chair or a metal bed sits in the bright sun on a hot day, it may become quite
hot to be touched. If you have an equal mass of water in the same sun, it will not become as
hot as the metal. We would say that water has a high heat capacity (the amount of heat required
to raise the temperature of an object by 1oC). Water is very resistant to changes in temperature,
while metals in general are not.

The specific heat of a substance is the amount of energy required to raise the temperature of 1
gram of the substance by 1 degree Celsius (°C). .

Specific heat capacity of a substance can also be defined as the amount of energy that must
be added, in the form of heat, to one unit of mass of the substance in order to cause an increase
of one unit in its temperature.

The symbol for specific heat is cp, with the p subscript referring to the fact that specific heats
are measured at constant pressure. The units for specific heat can either be joules per gram per
degree (J/goC) or equivalently joules per kilogram per degree (J/(kg K) or calories per gram
per degree (cal/goC).
Formula: The heat capacity and the specific heat are related by C=cm or c=C/m. The mass
m, specific heat c, change in temperature ΔT, and heat added (or subtracted) Q are related by
the equation: Q=mcΔT.

Specific heats of some common substances.

Substance Specific Heat (J/g/oC)

Water (l) 4.18
Water (s) 2.06
Water (g) 1.87
Ammonia (g) 2.09
Ethanol (l) 2.44
Aluminum (s) 0.897
Carbon, graphite (s) 0.709
Copper (s) 0.385
Gold (s) 0.129
Iron (s) 0.449
Lead (s) 0.129
Mercury (l) 0.140
Silver (s) 0.233

The specific heat capacity of the substances in the table above means the amount of energy that
must be added, in the form of heat, to one unit of mass of the substances in order to cause an
increase of one unit in its temperature. Or the amount of energy required to raise the
temperature of 1 gram of the substance by 1 degree Celsius (°C). For example, the specific heat
capacity of Carbon, graphite (s) = 0.709 J/g/oC means you need 0.709 J of energy in order to
raise the temperature of 1g of Carbon, graphite by 1 oC. The specific heat capacity of water
(g) in the gaseous state is 1.87 J/g/oC means you need 1.87J of energy in order to raise the
temperature of 1 g of water in the gaseous state by 1oC.

Pause and think

The specific heat capacity of water in the liquid state is 4.18 J/g/oC. Explain.

Notice that water has a very high specific heat compared to most other substances. Water is
commonly used as a coolant for machinery because it is able to absorb large quantities of heat
before its temperature can be raised by 1oC. Coastal climates are much more moderate than
inland climates because of the presence of the ocean. Water in lakes or oceans absorbs heat
from the air on hot days and releases it back into the air on cool days.

Let us try the worked examples below:

Worked example

Calculate the specific heat change in 100g of ammonium trioxonitrate (v) (NH4NO3) with
specific heat capacity of (NH4NO3) = 1. 4x 103 Jkg-1K-1 when it is dissolved in 2000 cm3 of
water with specific heat capacity of H2O=4.18 X103Jkg-1K-1 and the temperature fell by 10 oC.

Specific heat capacity of (NH4NO3) = 1. 4x 103 Jkg-1K-1

Specific heat capacity of H2O=4.18 X103Jkg-1K-1

Density of water =1.8gcm-3

Solution

2000cm3 of water =200g of water (since 1cm =1g, from density of water)

Mass of water in kilogram=2kg

Temperature difference = 10 oC.

=10K

Heat change in water, ∆H H2O

= Mass, m x specific heat capacity CH20 X temperature difference

∆H H2O = M x CH20 x ∆T

= 2 x 4.18 x 10

= 8.36 x 104 J

Mass of NH4NO3 = 100g

= 0.1kg

‫∆ ؞‬H NH4NO3 =M x C x ∆T

= 0.1 x 1.4 x103 x 10J

‫ ؞‬Total heat change, ∆H r x n

= (83.6 + 1.4) x 103

= 85 x 103 J

2. Calculate the heat change that takes place when 1 mole conc. H2SO4 is added to 500cm3 of
water and the temperature rises by 6 oC. (C H2O= 4.18 Jg -1 oC-1).

Solution

500cm3 of water=500g

∆T = 6 oC

∆Hsoln = mC ∆T

=500 x 4.18 x6

= 12540J

= -12. 54 KJ

The negative sign means 12. 54 KJ of heat is given out when concentrated H2SO4 is diluted to
a molar solution.
A System and its Surroundings

Energy is defined as the ability or capacity of a system to do work.

Have you cooked palm soup before?

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------

List some of the things you added to your soup.

Which part of the saucepan contains the soup and which part of the sauce does not contain
soup?

Our main focus was the palm soup in which we made sure it was well done and everything was
in it at the right proportion. Here, the palm soup in the cooking pot is under study. Since it is
under study by us, we say it is a system.

What then is a system? In a single sentence, describe a system.

A system can be defined as the set of substances and energy that is being studied.

The part of the system which does not contain the palm soup is referred to us the boundary.

What then is a boundary?

Around the part under study is the boundary of the system. The boundary of the system is the
part around the system that is not under study. Outside the boundary is the surroundings. The
surroundings are the rest of the universe, including the container/pot in which the reaction
(soup) is carried out. So we can say that the soup inside the saucepan (system) and outside the
pot (surroundings) is the Universe. It separate the system from the rest of the universe that
interacts with the system which is the surroundings. This can be summarize in a simple
equation as; system + surroundings = Universe or Universe= system surroundings,
Surroundings = universe-system.

If reactions are taking place in a jar, everything inside the jar is the system, and everything
outside the jar is the surroundings. The surroundings are everything not in the system, which
means the rest of the universe. The surroundings can be explained as everything in the
universe that is not part of the system.

A system can be described as an organized collection of parts (or subsystems) that are highly
integrated to accomplish an overall goal. The system can also be defined as a specific portion
of matter in a given space that is being studied during an experiment or an observation. If one
part of the system is changed, the nature of the overall system is changed, as well. A system
and its surroundings/environs can be as large as the rain forests in Ghana or as small as the
contents of a beaker in Winnesec chemistry laboratory. In real-world for a laboratory chemist,
the system is the specific chemicals being reacted, while the surroundings is the immediate
vicinity within the room. During most processes, energy is exchanged between the system and
the surroundings. If the system loses a certain amount of energy, that same amount of energy
is gained by the surroundings. If the system gains a certain amount of energy, that energy is
supplied by the surroundings. When physical or chemical changes occur, they are generally
accompanied by a transfer of energy.

The law of conservation of energy states that in any physical or chemical process/reaction,
energy is neither created nor destroyed. This means the entire energy in the universe is
conserved. As the energy is being lost by the system, the surroundings receives it and as the
surroundings loss the energy, the system also receives it. During most processes, energy is
exchanged between the system and the surroundings. If the system loses a certain amount of
energy, that same amount of energy is gained by the surroundings. If the system gains a certain
amount of energy, that energy is supplied by the surroundings.

A primary goal of the study of thermochemistry is to determine the quantity of heat exchanged
between a system and its surroundings.

Looking at the explanation for a system, how will you group a system?

Describe the system you have grouped above.

Types of systems

There are three main types of systems. These are;

1. Open system
2. Closed system
3. Isolated system

Open System

An open system is a system that freely exchanges energy and matter with its surroundings. For
instance, when you are boiling soup in an open saucepan on a stove, energy and matter are
being transferred to the surroundings through steam. The saucepan is an open system because
it allows for the transfer of matter (adding spices, water, salt etc. in the saucepan) and for the
transfer of energy (heating the saucepan and allowing steam to leave the saucepan).

Matter can be exchanged easily: by adding matter (i.e spices) or removing matter (i.e tasting
what is being cooked). Energy can be lost by bringing the system close to an object that
dissipates heat (i.e. Bunsen burner, stove, etc.). By doing so, one is able to change the
temperature of the system and therefore, induce energy through heat. Through work, the energy
of a system can also be increased. Example of inducing work in a system is mixing the coffee
or milo in a coffee or a tea cup with a spoon. By mixing the coffee, work is done as the coffee
is being moved against a force.
Closed System

A closed system is a system that exchanges only energy with its surroundings, not matter. By
putting a lid on the saucepan, matter can no longer be transferred because the lid prevents
matter from entering the saucepan and leaving the saucepan.

The pot permits energy transfer. Imagine putting the saucepan on a stove and heating it.

The saucepan allows energy transfer as the saucepan heats up and heats the contents inside it.
For instance, when a lid is placed on a beaker, it becomes a closed system or when you cover
a pot of soup on a stove, it also becomes a closed system. When the contents in the beaker/pot
are boiled, the sides of the beaker and pot will start getting foggy and misty. The fog and mist
is the steam which covers the sides of the container because it cannot escape the beaker/pot
due to the lid. The ability for the beaker/pot to produce this steam means that the beaker/pot
allow for energy transfer. Meaning even though a closed system cannot allow matter transfer,
it can still permit energy transfer.
Isolated System

Any system which does not allow the exchange of heat/energy and matter between it and its
surroundings is known as an isolated system.

What type of system would you have if you replaced a thermos for the saucepan/pot? Describe
the system.

A thermos is used to keep things either cold or hot. A thermos does not allow both matter nor
energy transfer. The thermos, like any other closed container, does not allow matter transfer
because it has a lid that does not allow anything to enter or leave the container. As a result, the
thermos is what we call an isolated system. An isolated system does not exchange energy or
matter with its surroundings. For example, if soup is poured into an insulated container (as
seen below) and closed, there is no exchange of heat or matter. The fact is, in reality, a thermos
is not perfect in keeping things warm/cold. It is very difficult in creating true isolated system.
Another example is a well lagged closed calorimeter.
The table and the images below give a brief summary of the types of systems.

System Exchange energy Exchange matter

Isolated No No
Closed Yes No
Open Yes Yes
Applications

We interact with thousands of closed and open systems every day. Lunch food is normally
placed in some sort of closed container (so that things don't enter or leave the container). Our
hot tea or coffee is normally put in thermos flask so it can stay hot for a longer period of time.
Anything can be defined as a system, and everything else would then be the surroundings. Our
homes, schools, market, hospitals, police station etc. can be a system and outside the homes,
schools, market, hospitals and the police station is the surroundings.
The type of system one is dealing with has many implications regarding the assumptions and
calculations one is allowed in chemistry. Furthermore, based on systems and surroundings,
scientists have come up with a couple of laws known as laws of thermodynamics.

The first and second law of thermodynamics, briefly stated, are:

1. The internal energy of an isolated system stays constant.

2. The entropy of an isolated system tends to increase.

The first law is based upon the definition of an isolated system. Internal energy is a sum of a
system's heat and work. As discussed earlier, heat and work are forms of energy. An isolated
system is by definition a system that does not allow energy transfer. Thus, it makes sense to
say that the internal energy of an isolated system stays constant because it does not change at
all.

The second law of thermodynamics, increasing entropy of an isolated system, asks for basic
understanding of entropy. Entropy is the disorder within a system. For example, a solid has no
disorder (atoms are packed into a cube and cannot move) whereas a gas has more disorder
(atoms bouncing all over the place). Thus, this law states that the entropy of an isolated system
tends to increase (i.e. a chemical reaction taking place in an isolated system will never have a
liquid becoming a solid because that is a decrease in entropy).

Summary

A system can be described as a small part of the universe that we are studying.

Around the part we are studying is a boundary. It separates the system from the rest of the
universe.

The rest of the universe that is not part of what we are studying is the surroundings.

The system is said to be insulated if the boundary prevent heat from entering or leaving the
system.

An isolated systems is a system which can exchange neither matter nor energy with its
surroundings. In effect, it prevents matter from leaving or entering the system. E.g. a well
lagged closed calorimeter and a well-insulated closed thermos flask.

Closed systems are systems which can exchange energy but not matter with their
surroundings. Eg. The earth- this is because the overall mass stays constant since it only
receives sunlight (energy) while the overall mass stays constant without any exchange from
space. Another example is a cooking pot or a frying pan on a stove when its lid is closed.

Any system which can exchange both matter and energy with their surroundings is known as
an open systems.
A state function is a property of a system that depends on only its present state, not its history.
A reaction or process in which heat is transferred from a system to its surroundings is
exothermic. A reaction or process in which heat is transferred to a system from its surroundings
is endothermic.

Activity

1. Which type of thermodynamic system is an ocean, an aquarium, a pizza delivery bag,

a greenhouse?
2. A closed system contains 2g of ice. Another 2g of ice are added to the system. What is
the final mass of the system?
3. An isolated system has an initial temperature of 30oC. It is then placed on top of a
bunsen burner for an hour. What is the final temperature?
4. What type of energy does a stationary pencil contain? Falling pencil?
5. What do the first and second laws of thermodynamics have to do with systems?
6. Classify the following into open, closed or isolated system:
a. Animals and plants
b. A refrigerator or a fridge
c. A solar cooker
Solution

1. Ocean: open, aquarium: closed, a pizza delivery bag: isolated, a greenhouse: closed.
2. The final mass will be 2g. Remember, a closed system does not allow for mass
exchange.
3. The final temperature will be 30oC. Remember, an isolated system does not allow
energy transfer.
4. A stationary pencil has potential energy and a falling pencil has kinetic energy.
5. The first law of thermodynamics is based on an isolated system because the first law of
thermodynamics says that the internal energy of an isolated system stays constant. This
can only be said for an isolated system because it is the only system that does not allow
energy transfer. The second law of thermodynamics states that the entropy of an
isolated system increases.
6. A. animals and plants- there is a mass and energy exchanged so it is an open system.

B. a refrigerator or a fridge has an energy exchange but no mass exchanged giving you
a closed system.

C. a solar cooker has an energy exchanged but no mass exchanged giving you a closed
system.

Trial

Write five examples each of all the three types of systems.

[Link]
k_Maps/Supplemental_Modules_(Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry)/Thermodyna
mics/Fundamentals_of_Thermodynamics/A_System_and_Its_Surroundings

Enthalpy changes

Enthalpy

What is Enthalpy?

Envisage that you had two cars at your disposal for a business trip. Both cars need 45 gallons
of gasoline to be put into them to run. Despite all two cars needing 45 gallons, one would go
450 miles on that tank, while the other would go 1200 miles.

Which of the cars would you prefer to use on the long journey trip? -------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

I guess you would choose to take the 600-mile tank for a long trip, right? Even though both
cars require the same amount of energy, one is much better at using that energy to operate.

This same idea is what drives some reactions. Often a lot of energy is needed to be put into a
reaction to make it start. But for favorable reactions, the ending energy level is often lower than
the starting energy. The amount of energy in a reaction or in a compound is called enthalpy.

Enthalpy can be defined as a thermodynamic quantity equivalent to the total heat content of a
system. It can also be defined as the sum of the pressure and volume of a thermodynamic. It is
equal to the internal energy of the system plus the product of pressure and volume. Symbol-H.

The enthalpy of a system is measured by the sum of the internal energy and the product at
constant pressure and volume:

H = E + PV ………………….. (i)

E = internal energy of the system

P = Pressure of the system

V = volume of the system.

Enthalpy change is the name given to the amount of heat evolved or absorbed in a reaction
carried out at constant pressure. Enthalpy change is the heat change accompanying a chemical
reaction at constant volume or constant pressure. The enthalpy change tells the amount of heat
absorbed or evolved during the reaction. It is denoted by ΔH. Only the change in enthalpy
(ΔH) can be measured. ΔH is read as “delta H”. A negative ΔH means heat flows from a system
to its surroundings; a positive ΔH means heat flows into a system from its surroundings.

It is also called heat content. Thus the enthalpy change is

ΔH = Hproducts – Hreactants

ΔH = Hp – Hr ……………… (ii)

ΔV = the change in volume at constant temperature and pressure

ΔE = the sum of the change in internal energy at constant volume

ΔH = the change in enthalpy at constant pressure.

From equation (i)-

ΔH = ΔE + PΔV …………………… (iii)

Let us consider a reaction

aA + bB → cC + dD

Change in number of moles = [Link] moles of products – no. of moles of reactants.

= (c + d) – (a + b)

= Δn

If V = the volume occupied by one mole of gas, the change in volume,

ΔV = change in number of moles X volume occupied by one mole of gas.

ΔV = Δn X V

PΔV = P (Δn X V) PΔV = PV X Δn ………………… (iv)

But for one mole of gas PV = RT. By placing this value in equation (iv) we get

PΔV = RT X Δn

Substituting the value of PΔV in equation (iii) we get

ΔH = ΔE + Δn RT
Here it should be noted that to calculate Δn, the no. of moles of reactants and products in only
gaseous state are considered. The value of gas constant

R = 8.314 J/mol.K or 1.987 cal/mol.K

Importance of enthalpy/enthalpy change

• It has a number of applications in thermal engineering.

• It is used to calculate the heat of reaction of a chemical process.
• Change in enthalpy is used to measure heat flow in calorimetry.
• Measuring the change in enthalpy allows us to determine whether a reaction was
endothermic (absorbed heat, positive change in enthalpy) or exothermic (released heat,
a negative change in enthalpy.)
• Enthalpy is used to calculate minimum power for a compressor.
• Enthalpy change occurs during a change in the state of matter.

Endothermic and exothermic reactions

When a chemical reaction happens, a substance can become warmer or colder. For this reason,
heat will flow to things around it, or from things around it, until its temperature is the same
again or at equilibrium with its surroundings. At constant pressure, this amount of heat tells
how much the enthalpy changed.

For instance, if you burn gasoline/ petrol in an open air, heat is released by the gasoline. For
example, if we presume 200 joules of heat were released after burning the petrol, then the
enthalpy of the petrol/gasoline has been reduced by 200 joules. The change in enthalpy (∆H)
for this reaction was ∆H = –200J. The negative sign means energy has been given off to the
surroundings. If a chemical reaction gives off heat (warming its surroundings), then the
enthalpy of the reaction is said to have decreased. The value of ∆H is negative. If the system
had absorbed energy from the surroundings, the value of ∆H would have been positive. This
kind of reactions are termed as exothermic and endothermic respectively.

Exothermic reaction

An exothermic reaction can be defined as a reaction in which energy is released in the form of
light or heat. A chemical reaction or physical change is exothermic if heat is released by the
system into the surroundings. Because the surroundings is gaining heat from the system, the
temperature of the surroundings increases. The sign of q for an exothermic process is negative
because the system is losing heat. Many chemical reactions release energy in the form of heat,
light, or sound. Exothermic reactions may occur spontaneously and result in higher
randomness or entropy (ΔS > 0) of the system. They are denoted by a negative heat flow (heat
is lost to the surroundings) and decrease in enthalpy (ΔH < 0). In the lab, exothermic reactions
produce heat or may even be explosive.

Examples of exothermic reactions:

• The thermite reaction
• A neutralization reaction (e.g., mixing an acid and a base to form a salt and water)
• A neutralization reaction.
• rusting of iron (rust steel wool with vinegar)
• The thermite reaction.
• Reaction between water and calcium chloride.
• Reaction between sodium sulfite and bleach (dilute sodium hypochlorite)
• Reaction between potassium permanganate and glycerol.
• Corrosion of metal (an oxidation reaction)

• Some polymerization reactions such as the setting of epoxy resin

• The reaction of most metals with halogens or oxygen
• Nuclear fusion in hydrogen bombs and in stellar cores (to iron)
• Nuclear fission of heavy elements
• The reaction between zinc and hydrochloric acid
• Respiration (breaking down of glucose to release energy in cells)
• Dissolving an acid in water
• Lighting a match
• A fireworks display
• Lighting coals on a barbeque
• Starting a gas oven
• Any combustion reaction
• Combustion of fuels such as wood, coal and oil/petroleum
• The reaction of alkali metals and other highly electropositive metals with water
• Condensation of rain from water vapor
• Mixing water and strong acids or strong bases
• The reaction of acids and bases
• Dehydration of carbohydrates by sulfuric acid
• The setting of cement and concrete
• Most polymerization reactions
• Combustion of a fuel
• Respiration
• Nuclear fission
• Lighting firewood for a campfire
• Burning a piece of paper
Endothermic reaction

Endothermic reactions are chemical reactions in which the reactants absorb heat energy from
the surroundings to form products. If a chemical reaction absorbs heat (cooling its
surroundings), then the reaction's enthalpy increases. A chemical reaction or physical change
is endothermic if heat is absorbed by the system from the surroundings. In the course of an
endothermic process, the system gains heat from the surroundings and so the temperature of
the surroundings decreases. The value of ∆H is positive. The quantity of heat for a process is
represented by the letter q. The sign of q for an endothermic process is positive because the
system is gaining heat. When endothermic reactions absorb energy, a temperature drop is
measured during the reaction. Endothermic reactions are characterized by positive heat flow
(into the reaction) and an increase in enthalpy (+ΔH). The value of ΔH can be positive,
negative or zero. If ΔH is zero that means there is no heat change during the reaction, neither
heat is absorbed or evolved.

When trying to classify a process as exothermic or endothermic, watch how the temperature of
the surroundings changes. An exothermic process releases heat, and causes the temperature of
the immediate surroundings to rise. An endothermic process absorbs heat and cools the
surroundings. Can you think of a way to test the classification of each of these processes?

Examples of Endothermic and Exothermic Processes

[Link]

Endothermic

[Link]

• Photosynthesis. Plants use the energy from the sun to convert carbon dioxide and water
into glucose and oxygen. This reaction requires 15MJ of energy (sunlight) for every
kilogram of glucose that is produced:
Sunlight + 6CO2 (g) + H2O (l) → C6H12O6 (aq) + 6O2 (g)

• Dissolving ammonium chloride in water

• Cracking alkanes
• Nucleosynthesis of elements heavier than nickel in stars
• Evaporating liquid water
• Melting ice/ ice cubes

(Robert Zunikoff)

• Separating ion pairs

• Cooking an egg
• Baking bread
• Making an anhydrous salt from a hydrate.
• Melting solid salts.
• Sublimation of dry ice into carbon dioxide gas.
• Evaporating liquid water.
• Converting frost to water vapor
• Mixing water with potassium chloride
• Reacting ethanoic acid with sodium carbonate
• Electrolytic decomposition of sodium chloride (table salt) into sodium hydroxide and
hydrogen chloride
• Melting solid salts
• Sublimation of dry ice into carbon dioxide gas
• Converting frost to water vapor (melting, boiling, evaporation, and sublimation are
endothermic processes)
• Making an anhydrous salt from a hydrate
• Forming a cation from an atom in the gas phase
• Nucleosynthesis in stars of elements heavier than nickel
• Nuclear fusion of elements heavier than iron in a supernova
• Splitting a gas molecule
• Cracking alkanes
• Thermal decomposition reactions
• Mixing water and ammonium nitrate

Summary of examples of exothermic and endothermic reaction

Exothermic processes Endothermic processes

making ice cubes melting ice cubes

formation of snow in clouds conversion of frost to water vapor

condensation of rain from water vapor evaporation of water

a candle flame forming a cation from an atom in the gas

phase

mixing sodium sulfite and bleach baking bread

rusting iron cooking an egg

burning sugar producing sugar by photosynthesis

Exothermic processes Endothermic processes

forming ion pairs separating ion pairs

Combining atoms to make a molecule in splitting a gas molecule apart

the gas phase

mixing water and strong acids mixing water and ammonium nitrate

mixing water with an anhydrous salt making an anhydrous salt from a hydrate

crystallizing liquid salts (as in sodium melting solid salts

acetate in chemical handwarmers)

nuclear fission reaction of barium hydroxide octahydrate

crystals with dry ammonium chloride

mixing water with calcium chloride reaction of thionyl chloride (SOCl2) with
cobalt(II) sulfate heptahydrate

[Link]
[Link]

Summary of endothermic and exothermic reactions:

Endothermic Exothermic
heat is absorbed (feels cold) heat is released (feels warm)
energy must be added for reaction to occur reaction occurs spontaneously
disorder decreases (ΔS < 0) entropy increases (ΔS > 0)
increase in enthalpy (+ΔH) decrease in enthalpy (-ΔH)

Facts

• Endothermic and exothermic reactions are chemical reactions that absorb and release
heat, respectively.
• A good example of an endothermic reaction is photosynthesis.
• Combustion is an example of an exothermic reaction.
• The categorization of a reaction as endothermic or exothermic depends on the net heat
transfer.
• In any given reaction, heat is both absorbed and released. For example, energy must
be input into a combustion reaction to start it (lighting a fire with a match), but then
more heat is released than was required.
Types of reactions

Enthalpy of a reaction (ΔHrxn) is the difference in enthalpy between products and reactants;
the units of ΔHrxn are kilojoules per mole. Reversing a chemical reaction reverses the sign of
ΔHrxn.

Reversing a reaction or a process changes the sign of ΔH. For example, ice absorbs heat
when it melts (electrostatic interactions are broken), so liquid water must release heat when it
freezes (electrostatic interactions are formed).

Heat + H 2 O (s) → H 2 O (l) ΔH>0

H 2 O (l) → H 2 O (s) + heat ΔH<0

In both cases, the magnitude of the enthalpy change is the same; only the sign is different

The magnitude of ΔHrxn also depends on the physical state of the reactants and the products
because processes such as melting solids or vaporizing liquids are also accompanied by
enthalpy changes: the enthalpy of fusion (ΔHfus) and the enthalpy of vaporization (ΔHvap),
respectively. The overall enthalpy change for a series of reactions is the sum of the enthalpy
changes for the individual reactions, which is Hess’s law.

Enthalpy of combustion (ΔHcomb): Enthalpy changes measured for the combustion of virtually
any substance that will burn in oxygen; these values are usually reported as the enthalpy of
combustion per mole of substance.

Enthalpy of fusion (ΔHfus): The enthalpy change that accompanies the melting, or fusion, of 1
mol of a substance; these values have been measured for almost all the elements and for most
simple compounds.

Enthalpy of vaporization (ΔHvap): The enthalpy change that accompanies the vaporization of 1
mol of a substance; these values have also been measured for nearly all the elements and for
most volatile compounds.

Enthalpy of solution (ΔHsoln): The enthalpy change when a specified amount of solute dissolves
in a given quantity of solvent.

Enthalpy of formation (ΔHf): The enthalpy change for the formation of 1 mol of a compound
from its component elements, such as the formation of carbon dioxide from carbon and oxygen.
The corresponding relationship is

Elements → compound Δ H rxn = Δ H f

C(s) + O 2 (g) → CO 2 (g) Δ H rxn = Δ H f [ CO 2 (g) ]

The sign convention for ΔHf is the same as for any enthalpy change: ΔHf < 0 if heat is released
when elements combine to form a compound and ΔHf > 0 if heat is absorbed.

The table below gives the enthalpies of vaporization and fusion for selected substances at their
boiling points and melting points. These values are used in enthalpy calculations when any of
the substances undergoes a change of physical state during a reaction.

Substance ΔHvap ΔHfus

(kJ/mol) (kJ/mol)
argon (Ar) 6.3 1.3
methane (CH4) 9.2 0.84
ethanol (CH3CH2OH) 39.3 7.6
benzene (C6H6) 31.0 10.9
water (H2O) 40.7 6.0
mercury (Hg) 59.0 2.29
iron (Fe) 340 14

Note

The sign convention is the same for all enthalpy changes: negative if heat is released by the
system and positive if heat is absorbed by the system.

Heat of combustion

The enthalpy of combustion (ΔHcomb) is the enthalpy change that occurs when a substance is
burned in excess oxygen. The enthalpy change that takes place when one mole of compound is
completely burnt in excess of air or oxygen. It is denoted by ΔHc. As for example, the heat of
combustion of methane is given below:

CH4(g) + 2O2(g) → CO2(g) + 2H2O(l) ΔHc = -21.0 kcal

Heat of neutralization

The enthalpy change that takes place when one gram equivalent of an acid is completely
neutralized with one gram equivalent of base in dilute solution. As for example, the heat of
neutralization of nitric acid and sodium hydroxide is given below:

HNO3 (aq) + NaOH(aq) → NaNO3(aq) + H2O(l) ΔH = -13.69 kcal

Heat of formation
The enthalpy of formation (ΔHf) it is the enthalpy change that takes place when one mole of
compound is formed from its elements. It is denoted by ΔHf. It is also the enthalpy change that
accompanies the formation of a compound from its elements.

As for example, the heat of formation of ferrous sulphide from its elements is given below:

Fe(s) + S(s) → FeS(s) ΔHf = -24.0 kcal

Standard enthalpies of formation (ΔHfο) are determined under standard conditions: a

pressure of 1 atm for gases and a concentration of 1 M for species in solution, with all pure
substances present in their standard states (their most stable forms at 1 atm pressure and the
temperature of the measurement). The standard heat of formation of any element in its most
stable form is defined to be zero.

Heat of solution

The enthalpy of solution (ΔHsoln) is the heat released or absorbed when a specified amount of
a solute dissolves in a certain quantity of solvent at constant pressure. It can also be described
as the enthalpy change that takes place when one mole of a substance is dissolved in specified
quantity of solvent in given temperature. As for example, the heat of solution of magnesium
sulphate is given below:

MgSO4(s) + H2O (l) → MgSO4 (aq) ΔH = -20.28 kcal

NaSO4(s) + H2O (l) → MgSO4 (aq) ΔH = -20.28 kcal

Hess's Law of Constant Heat Summation /Hess's Law

Enthalpy change for a reaction depends on two factors:

(1) The masses of the reacting substances

(2) The physical states of the reactants and products.

Enthalpy change does not depend on the path by which reactants are converted to products.
For example if you climb a mountain, the change in altitude will not depend on whether you
climb the entire way without stopping or you stopped many times to take a break. If you stopped
often, the overall change in altitude would be the sum of the changes in altitude for each short
stretch climbed. Another common example is if you are eating two balls of kenkey with six
ladles of okro soup, it will not matter how you will eat it. What matters most is that the two
balls of the kenkey have been eaten with the six ladles of okro soup. You can just divide the
balls into five parts. You can also divide it into smaller parts. So the final consumption will be
the addition of how the food was broken down before it was eaten.

Correspondingly, when we add two or more balanced chemical equations to obtain a net
chemical equation, ΔH for the net reaction is the sum of the ΔH values for the individual
reactions. This principle is called Hess’s law, after the Swiss-born Russian chemist Germain
Hess (1802–1850), who pioneered in the study of thermochemistry.

Hess's Law states that irrespective of the several stages/ steps or phases of a reaction, the entire
enthalpy change for the reaction is the sum of all changes.

Hess's law of heat summation states that the total enthalpy change in the course of a chemical
reaction is independent of the reaction path. Thus whether the reaction will take place in one
step or in several steps, it will not affect the total enthalpy.

Hess’s law allows us to calculate ΔH values for reactions that are difficult to carry out directly
by adding together the known ΔH values for individual steps that give the overall reaction,
even though the overall reaction may not actually occur via those steps. With respect to the
image below, A=B, A+C=B and A+ D+E=B. This means that during the chemical reaction
below, you can react reactants ‘A’ to give you your final products b. At the same time, A and
C can react to give you B and we can react A, D and E to get B. So we have three reaction
steps:

Step 1 A →B

ΔH 1= B

Step 2 A + C→B

ΔH 2 + ΔH 3 =B

Step = 3 A+D+E→B

ΔH 4+ ΔH 5+ ΔH 5=B

Therefore; ΔH1=ΔH2+ΔH3=ΔH4+ΔH5+ΔH6

Step 1=step 2=step 3

[Link]

In Hess's Law calculations, you write equations to make unwanted substances cancel out.

Sometimes, you have to reverse an equation to do this, then the sign of ΔH must be reversed.

Sometimes you have to multiply or divide a given equation, and you do the same thing to the
ΔH.

EXAMPLE

Determine the heat of combustion, ΔHc, of CS₂, given the following equations.

1. C(s) + O₂(g) → CO₂(g); ΔHc = -393.5 kJ

2. S(s) + O₂(g) → SO₂(g); ΔHc = -296.8 kJ
3. C(s) + 2S(s) → CS₂(l); ΔHf = 87.9 kJ

Solution

Write down the target equation, the one you are trying to get.

CS₂ (l) + 2O₂ (g) → CO₂ (g) + 2SO₂ (g)

Start with equation 3. It contains the first compound in the target (CS₂).

We have to reverse equation 3 and its ΔH to put the CS₂ on the left.

We get equation A below.

A. CS₂ (l) → C(s) + 2S(s); -ΔHf = -87.9 kJ

Now we eliminate C(s) and S(s) one at a time.

Equation 1 contains C(s), so we write it as Equation B below.

B. C(s) + O₂ (g) → CO₂ (g); ΔHc = -393.5 kJ

We use Equation 2 to eliminate the S(s), but we have to double it to get 2S(s). We also double
its ΔH. We then get equation C below.

C. 2S(s) + 2O₂ (g) → 2SO₂ (g); ΔHc = -593.6 kJ

Finally, we add equations A, B, and C to get the target equation. We cancel things that appear
on opposite sides of the reaction arrows.

A. CS₂ (l) → C(s) + 2S(s); -ΔHf = -87.9 kJ

B. C(s) + O₂ (g) → CO₂ (g); ΔHc = -393.5 kJ
C. 2S(s) + 2O₂ (g) → 2SO₂ (g); ΔHc = -593.6 kJ

CS₂ (l) + 3O₂ (g) → CO₂ (g) + 2SO₂ (g); ΔHc = -1075.0 kJ

Pause and think

What causes the energy changes in chemical reactions?----------------------------------------------

Chemical reactions often involve changes in energy due to the breaking and formation of
bonds. As said earlier on, reactions in which energy is released are exothermic reactions, while
those that take in heat energy are endothermic. All chemical reactions involve energy changes.
In some reactions, we are able to observe these energy changes as either an increase or a
decrease in the overall energy of the system.

When a chemical reaction occurs, bonds in the reactants break, while new bonds form in the
product. eg. Hydrogen reacts with oxygen to form water:

2H2+O2→2H2O
H-H +O═O→ H-O-H
The reverse of such a reaction is 2H2O→ 2H2+O2. In both reactions energy is needed.

In this reaction, the bond between the two hydrogen atoms in H2 (H-H) molecule will break,
as well as the bond between the oxygen atoms in the O2 molecule (O═O). New bonds will form
between the two hydrogen atoms and the single oxygen atom in the water molecule that is
formed as the product.

It takes a net of 118 kcal to decompose 2 moles of H2O into its elements. Actually it takes more
than 118 kcal to decompose the water into its atoms, but some of the energy is given back as
the atoms immediately bond together to form molecules of hydrogen and oxygen.
Consider the numbers:

• The bond energy of the H-O = 110 kcal.

• The bond energy of H-H = 103 kcal.
• The bond energy of the O=O = 116 kcal.
• The decomposition of 2 molecules of water requires breaking 4 H-O bonds and = 440
kcal (4 x 110).
• The formation of 2 moles of hydrogen yields 206 kcal (2 x 103).
• The formation of 1 mole of oxygen yields 116 kcal.
• The difference between
o the energy released (206 + 116 = 322 kcal) and
o the energy consumed (4 x 110 = 440 kcal)
• Gives the net energy consumed = 118 kcal (440-322=118).

This energy has gone nowhere but it is now a chemical energy stored in the bonds of the
hydrogen and oxygen molecules. The energy stored in this reaction is called free energy
because it is still available to do work. For bonds to break, energy must be absorbed. When
new bonds form, energy is released. The energy that is needed to break a bond is called the
bond energy or bond dissociation energy. Bond energies are measured in units of [Link]−1

Bond energy / bond dissociation energy

Bond energy is an important concept in chemistry that defines the amount of energy needed
to break a bond between a covalently bounded gases. Bond energy is also known as bond
enthalpy (H) or simply as bond strength. For any particular chemical bond, say the covalent
bond between hydrogen and oxygen, the amount of energy it takes to break that bond is exactly
the same as the amount of energy released when the bond is formed.

Bond energy is a measurable attraction between the atoms in a molecule and can be used to
predict the outcomes of reactions.

Definitions

• Bond energy (E) is defined as the amount of energy required to break apart a mole of
molecules into its component atoms.
• Bond energy is a measure of bond strength in a chemical bond. It is the amount of
energy (in [Link]−1) that is needed to break the chemical bond between two atoms.
• It is the energy required to break a specific covalent bond in one mole of gaseous
molecules.
This type of bond energy does not apply to ionic bonds. When two atoms bind together to form
a new molecule, it is possible to determine how strong the bond between atoms is by measuring
the amount of energy needed to break that bond. Note that a single atom does not have a bond
energy; it is the bond between two atoms that has energy.

Energy is always required to break a bond. Energy is released when a bond is made. For
example, the bond energy of an O-H single bond is 463 kJ/mol. This means that it requires 463
kJ of energy to break one mole of O-H bonds. Energy must be absorbed whenever a bond is
broken. Bond breaking is always an endothermic change (ΔH > 0) and this lead to the
absorption of energy. Energy is always released when there is a formation of a bond. Bond
making is always an exothermic change (ΔH < 0).

Change in reaction enthalpy (ΔHrxn) can be approximated from bond energy data. One can
assume that during a chemical change, all bonds in the reactants are broken yielding free atoms.
The free atoms then recombine to form the new bonds found in the products. The strength of a
covalent bond is measured by the energy required to break the bond, thus the energy necessary
to separate the bonded atoms into free atoms.

Although each molecule has its own characteristic bond energy, some generalizations are
possible. For example, although the exact value of an N—H bond energy depends on the
particular molecule, all N—H bonds have a bond energy of roughly the same value because
they are all N—H bonds. It takes roughly 391 kcal of energy to break 1 mol of N—H bonds,
so we speak of the bond energy of an N—H bond as being about 391kcal/mol. A C ≡ C bond
has an approximate bond energy of 8390 kcal/mol, while a C=C has a bond energy of about
145 kcal/mol. We can calculate a more general bond energy by finding the average of the bond
energies of a specific bond in different molecules to get the average bond energy.

Average Bond Energies (kJ/mol)

Single Bonds Multiple Bonds
H—H 432 N—H 391 I—I 149 C=C 614
H—F 565 N—N 160 I—Cl 208 C≡C 839
H—Cl 427 N—F 272 I—Br 175 O=O 495
H—Br 363 N—Cl 200 C = O* 745
H—I 295 N—Br 243 S—H 347 C≡O 1072
N—O 201 S—F 327 N=O 607
C—H 413 O—H 467 S—Cl 253 N=N 418
C—C 347 O—O 146 S—Br 218 N≡N 941
C—N 305 O—F 190 S—S 266 C≡N 891
C—O 358 O—Cl 203 C=N 615
C—F 485 O—I 234 Si—Si 340
C—Cl 339 Si—H 393
C—Br 276 F—F 154 Si—C 360
C—I 240 F—Cl 253 Si—O 452
C—S 259 F—Br 237
Cl—Cl 239
Cl—Br 218
Br—
193
Br
*C == O(CO2)
= 799

As the bond strength increases, the atoms in the bond are pulled more tightly together
decreasing the bond length. The strength of a bond between two atoms increases as the number
of electron pairs in the bond increases. Thus, we find that triple bonds are stronger and shorter
than double bonds between the same two atoms; likewise, double bonds are stronger and
shorter than single bonds between the same two atoms. When a bond is strong, there is a higher
bond energy because it takes more energy to break a strong bond. This correlates with bond
order and bond length. When the bond order is higher, bond length is shorter, the shorter the
bond length, the greater the bond energy because of increased electric attraction. In general,
the shorter the bond length, the greater the bond energy.
• Double bonds are higher energy bonds in comparison to a single bond (but not
necessarily 2-fold higher).
• Triple bonds are even higher energy bonds than double and single bonds (but not
necessarily 3-fold higher).

We can use bond energies to calculate approximate enthalpy changes for reactions where
enthalpies of formation are not available. Calculations of this type will also tell us whether a
reaction is exothermic or endothermic.

• An exothermic reaction (ΔH negative, heat produced) results when the bonds in the
products are stronger than the bonds in the reactants.
• An endothermic reaction (ΔH positive, heat absorbed) results when the bonds in the
products are weaker than those in the reactants.

The enthalpy change, ΔH, for a chemical reaction is approximately equal to the sum of the
energy required to break all bonds in the reactants (energy “in”, positive sign) minus the energy
released when all bonds are formed in the products (energy “out,” negative sign). This can be
expressed mathematically in the following way:

Formula

ΔH=∑Dbonds broken−∑Dbonds formed

Σ- The sum of”

D- Represents bond energy in kilojoules per mole, which is always a positive number.

ΔH (change in bond energy): = ∑ BE bonds broken − ∑ BE bonds formed

BE -Bond Energy

Steps in calculating bond energy

A chemical bond is a stable arrangement of electrons. To calculate the bond energy of a

reaction, simply determine the total number of bonds broken and then subtract the total number
of bonds formed.

Bond Energy (BE): Δ Ereaction = ∑ BE bonds broken − ∑ BE bonds formed

You can find the energy released (or required) when a reaction takes place by taking the
difference between the bond energy of the bonds that break and the bond energy of the bonds
that are formed as indicated by the formula.
The steps below can be followed when calculating bond energy:

Part 1

1. Determine the broken bonds and Formed Bonds

Eg. H2 (g) + Br2 (g) →2HBr (g)

Bonds broken bonds formed

2. Define the equation for calculating bond energy. Bond energy is defined by the sum of all
the bonds broken minus the sum of all of the bonds formed:

ΔH (kilojoules per mol or kJ/mol) = ∑H(bonds broken) - ∑H(bonds formed).

ΔH is the change in bond energy, also referred to as the bond enthalpy.

∑H is the sum of the bond energies for each side of the equation.

3. Draw the chemical equation showing all of the bonds between molecules.

H2 (g) + Br2 (g) →2HBr (g)

H-H + Br-Br → 2 H-Br

Illustration of the visual representation of the bonds broken and the bonds formed as shown
above allows you to easily count all the bonds that broke and formed on the reactant and
product sides of the equation.

• Left side of the equation is reactants and the right side is the products.
• Single, double, and triple bonds have different bond energies, so be sure to draw
your diagram with the correct bonds between the elements.
• For example -H2 (g) + Br2 (g) →2HBr (g) will give you:

H-H + Br-Br → 2 H-Br

• The hyphens (-) represent single bonds between the elements in the reactants
and the products so if you have 2 and 3 hyphens, then it means you are dealing
with double and triple bonds respectively.

4. Know the rules for counting broken and formed bonds.

• A single, double, and triple bond are all treated as 1 break. They all have
different bond energies, but counted as only a single break.
• The same is true for the formation of a single, double, or triple bond. It will be
counted as single formation.
• With regards to the chemical equation - H-H + Br-Br → 2 H-Br , all of the bonds
are single bonds.

5. Identify the bonds broken on the left side of the equation. The left side contains the reactants.
Eg. 1 mole of H-H and 1 mole of Br-Br

This is an endothermic process that requires the absorption of energy to break the bonds.

6. Identify the bonds formed on the right side of the equation. The right side contains the
products. Eg. 2 mole of H-Br

This is an exothermic process that requires the release of energy to form the bonds.

7. Count the bonds formed on both the left and the right side of the equation.

Left side right side

I of H-H and 1 of Br-Br 2 of H-Br

Part 2

1. Calculating the Bond Energy

Bond Bond energy

H-H = 436 Kj/mol

Br-Br = 193 Kj/mol

H-Br =366 kJ/mol

2. Multiply the bond energies by the number of bonds broken. For example, if 4, 5 or 6 H-H
bonds are in the molecule, then the bond energy of hydrogen must be counted 4, 5 or 6 times
respectively, or multiplied by 4, 5 or 6 respectively.

In the example above, there is only 1 bond of each molecule, so the bond energies are simply
multiplied by 1 or is the same number.

H-H = 436 x 1 = 436 kJ/mol

Br-Br = 193 x 1 = 193 kJ/mol

3. Add up all of the bond energies of the broken bonds.

H-H + Br-Br = 436 kJ/mol + 193 kJ/mol = 629 kJ/mol.

Once you have multiplied the bond energies by the number of the individual bonds, you need
to then sum all of the bonds on the reactant side.

4. Multiply the bond energies of the products by the number of bonds formed. Same as you did
for the bonds broken on the reactant side, you will multiply the number of bonds formed by its
respective bond energy. If you have 4, 5, or 6 hydrogen bonds formed, you would need to
multiply that bond energy by 4, 5 or 6 respectively.

With our example above there are 2 H-Br bonds formed.

2 x H-Br (366 kJ/mol)- 366 x 2 = 732 kJ/mol.

5. Find the sum of the bond energies of the bond formed. Same as you did for the reactant side,
add up all of the bonds formed on the product side. Sometimes you will only have 1 product
formed and can skip this step as in the example above. In our example, there is only 1 product
formed, so the energy of the bonds formed is simply the energy of the 2 H-Br bonds or 732
kJ/mol.
6. Subtract the formed bonds from the broken bonds. After the summary of the bonds broken
and bonds formed, subtract the energy of the bonds formed from the bond energy of the bonds
broken as shown below:
ΔH = ∑H(bonds broken) - ∑H(bonds formed). Put in the values and do the necessary computations.
Example: ΔH = ∑H(bonds broken) - ∑H(bonds formed) = 629 kJ/mol - 732 kJ/mol = -103 kJ/mol.
7. Determine the reaction type (endothermic or exothermic). The final step is to determine
whether the reaction releases energy or consumes energy. An endothermic reaction consumes
energy will have a final bond to be positive, while an exothermic reaction releases energy and
will have a negative bond energy.
With the example above, the final bond energy is negative, hence the reaction is exothermic.

Try your hands on the following examples and compare your answers with the solutions
that follow the questions.

Worked example

1. With respect to equations a and b, state if the equation is Exothermic or Endothermic.

a. N2(g)+O2(g)+45 kcal→2NO(g)
b. 2H2(g)+O2(g)→2H2O(ℓ)+135 kcal

Consider the position of the "heat"- kcal in the chemical reaction.

a. Because energy is absorbed; this reaction is endothermic
b. Because energy is released; this reaction is exothermic.

2. If the bond energy for H-Cl is 431 kJ/mol. What is the overall bond energy of 2 moles of
HCl?

Answer

If the bond energy of one mole of H-Cl is 431 kJ/mol, then the bod energy of two moles will
be by simply multiplying the average bond energy of H-Cl by 2.

H-Cl: 431 kJ/mol = 2H-Cl: a

H-Cl / 431 kJ/mol= 2H-Cl / a

431 kJ/mol/ H-Cl x 2H-Cl = a

431 kJ/molx2=a

a = 862 kJ/mol

This leaves you with 862 kJ/mol).

3. What is the enthalpy change for the reaction below? Indicate if it is endothermic or
exothermic?

H2 (g) +I2 (g) →2HI (g)

Solution

The bonds on the reactants sides are:

• one H-H bond

• one I-I bond
Then identify the bond energies of these bonds from the table above:

• H-H bonds: 436 kJ/mol

• I-I bonds: 151 kJ/mol

The sum of enthalpies on the reaction side is:

436 kJ/mole + 151 kJ/mole = 587 kJ/mol.

This is how much energy is needed to break the bonds on the reactant side.

Bonds on the products sides are:

• two H-I bonds

Then we look at the bond formation which is on the product side:

• 2 mol H-I bonds: 297 kJ/mol

The sum of enthalpies on the product side is:

2 x 297 kJ/mol= 594 kJ/mol

This is how much energy is released when the bonds on the product side are formed.

The net change of the reaction is therefore-

ΔH (change in bond energy): = ∑ BE bonds broken − ∑ BE bonds formed

∑ BE bonds broken= 587 kJ/mol

∑ BE bonds formed = 594 kJ/mol

ΔH =587-594

= -7 kJ/mol.

Since this is negative, the reaction is exothermic

4. Find the enthalpy change for the thermal decomposition of water. Determine if the reaction
is written below is exothermic or endothermic? Give reason or reasons.

2H2O (g) →2H2+O2 (g)

Solution

The enthalpy change deals with breaking two mole of O-H bonds and the formation of 1 mole
of O-O bonds and two moles of H-H bonds.

• The sum of the energies needed to break the bonds on the reactants side is 4 x 460
kJ/mol = 1840 kJ/mol.
• The sum of the energies released to form the bonds on the products side is
o 2 moles of H-H bonds = 2 x 436.4 kJ/mol = 872.8 kJ/mol
o 1 moles of O=O bond = 1 x 498.7 kJ/mil = 498.7 kJ/mol
o ΔH = 872.8 kJ/mol + 498.7 kJ/mol = 1371.5 kJ/mol.

Total energy difference is 1840 kJ/mol – 1371.5 kJ/mol = 469 kJ/mol,

The net enthalpy change is positive and this indicates that the reaction is endothermic and that
469 kJ of heat is needed to be supplied to carry out this reaction. This reaction is endothermic
since it requires energy in order to create bonds.

5. Calculate the bond energy for the hydrogenation of ethene to give ethane. C2H4 (g) +H2 (g)
→C2H6 (g).

Break the C=C bond in ethene, and the H-H bond in H2 at the reactant side. Form two new C-
H bonds and a C-C bond in ethane at the product side.

H-H bond enthalpy (BE) = 436 kJ/mol,

C=C bond = 602 kJ/mol,

C-C bond = 346 kJ/mol

C-H BE = 413 kJ/mol.

Reactants ΔH Products ΔH
break 1 C=C @ +602 = +602 make 1 C-C @ -346 = -346
break 1 H-H @ +436 = +436 make 2 C-H @ -413 = -826
total breaking +1038 total making -1172

Combining both sides gives: +1038 -1172 = -134 kJ/mol

Factors Affecting Bond Strength

After going through bond energy, write down some factors in your opinion, can affect bond
strength.

Compare your answers with the factors below. Hope you got them correct.

• Bond strength is affected by bond length, which is affected by atomic radius, nuclear
charge, electronegativity and whether the bond is a single, double or triple bond. .
• Atomic radius; if the atomic radius is large, it means that the outer electrons are far
from the pull of the positively charged nucleus. Atoms with larger radii that are in a
bond will have a weaker bond since the outer electrons are not attracted strongly by the
nuclear pull. Two small atoms will be physically closer to each other than large ones,
so the bond will be stronger.
• Nuclear charge is the number of protons in the nucleus. Compare neon Ne (atomic
number 10) and sodium ion Na+ (atomic number 11). Both have 10 electrons, but Na+
has 11 protons, and neon has only 10 protons, resulting in a higher nuclear charge for
Na+. The higher the nuclear charge, the higher the attraction of electrons in a bond and
hence the stronger the bond.
• Elements with higher electronegativity always form stronger bonds. For example the
elements that are closer to the right hand side have more electronegativity and will
therefore form stronger bonds than those closer to the left side.
• The type of bond formed. Single bond require a relatively lower amount of energy to
break as compared to a double bond. In the same way, a double bond will need a lower
amount of energy to break the bond as compared to a triple bond. Note the difference
in the bond energies listed below for carbon.
•Single bond: C—C bond energy is 346 kJ/mol
Double bond: C=C bond energy is 602 kJ/mol
Triple bond: C ≡ C bond energy is 835 kJ/mol
Summary

Thermodynamics is a branch of physical science which deals with the associations between
heat and all forms of energy such as mechanical, electrical, or chemical energy etc.

Heat capacity/ thermal capacity is defined as the quantity of heat to be given to a mass of a
material to produce a unit change in its temperature. The SI unit is joule per kelvin.

Different substances such as metals, wood, plastics, water, and sand respond to heat in different
ways. If a metal chair or a metal bed sits in the bright sun on a hot day, it may become quite
hot to be touched. If you have an equal mass of water in the same sun, it will not become as
hot as the metal. We would say that water has a high heat capacity (the amount of heat required
to raise the temperature of an object by 1oC). Water is very resistant to changes in temperature,
while metals in general are not.

The specific heat of a substance is the amount of energy required to raise the temperature of 1
gram of the substance by 1 degree Celsius (°C).

A system can be defined as the set of substances and energy that is being studied.

There are three main types of systems. These are;

4. Open system
5. Closed system
6. Isolated system
An isolated systems is a system which can exchange neither matter nor energy with its
surroundings. In effect, it prevents matter from leaving or entering the system. E.g. a well
lagged closed calorimeter and a well-insulated closed thermos flask.

A state function is a property of a system that depends on only its present state, not its history.

Enthalpy can be defined as a thermodynamic quantity equivalent to the total heat content of a
system.
Enthalpy change is the name given to the amount of heat evolved or absorbed in a reaction
carried out at constant pressure.
An exothermic reaction can be defined as a reaction in which energy is released in the form of
light or heat. A chemical reaction or physical change is exothermic if heat is released by the
system into the surroundings.

Summary of endothermic and exothermic reactions:

Hess's Law states that irrespective of the several stages/ steps or phases of a reaction, the entire
enthalpy change for the reaction is the sum of all changes.

The enthalpy of combustion (ΔHcomb) is the enthalpy change that occurs when a substance is
burned in excess oxygen.

The enthalpy of formation (ΔHf) is the enthalpy change that accompanies the formation of a
compound from its elements.

Standard enthalpies of formation (ΔHfο) are determined under standard conditions: a

pressure of 1 atm for gases and a concentration of 1 M for species in solution, with all pure
substances present in their standard states (their most stable forms at 1 atm pressure and the
temperature of the measurement).The standard heat of formation of any element in its most
stable form is defined to be zero.

The standard enthalpy of reaction (ΔHrxnο) can be calculated from the sum of the standard
enthalpies of formation of the products (each multiplied by its stoichiometric coefficient)
minus the sum of the standard enthalpies of formation of the reactants (each multiplied by its
stoichiometric coefficient)—the “products minus reactants” rule. The enthalpy of solution
(ΔHsoln) is the heat released or absorbed when a specified amount of a solute dissolves in a
certain quantity of solvent at constant pressure.

The strength of a covalent bond is measured by its bond dissociation energy, that is, the amount
of energy required to break that particular bond in a mole of molecules.

Multiple bonds are stronger than single bonds between the same atoms. The enthalpy of a
reaction can be estimated based on the energy input required to break bonds and the energy
released when new bonds are formed.

When a reaction occurs, some bonds break and new bonds form. These changes involve
energy.

When bonds break, energy is absorbed and when new bonds form, energy is released.

The bond energy is the amount of energy that is needed to break the chemical bond between
two atoms.

If the energy that is needed to break the bonds is greater than the energy that is released when
new bonds form, then the reaction is endothermic. The energy of the product is greater than
the energy of the reactants.

If the energy that is needed to break the bonds is less than the energy that is released when new
bonds form, then the reaction is exothermic. The energy of the product is less than the energy
of the reactants.

An endothermic reaction is one that absorbs energy in the form of heat, while an exothermic
reaction is one that releases energy in the form of heat and light.

The difference in energy between the reactants and the product is called the heat of reaction
and has the symbol Δ.

In an endothermic reaction, ΔH is a positive number, and in an exothermic reaction, ΔH will

be negative.

Photosynthesis, evaporation and the thermal decomposition of limestone, are all examples of
endothermic reactions.
Combustion reactions and respiration are both examples of exothermic reactions.

In any reaction, some minimum energy must be overcome before the reaction will proceed.
This is called the activation energy of the reaction.

ACTIVITY

1. Wading and swimming pool both full of water at the same temperature and being supplied
with the same amount of heat. Which of the pools in your opinion will have a higher
temperature?

Why?

2. Calculate the specific heat change in 100g of ammonium trioxonitrate (v) (NH4NO3) with
specific heat capacity of (NH4NO3) = 1. 4x 103 Jkg-1K-1 when it is dissolved in 2000 cm3 of
water with specific heat capacity of H2O=4.18 X103Jkg-1K-1 and the temperature fell by 10 oC.

Specific heat capacity of (NH4NO3) = 1. 4x 103 Jkg-1K-1

Specific heat capacity of H2O=4.18 X103Jkg-1K-1

Density of water =1.8gcm-3

3. Write the three types of systems.

4. Everything in the universe that is not part of the system is known as

----------------------------------------------------------------

5. State the law of conservation of energy.

6. With regards to the image below labelled as A, B and C, describe the three types of systems.

A B C

7. Which type of thermodynamic system is an ocean, an aquarium, a pizza delivery bag, a

greenhouse?
8. A closed system contains 2g of ice. Another 2g of ice are added to the system. What is the
final mass of the system?

9. An isolated system has an initial temperature of 30oC. It is then placed on top of a bunsen
burner for an hour. What is the final temperature?

10. What type of energy does a stationary pencil contain? Falling pencil?

11. What do the first and second laws of thermodynamics have to do with systems?

12. Classify the following into open, closed or isolated system:

d. Animals and plants

e. A refrigerator or a fridge
f. A solar cooker
13. Write five examples each of exothermic and endothermic reactions.
14. ------------------------------------------------------------it is the enthalpy change that takes place
when one mole of compound is formed from its elements.
15. State the law of Constant Heat Summation.
16. There are three main steps that can be followed in order to obtain the final product B. Write
down these final steps with Hess’s Law of constant heat summation in mind.

SUGGESTED SOLUTION
1. The wading pool would certainly rise in temperature more quickly than the swimming
pool. The heat capacity of an object depends both on its mass and its chemical
composition. Because of its much larger mass, the swimming pool of water has a larger
heat capacity than the wading pool so it will need more heat to rise to the same
temperature as that of the wading pool which has a smaller mass.
2. 2000cm3 of water =200g of water (since 1cm =1g, from density of water)
Mass of water in kilogram=2kg
Temperature difference = 10 oC.
=10K
Heat change in water, ∆H H2O
= Mass, m x specific heat capacity CH20 X temperature difference
∆H H2O = M x CH20 x ∆T
= 2 x 4.18 x 10
= 8.36 x 104 J
Mass of NH4NO3 = 100g
= 0.1kg
∆H NH4NO3 =M x C x ∆T
= 0.1 x 1.4 x103 x 10J
Total heat change, ∆H r x n
= (83.6 + 1.4) x 103
= 85 x 103 J
3. Open system, closed system and isolated system
4. The surroundings
5. The law of conservation of energy states that in any physical or chemical
process/reaction, energy is neither created nor destroyed.
6. The three main types of systems are;
A. Open system
This is a system that freely exchanges energy and matter with its surroundings
B. Closed system
This a system that exchanges only energy with its surroundings, not matter.
C. Isolated system
This is a system which does not allow the exchange of heat/energy and matter between
it and its surroundings.
7. Ocean: open, aquarium: closed, a pizza delivery bag: isolated, a greenhouse: closed.
8. The final mass will be 2g. Remember, a closed system does not allow for mass
exchange.
9. The final temperature will be 30oC. Remember, an isolated system does not allow
energy transfer.
10. A stationary pencil has potential energy and a falling pencil has kinetic energy.
11. The first law of thermodynamics is based on an isolated system because the first law of
thermodynamics says that the internal energy of an isolated system stays constant. This
can only be said for an isolated system because it is the only system that does not allow
energy transfer. The second law of thermodynamics states that the entropy of an
isolated system increases.
12. A. animals and plants- there is a mass and energy exchanged so it is an open system.

B. a refrigerator or a fridge has an energy exchange but no mass exchanged giving you
a closed system.

C. a solar cooker has an energy exchanged but no mass exchanged giving you a closed
system.
13. Exothermic reactions:

o The thermite reaction

o A neutralization reaction
o A neutralization reaction.
o Rusting of iron (rust steel wool with vinegar)
o The thermite reaction.
o Reaction between water and calcium chloride.
o Reaction between sodium sulfite and bleach (dilute sodium hypochlorite)
o Reaction between potassium permanganate and glycerol.
o Corrosion of metal (an oxidation reaction) etc.
Endothermic reactions

o Separating ion pairs

o Cooking an egg
o Baking bread
o Making an anhydrous salt from a hydrate.
o Melting solid salts.
o Sublimation of dry ice into carbon dioxide gas.
o Evaporating liquid water.
o Converting frost to water vapor
o Splitting a gas molecule etc.

14. The enthalpy of formation (ΔHf)

15. Hess's law of constant heat summation states that the total enthalpy change in the course
of a chemical reaction is independent of the reaction path.
16. With reference to Hess’s Law of Constant Heat Summation, the three main steps that
can be followed in order to obtained the final product B are:
Step 1 A →B
ΔH 1= B
Step 2 A + C→B
ΔH 2 + ΔH 3 =B
Step = 3 A + D + E → B
ΔH 4+ ΔH 5+ ΔH 5=B
Therefore; ΔH1=ΔH2+ΔH3=ΔH4+ΔH5+ΔH6
Or
Step 1=step 2=step 3

References

Petrucci, Ralph H., Harwood, William S., Herring, F. G., and Madura Jeffrey D. (2007).
General Chemistry: Principles and Modern Applications. 9th ed. Upper Saddle River:
Pearson Education, Inc.
Carruth, Gorton, Ehrlich, Eugene (2002). "Bond Energies." Volume Library. Ed. Carruth,
Gorton. Vol 1. Tennessee: Southwestern.

[Link]

[Link]
ps/Supplemental_Modules_(Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry)/Chemical_Bondin
g/Fundamentals_of_Chemical_Bonding/Bond_Energies
SECTION 6-ENERGY TRANSFORMATION
INTRODUCTION
My dear student teacher, I welcome you once again to the sixth section of this unit ‘Energy
transformation’. This section is based on the topics energy transformation, the law of
conservation of energy, the principles of energy, and everyday examples of energy. Take your
pencils, pens, erasers, note books and find a relaxing place to sit and let us get started as we go
through this last section of the unit ENERGY.
Learning Objectives
By the end of the lesson, you will be able to:
1. Explain where the main source of energy for the world is coming from.
2. Explain energy transformation with examples.
3. State the law of Conservation of Energy
4. State Principle of conservation of energy
5. List and explain some everyday examples of energy transformation

Conversion/ transformation of energy

We all understand that the world and everything in it has energy. In your opinion, where does
the world gets its energy from?
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
The world gets its energy from the sun. It is worth recalling that the first energy change started
from the sun, where matter is converted to energy in a nuclear fusion reaction during which
Hydrogen atoms are changed into Helium atoms. A by-product of this process is tremendous
amounts of a type of energy called electromagnetic radiation (visible light, x-rays, ultraviolet
light, infrared, gamma-rays, micro-waves, and radio waves) that pours out of the sun into space.
Some of this former-matter-turned-into-energy falls on earth. Down here we call it solar
energy. For anything to happen there always has to be an energy conversion or change. It
always starts in the sun, where matter is changed into electromagnetic energy and zips out into
space. The energy a person uses to jump always comes first from the sun.
Small amount of the sun's energy falls onto earth. This energy is called solar energy and it is
changed by plants through a process called photosynthesis into chemical energy stored in the
carbohydrate molecules in plant cells. As humans eat plants, or human eats animal products,
the chemical energy stored in the plant (or animal) cells is moved into the cells of the human's
body. All of the body processes, like digestion, pumping blood, breathing, are powered by cells
converting the stored chemical energy into work and heat, in a process called respiration.
Respiration takes place in every cell in your body.
From the above discussions, we can see that solar energy has been changed into chemical
energy in plants and this can also be changed into work or heat.
This is known as what?
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
If your answer is conversion/ transformation of energy, bravo. If you didn’t get it, don’t worry,
we shall discuss it in the net few minutes.
What then is conversion/ transformation of energy? Describe this in your own words.----------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Energy transformation/ energy conversion, is the process of changing energy from one form
to another.
In physics, energy is a quantity that provides the capacity to perform work (e.g. lifting an
object) or provides heat. In addition to being convertible, according to the law of conservation
of energy, energy is transferable to a different location or object, but it cannot be created or
destroyed.

The energy in many of its forms may be used in natural processes, or to provide some services
to society such as heating, refrigeration, lighting or performing mechanical work to operate
machines. For example, to heat a home, the furnace burns fuel, whose chemical potential
energy is converted into thermal energy, which is then transferred to the home's air to raise its
temperature.

The basic law of thermodynamics states that the total energy of the universe is fixed and that
energy cannot be created or destroyed. It can only be converted from one form to another.
Energy can be changed/ transformed from one to the other. At the basic school most of us
thought when we use energy, it is gone for good. No, it is not gone but rather it is transferred
from one form to another as stated by the law of conservation of energy.

The law of Conservation of Energy

The law of conservation of energy state that energy is neither created nor destroyed. To
conserve energy does not mean to save energy. There are many different forms of energy such
as electrical, thermal, nuclear, mechanical, electromagnetic, sound, and chemical. Because the
law of conservation of energy states that energy is always conserved in the universe and simply
changes from one form to another, many energy transformations are taking place constantly.
Whenever we use energy, it doesn’t vanish, it is rather changed from one form of energy into
another form of energy. Solar cells receive radiant energy from the sun and it transformed into
electrical energy. The car we drive or take to school or work can convert the chemical energy
in the gasoline to mechanical energy when the engine is turned on. These few examples suggest
that energy only changes form, but the total amount of energy in the entire universe remains
the same.

Principle of conservation of energy

The principle of energy conservation states that energy is neither created nor destroyed but is
transformed from one form into another.
Energy in any process is neither produced nor used up in a processes:
• no new energy is created
• the total existing energy is not destroyed
• Energy is changed from one form into another.

Examples of Energy Transformations

Below are some examples of everyday energy transformations;

Source: Pennstate College of Earth and Mineral Sciences

[Link]
Chemical Energy is converted to Electrical Energy (stove), Kinetic Energy (car), Electricity
(power plant), and Mechanical Energy (space shuttle). Electrical Energy is converted to Kinetic
Energy. Electricity is converted to Light (light bulb) and Sound and Light (TV). Chemical food
energy is converted to Energy to Work (person running).

Conversion of different forms of energy into another form of energy

Source: BYJU’S Classes

[Link]

The table below gives a number of scenarios in our everyday lives and the energy
transformation occurring in them.

Scenario Energy conversions involved

Using Microphone Sound Energy to Electric Energy
Scenario Energy conversions involved
A falling object speeding Gravitational Potential Energy to Kinetic Energy
up
Rubbing both hands Kinetic Energy to Thermal Energy
together for warmth
Geothermal Power Plant Heat Energy to Electrical Energy
Using battery-powered In the battery: Chemical to Electrical Energy
torchlight In the bulb: Electrical to Radiant Energy
Hydroelectric Dams Gravitational potential energy to Electric Energy
Windmills Wind Energy to Mechanical Energy or Electric Energy
Photosynthesis in Plants Solar Energy to Chemical Energy
Steam engine The heat energy to Mechanical Energy
Fuel cells Chemical Energy to Electric Energy
Piezoelectrics Strain to Electric Energy
Electric lamp Electric Energy to Heat and Light Energy
Burning of wood Chemical energy to Heat and Light Energy
Thermocouple Heat Energy to Electrical Energy
Electric Generator Kinetic energy / Mechanical work to Electric Energy
Electric heater Electric Energy to Heat
OTEC Heat Energy to Electric Energy or Mechanical Energy
A toaster Electrical energy into thermal energy
A blender electrical energy into mechanical energy
The sun Transforms nuclear energy into ultraviolet, infrared, and gamma
energy all forms of electromagnetic energy.
Our bodies Convert chemical energy from food into mechanical and
electrical energy to allow us to move.
Gasoline Has chemical energy, and it is converted into mechanical (
kinetic) energy when it moves with the help of electrical energy
from the car battery.
A natural gas stove Converts chemical energy from burning into thermal energy used
to cook food.

The flow charts below indicate how energy conversion occurs.

Energy transformations in a simple voltaic cell.

Conversion of solar energy.

Energy transformations into crude oil and petrochemical products.

Energy transformations from biomass into light energy in homes.

Energy transformation in hydroelectric dams to electrical energy in our homes/ industries/

offices.
Pause to think/Activity
How many of you have gone to Akosombo Dam before?
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------
Write the energy transformation that takes place in the hydroelectric dam.------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------
Compare your answer to what is written below:
Energy transformations in hydroelectric dams.
Hydropower plants capture the energy of falling water to generate electricity.

Hydroelectric dam. [Link] March 2019

• Water in the dam has potential energy

• This water is stored in the reservoir
• Water held in the reservoir behind the dam has potential energy
• Potential energy in the water in the reserviour is turned into kinetic energy as it runs
down onto the turbines.
• Turbines have mechanical energy as they are turned by the moving water
• As the water turns the turbines, the turbines turn the generators
• Generators have mechanical energy as they are turned by the turbines
• Generators converts the turbine's mechanical energy into electricity as magnets spin
past coils of copper wire.

Let us look at other forms of energy conversion.

A coal-fired power plant involves these energy transformations:
• Chemical energy in the coal is converted into thermal energy in the exhaust gases of
combustion
• Thermal energy of the exhaust gases converted into thermal energy of steam through
heat exchange
• Thermal energy of steam converted to mechanical energy in the turbine
• Mechanical energy of the turbine converted to electrical energy by the generator, which
is the ultimate output.

In a conventional automobile, the following energy transformations occur:

• Chemical energy in the fuel is converted into kinetic energy of expanding gas via
combustion
• Kinetic energy of expanding gas converted to the linear piston movement
• Linear piston movement converted to rotary crankshaft movement
• Rotary crankshaft movement passed into transmission assembly
• Rotary movement passed out of transmission assembly
• Rotary movement passed through a differential
• Rotary movement passed out of differential to drive wheels
• Rotary movement of drive wheels converted to linear motion of the vehicle

Other energy conversions

There are many different machines and transducers that convert one energy form into another.
Below are some examples:

1. Hydroelectric dams (Gravitational potential energy → Electrical energy.

2. Friction (Kinetic energy → Heat)
3. Photosynthesis (Electromagnetic radiation → Chemical energy)
4. Ocean thermal power (Heat → Electrical energy)
5. Microphone (Sound → Electrical energy)
6. Wave power (Mechanical energy → Electrical energy)
7. Windmills (Wind energy → Electrical energy or Mechanical energy)
8. Piezoelectrics (Strain → Electrical energy)
9. Fuel cells (Chemical energy → Electrical energy)
10. Battery (electricity) (Chemical energy → Electrical energy)
11. Fire (Chemical energy → Heat and Light)
12. Electric lamp (Electrical energy → Heat and Light)
13. Heat engines, such as the internal combustion engine used in cars, or the steam engine
(Heat → Mechanical energy)
14. Thermoelectric (Heat → Electrical energy)
15. Geothermal power (Heat→ Electrical energy)
16. Electric heater (Electric energy → Heat)
17. Electric generator (Kinetic energy or Mechanical work → Electrical energy)
Summary

The world gets its energy from the sun. Hydrogen atoms are changed into Helium atoms. A
by-product of this process is tremendous amounts of a type of energy called electromagnetic
radiation (visible light, x-rays, ultraviolet light, infrared, gamma-rays, micro-waves, and radio
waves) that pours out of the sun into space. Some of this former-matter-turned-into-energy falls
on earth.

All of the body processes, like digestion, pumping blood, breathing, are powered by cells
converting the stored chemical energy into work and heat, in a process called respiration.
Respiration takes place in every cell in your body.
Energy transformation/ energy conversion, is the process of changing energy from one form
to another.
The energy in many of its forms may be used in natural processes, or to provide some services
to society such as heating, refrigeration, lighting or performing mechanical work to operate
machines.
The law of conservation of energy state that energy is neither created nor destroyed. To
conserve energy does not mean to save energy.
There are many different forms of energy such as electrical, thermal, nuclear, mechanical,
electromagnetic, sound, and chemical. Because the law of conservation of energy states that
energy is always conserved in the universe and simply changes from one form to another, many
energy transformations are taking place constantly.
Below are some examples of everyday energy transformations;
ACTIVITY
1. Plants change the solar energy from the sun into -------------------------------
2. All of the body processes, like digestion, pumping blood, breathing, are powered by
cells converting the stored -------------------------------------- into work and heat, in a
process called respiration.
3. Respiration takes place in every cell in your body. True/false
4. The process of changing energy from one form to to another is known as----------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------.
5. What is the energy transformation in heating our homes?
6. State the basic law of thermodynamics.
7. -------------------------------------------------state that energy is neither created nor
destroyed.
8. With the aid of a diagram, show how chemical energy in petrol can be converted to
kinetic energy in cars, light energy in bulbs, light and sound energy in TV, and
mechanical energy in space shuttle.
9. Write the energy transformation that takes place in the hydroelectric dam.---------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------ -------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------

SUGGESTED SOLUTION
1. Chemical energy.
2. chemical energy
3. True
4. Energy transformation/ energy conversion
5. To heat a home, the furnace burns fuel, whose chemical potential energy is converted
into thermal energy, which is then transferred to the home's air to raise its temperature.
6. The basic law of thermodynamics states that the total energy of the universe is fixed
and that energy cannot be created or destroyed.
7. The law of conservation of energy.
8. Water in the dam has potential energy.
This water is stored in the reservoir.
Water held in the reservoir behind the dam has potential energy.
Potential energy in the water in the reserviour is turned into kinetic energy as it runs
down onto the turbines.
Turbines have mechanical energy as they are turned by the moving water.
As the water turns the turbines, the turbines turn the generators.
Generators have mechanical energy as they are turned by the turbines.
Generators converts the turbine's mechanical energy into electricity as magnets spin
past coils of copper wire.

References

Abbey, T. K., Alhassan, M. B., Ameyibor, K., Essiah, J.W., Fometu, E.,& Wiredu, M.B.
(2008). Ghana Association of Science Teachers Integrated Science for Senior High
Schools. Accra: Unimax MacMillan
Abbey, T. K., &Essiah, J.W. (1995). Ghana Association of Science Teachers Physics for Senior
High Schools. Accra: Unimax Macmillan.
Ameyibor, K., & Wiredu, M. B. (2006). Ghana Association of Science Teachers Chemistry for
Senior High Schools. Accra: Unimax MacMillan.
Asabere-Ameyaw, A., & Oppong, E. K. (2013). Integrated Science for the Basic School
Teacher I. Winneba: IEDE.
Oddoye, E. O. K., Taale, K. D., Ngman-Wara, E., Samlafo, V., & Obeng-Ofori, D. (2011).
SWL Integrated Science for Senior High Schools: Students Book. Accra, Ghana; Sam-
Woode Ltd.
Retrieved from [Link] March 2019
Retrieved from [Link] November 2020
Retrieved from [Link] October 2020
UNIT 2
BASIC ELECTRONICS AND FIRST AID
Introduction

Hello student teacher! You are warmly welcome to Unit Two of this course Introduction to
Integrated Science II. In this unit, we shall look at Basic Electronics and First Aid. We shall
begin by looking at identification of household electronic appliances and some uses of these
electronic appliances. Afterwards, we shall look at basic recover skills and cardio-pulmonary
resuscitation. I am certain that you are already familiar with most of the topics in this unit and
as such you will enjoy studying this unit.

On successful completion of this unit, student teachers will be able to;

Learning Outcomes learning indicators

2. identify and name basic electronic 2.1 Explain what household appliances are
appliances as well as basic knowledge and identify some at least six of these appliances
understanding in recovery position of the 2.2Construct diverse sketches that show
first aid and cardiopulmonary resuscitation named parts of electronic devices.
(CPR) (NTS 2c, p. 13&21) 2.3 Discuss at least three uses of household
appliances
2.4 State and explain at least three basic
recovery skills of first aid
2.5 Define Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation and
enumerate the steps involved in performing
Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation
2.6 Show how CPR is done
2.7Exhibit recovery positions of
resuscitation.

This Unit ‘BASIC ELECTRONICS AND FIRST AID’ has being divided into six sections
which are as follows:
SECTION 1 IDENTIFICATION OF HOUSEHOLD ELECTRONIC APPIANCES
SECTION 2 USES OF HOUSEHOLD ELECTROIC APPLIANCES

SECTION 3 BASIC RECOVERY SKILLS

SECTION 4 CARDIO-PULMONARY RESUSCITATION (CPR)
SECTION 1 IDENTIFICATION OF HOUSEHOLD ELECTRONIC APPIANCES
INTRODUCTION
Hello student teacher, you are welcome to Section 1 of Unit 2 of the course Introduction to Integrated
Science II. In this section, I shall take a look at the meaning of electronic appliances, identification of
household electronic appliances and uses of these household electronic appliances. Take your
pencils, pens, erasers, note books and find a comfortable place to sit and let us get started. I
assure you that you will enjoy the section.
Objectives
By the end of this section you will be able to
• Explain the meaning of electronic appliances.
• Outline at least three ways to identify household electronic appliances.
• Discuss at least three uses of these household electronic appliances.

Electronic appliance
What is an electronic appliance?
Before we look at what an electronic appliance is, we will look at some definitions of an
appliance.

An appliance is a device or instrument designed to perform a specific function, especially an

electrical device, such as a toaster, for household use.

Another definition says, it is a machine or device, especially an electrical one used

domestically.

It is also something, as a machine, devised for a particular function.

Finally, it is any instrument or apparatus for a particular purpose or use.

Activity 1.1
a. From the definitions above, cast your own definition of an appliance in not more than
two lines.

………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………..

Now, let’s have at look at the meaning of an electronic household appliance.

Household Devices and Appliances are electrical/mechanical machines which accomplish

some household functions, such as cooling/heating, cooking or cleaning.

TYPES OF HOUSEHLD ELECTRONIC APPLIANCES

Appliances are divided into three types:

• Small appliances
• Major appliances, or white goods
• Consumer electronics, or brown goods.

Let’s explain these types one after the other.

Major appliances

Major appliances, also known as white goods, comprise major household appliances and may
include: air conditioners, dishwashers, clothes dryers, drying cabinets, freezers, refrigerators,
kitchen stoves, water heaters, washing machines, trash compactors, microwave ovens and
induction cookers. White goods were typically painted or enameled white.

Small appliances

Small appliances are typically small household electrical machines, also very useful and easily
carried and installed. Yet another category is used in the kitchen, including: juicers, electric
mixers, meat grinders, coffee grinders, deep fryers, herb grinders, food processors, electric
kettles, waffle irons, coffee makers, blenders and dough blenders, rice cookers, toasters and
exhaust hoods.

Consumer electronics, or brown goods.

Consumer electronics or home electronics are electronic (analog or digital) equipment intended
for everyday use, typically in private homes. Consumer electronics include devices used for
entertainment, communications and recreation. In British English, they are often called brown
goods by producers and sellers, to distinguish them from "white goods" which are meant for
housekeeping tasks, such as washing machines and refrigerators, although nowadays, these
could be considered brown goods, some of these being connected to the Internet. Some such
appliances were traditionally finished with genuine or imitation wood, hence the name. This
has become rare but the name has stuck, even for goods that are unlikely ever to have had a
wooden case (e.g. camcorders). In the 2010s, this distinction is absent in large big box
consumer electronics stores which sell both entertainment, communication, and home office
devices and kitchen appliances such as refrigerators. The highest selling consumer electronics
products are Compact discs Examples are: home electronics, radio receivers, TV sets, CD,
VCRs and DVD player’s digital cameras, camcorders, still cameras, clocks, alarm clocks,
computers, video game consoles, HiFi and home cinema, telephones and answering machines.

NOTE

This categorization is reflected in the maintenance and repair of these types of products. Brown
goods typically require high technical knowledge and skills (which get more complex with
time, such as going from a soldering iron to a hot-air soldering station), while white goods may
need more practical skills and force to manipulate the devices and heavy tools required to repair
them.

Activity 1.2

Identify 20 household electronic appliances we use in our homes and categorized them
according to the table below.
Major appliances Small appliances Consumer electronics

1. 1. 1.
2. 2. 2.
3. 3. 3.
4. 4. 4.

Summary
Indeed, there are many household electronic appliances in our homes. I believe you have been
able to identify some of the household appliances discussed in this section in your home.
SECTION 2 USES OF HOUSEHOLD ELECTROIC APPLIANCES

INTRODUCTION

You are welcome to the second section of this unit. How did you find the previous section? I
hope you found it quite interesting. The second section promises to be more interesting. In this
section, we shall discuss the names and uses of household electronic appliances. This is because
most of the things discussed in this section are familiar to you. This section in a way revises
your knowledge on some uses of these household electronic appliances.

OBJECTIVES

By the end of this section you should be able to

• Discuss at least 5 uses of these household electronic appliances.

Background

In this modern day and age, there are a whole host of household appliances and there are new
ones being invented and integrated into the home all the time. When attempting to
communicate in English, it can be a huge advantage to be able to refer to the different household
appliances with their English names.

Household Devices and Appliances

Household Devices and Appliances are electrical/mechanical machines which accomplish

some household functions, such as cooling/heating, cooking or cleaning.

Invention of household appliances

Before we talk about the uses of these household electronic appliances, let’s have a quick look
at when some of these household electronic appliances were invented.

Much of technological breakthroughs on appliances followed after the invention of the light
bulb by Thomas Edison in 1879. A couple of years later, the brand Singer introduced the home
electric sewing machine. This was followed by the lightweight electric iron as well as the
“Thor,” the first electric-powered washing machine in 1901.

The first moveable vacuum cleaner was invented in 1905 but it didn’t perform well because it
weighed 45 kilos. Three years later, the first electric coffee percolators appeared. In 1910, the
electric stove, in-home electric refrigerator, and radios with tuners entered the market.

The residential refrigerator and dishwasher next appeared in 1913, followed by the automatic
pop-up toaster in 1919 and the residential air conditioner in 1928. Without the invention of this
air cooling system, many of today’s medications may not have existed since they require a cool
environment for storage.
LIST OF HOUSEHOLD ELECTRONIC APPLIANCES AND THEIR USES

Television

Television (TV), sometimes shortened to tele or telly, is a telecommunication medium used

for transmitting moving images in monochrome (black and white), or in color, and in two or
three dimensions and sound. The term can refer to a television set, a television show, or the
medium of television transmission. Television is a mass medium for advertising, entertainment,
news, and sports.

Speakers

Speakers are one of the most common output devices used with computer systems. Some
speakers are designed to work specifically with computers, while others can be hooked up to
any type of sound system. Regardless of their design, the purpose of speakers is to produce
audio output that can be heard by the listener. Speakers are transducers that convert
electromagnetic waves into sound waves. The speakers receive audio input from a device
such as a computer or an audio receiver. This input may be either in analog or digital form.
Analog speakers simply amplify the analog electromagnetic waves into sound waves. Since
sound waves are produced in analog form, digital speakers must first convert the digital input
to an analog signal, then generate the sound waves.

Electric iron
A clothes iron (also flatiron, smoothing iron, or simply iron) is a small appliance that, when
heated, is used to press clothes to remove creases. Domestic irons generally range in operating
temperature from between 250 °F (121 °C) to 360 °F (182 °C). It is named for the metal (iron)
of which the device was historically made, and the use of it is generally called ironing.
Dishwasher
A dishwasher is an appliance that allows you to easily clean your dishes with the push of a few
buttons.
Washing Machine
Washing machines is an appliance that is used to wash dirty clothes (laundry).
Dryer
It is powered household appliance that is used to remove moisture from loads of clothing,
bedding and other textiles, usually shortly after they are washed in a washing machine.
Microwave
It is used for reheating earlier cooked foods and cooking a different of foods.
Oven
An oven is a thermally protected chamber utilized for the warming, preparing or drying of a
substance, and most generally utilized for cooking. Kilns and furnaces are special-purpose
ovens, utilized as a part of pottery and metalworking, individually.
Toaster
It is an electric small appliance designed to expose various types of sliced bread to radiant heat,
browning the bread so it becomes toast.
Waffle Iron
It is an appliance used to make waffles.
Refrigerator
It is an appliance which used to make food cold and thaw frozen foods because cold
temperature help food stay fresh. It also allows people to store food for longer periods of time,
and this opens up more culinary possibilities.
Freezer
It is also an appliance that is used to store food in bulk as well as leftovers. it Is a great storage
space for bulk items such as meat, frozen vegetables It will allow you to store larger amounts
of food at once. This can help you to take fewer trips to the markets, and you will be able to keep
more food in stock.
Vacuum Cleaner

A vacuum cleaner is a device that uses an air pump to make a partial vacuum to suck up dust
and dirt, normally from floors, and from different surfaces, for example, upholstery and
draperies. The dirt is gathered by a dust bag for later transfer. Vacuum cleaners, which are
utilized as a part of homes and in industry, exist in an assortment of sizes and models for home
use
Air Conditioner
Air conditioning (frequently referred to as A/C or AC) is the procedure of adjusting the
properties of air (fundamentally, temperature and humidity) to more comfortable conditions,
commonly with the aim of distributing the conditioned air to a possessed space, for example, a
building or a vehicle to enhance thermal comfort and indoor air quality. In everyday use, an air
conditioner is a device that brings down the air temperature. The cooling is normally
accomplished through a refrigeration cycle, yet sometimes, evaporation or free cooling is
utilized
Air Purifiers
Expels polluting influences and germs from water by making it safe to drink. Diverse purifiers
use distinctive procedures of cleansing. A water purifier comes in various shapes and sizes. So,
it is imperative to gauge the space you need to save for one. You should search for companies
that offer a decent after-sales service. A purifier that is low on support and high on performance
would be the most suitable choice.
Toaster
It is a small appliance that is used to toast different types of bread and is regarded as one of the
important inclusion in the list of modern home appliances. Toasters should be energy efficient,
with a double slot and centering device that guarantees even toasting. A removable crump plate
makes it simple to clean. It ought to additionally have wide spaces to accommodate different
types of bread.
Blender
A blender (sometimes called a liquidizer in British English) is a kitchen and laboratory
appliance used to mix, purée, or emulsify food and other substances. A stationary blender
consists of a blender container with a rotating metal blade at the bottom, powered by an electric
motor that is in the base.

Blenders are used both in home and commercial kitchens for various purposes, including to:

• Grind semi-solid ingredients, such as fresh fruits and vegetables, into smooth purées.
• Blend ice cream, milk, and sweet sauces to make milkshakes
• Mix and crush ice in cocktails such as the Zombie, piña colada and frozen margarita
• Crush ice and other ingredients in non-alcoholic drinks such as frappuccinos and
smoothies
• Emulsify mixtures
• Reduce small solids such as spices and seeds to smaller solids or completely powder or
nut butter
• Blend mixtures of powders, granules, and/or liquids thoroughly
• Help dissolve solids into liquids

Electric Fans
They are very prevalent, and they help to circulate air around your home. Owning a ceiling fan
can really make things more comfortable, and they also look very nice.
Heater
An electric water heater, additionally called a “Thermo Pot”, is a consumer electronics small
appliance utilized for boiling water and keeping up it at a consistent temperature. It is
commonly used to give a prompt source of high-temperature water for making tea, hot
chocolate, coffee, infant noodles, or for other family use where clean boiling hot water is
required.
Hair Dryer
Hair dryer or blow dryer is an electromechanical device that blows ambient or hot air over
damp hair to speed the evaporation of water to dry the hair. Blow dryers enable better control
over the shape and style of hair, by accelerating and controlling the formation of temporary
hydrogen bonds within each strand. These bonds are powerful (allowing stronger hair shaping
than the sulfur bonds formed by permanent waving products) but are temporary and extremely
vulnerable to humidity. They disappear with a single washing of the hair.

Humidifier

Humidifier adds moisture to the air to prevent dryness that can cause irritation in many parts
of the body. Humidifiers can be particularly effective for treating dryness of the skin, nose,
throat, and lips. They can also ease some of the symptoms caused by the flu or common cold.
However, overusing humidifiers can potentially worsen respiratory problems. It’s important to
know how to use them correctly

Sewing Machine
It is a machine used to sew fabric and materials together with thread. Sewing machines were invented
during the first Industrial Revolution to decrease the amount of manual sewing work performed in
clothing companies. Since the invention of the first working sewing machine, generally considered to
have been the work of Elias Howe and Englishman Thomas Saint in 1790, the sewing machine has
greatly improved the efficiency and productivity of the clothing industry.

Water Purifier

Every 20 seconds, a child dies of water-borne diseases. As a result, it is necessary to purify the
water that you drink to avoid life-threatening water-borne diseases. Water purifiers remove
bacteria, viruses with the help of UV lamp and at the same time harmful dissolved impurities
from water to make it safe for consumption. Water purifiers from renowned brands such as
KENT use an advanced mineral technology to retain the essential natural minerals in purified
water with the help of a TDS (total dissolved solids) Controller.

Baking Mixer
Mixer, depending on the type also called a hand mixer or stand mixer, is a kitchen device
that uses a gear-driven mechanism to rotate a set of "beaters" in a bowl containing the food or
liquids to be prepared by mixing them. Mixers help automate the repetitive tasks of stirring,
whisking or beating. When the beaters are replaced by a dough hook, a mixer may also be used
to knead.

Food Processor
A food processor is a kitchen appliance used to facilitate repetitive tasks in the preparation of
food. Today, the term almost always refers to an electric-motor-driven appliance, although
there are some manual devices also referred to as "food processors". Food processors are
similar to blenders in many forms. A food processor typically requires little to no liquid during
use, unlike a blender, which requires a set amount of liquid in order for the blade to properly
blend the food. Food processors are used to blend, chop, dice, and slice, allowing for quicker
meal preparation.
Juicer
A juicer, also known as a juice extractor, is a tool used to extract juice from fruits, herbs,
leafy greens and other types of vegetables in a process called juicing. It crushes, grinds, and/or
squeezes the juice out of the pulp.
Rice Cooker
Though it is known as a rice cooker, it has different uses like steaming, making pasta, cooking
quinoa, etc. Therefore, while you can decide on one that just cooks rice, you can get a multi-
tasking appliance for a win-win circumstance. While purchasing one, look for the durability
aspects because a good one could last for decades
Water Heaters
An electric water heater, additionally called a “Thermo Pot”, is a consumer electronics small
appliance utilized for boiling water and keeping up it at a consistent temperature. It is
commonly used to give a prompt source of high-temperature water for making tea, hot
chocolate, coffee, infant noodles, or for other family use where clean boiling hot water is
required. They are a typical part of Japanese kitchens and the kitchens of many East Asian
nations yet are found in varying use all around and is one of the elements in the list of modern
home appliances.

Popcorn Makers

A popcorn maker (also called a popcorn popper or popcorn machine) is a device used to
pop popcorn. Since ancient times, popcorn has been a popular snack food, produced through
the explosive expansion of kernels of heated corn. Commercial large scale popcorn machines
were invented by Charles Cretors in the late 19th century. Many types of small scale home
methods for popping corn also exist.

Ice Cream Makers

A domestic ice cream maker is a machine used to make small quantities of ice cream for
personal consumption. Ice cream makers may prepare the mixture by employing the hand-
cranking method or by employing an electric motor. The resulting preparation is often chilled
through either pre-cooling the machine or by employing a machine that freezes the mixture.

Generators
Generators are useful equipment that generates electricity whenever there’s a power outage. It
is a device that works in reverse and converts ordinary energy into electricity. It is a must in a
house especially to those areas with lots of power outages. There are various types of generators
according to your needs.
Food Dehydrators
Keeping our food fresh is not an easy task especially to those perishable goods. Good thing
there is food dehydrator. It removes moisture from the food to dry it so the food will be
preserved and will have a longer shelf life. There are different types according to the kind of
food to dehydrate.

Activity 2.1

Write down the uses of 5 other household electronic appliances.

a. …………………………………………………………………………………………
…..
b. …………………………………………………………………………………………
…..
c. …………………………………………………………………………………………
…..
d. …………………………………………………………………………………………
……
e. …………………………………………………………………………………………
……

Diagram showing some of household electronic appliances.

Summary

Indeed, household electronic appliances helps to make lives easy at home.

SECTION 3: BASIC RECOVERY SKILLS IN FIRST AID

You are welcome to the third section of this unit. I believe you will find this section also
interesting. There are risks and hazards associated with the use of any appliance and that of
electronic appliance is no exception. Exposure to these risks and hazard sometimes leads to
accidents that require the application of first aid. In this section, we shall look at basic recovery
skills of first aid, the concept of cardiopulmonary resuscitation, the reasons for
cardiopulmonary resuscitation and steps for cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR).

I believe we remember the lesson we had on first aid. In this section we are going to look at
some basic recovery skills and Cardiopulmonary resuscitation in first aid.

Objectives
After completing this section, you should be able to:

• Outline at least three basic recovery skills of first aid.

• Explain the concept of Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation

• Discuss at least three reasons for cardiopulmonary resuscitation.

• Outline the steps for cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR).

Basic recovery skills of first aid

With all the chaos that comes with disasters–debris, downed power lines, damaged
buildings people are bound to get hurt. And that includes you and your friends and
family. Even a small, seemingly innocent injury can become serious if you don’t have
access to clean water and medical help.

That’s why learning first aid skills should be a top priority when preparing for a disaster.
If you’re not sure which particular skills to learn first, then I suggest working your way
through the following list.

1. CPR

• This is one of the most important and useful first aid skills you can ever learn.
The standard for cardiopulmonary resuscitation has changed.

• The process now excludes the breathing portion and focuses on chest compressions in
what is known as hands only CPR. The strength of the compressions has also been
changed, which lessens the risk of broken ribs and other serious injuries.
2. Making a Splint

• A splint for a broken or sprained bone or joint will go a long way toward making a
person feel better and keeping the injury from getting worse. Immobilizing a broken
bone can be accomplished with a couple sticks and duct tape or a pillowcase or towel.
• With the injured limb in a splint, the person will be able to move without causing
more pain. Recovery time will be quicker, which is very important in a survival
situation. A bone that heals incorrectly will either cause problems later or have to be
broken again to allow for it to be set correctly. Just be careful.

3. Cleaning and Dressing a Wound

• This can mean the difference between it healing quickly or becoming infected and
deadly. How to irrigate a laceration and properly wrap it up will be extremely
valuable information. In some cases, a butterfly stitch will need to be used to close a
wound. Here’s a step-by-step guide to wound care.

4. The Heimlech Maneuver

• Another lifesaving trick you should learn. If someone is choking, you only have
seconds to respond. Patting that person on the back isn’t going to help if something is
lodged. The quick maneuver is effective and very easy to learn.
• Wrapping your arms around the person while standing behind and making several
swift jabs upward can help dislodge something that has blocked their airway.

5. Treating Shock

• This is going to very useful, especially after some kind of traumatic event. Anybody is
prone to shock, especially those who have been injured. The injury may be treated,
but if the shock is ignored, the person will still die.
• Learning how to recognize the symptoms and treat a person who is going into shock
is extremely valuable information. Keeping a person calm, their feet elevated, and
their body warm can help their blood pressure regulate, preventing it from dropping
too low.

6. Stopping the Bleeding

• Stopping the bleeding and recognizing arterial bleeds is critical. Arterial bleeds can be
fatal with the patient dying within a matter of minutes if the bleeding isn’t controlled.
The bright red color is one of the most obvious signs.
• Learn how to use pressure to stop the bleeding in combination with bandages to keep
the person from bleeding out. A tourniquet is a last resort, but in the case of an arterial
bleed, it is often the only option.
7. Treating Hypothermia

• This is a dangerous condition that occurs often in a survival situation. Cold

temperatures, no shelter, and inadequate clothing are common problems after a
disaster. Knowing the signs of hypothermia and how to quickly treat it will save
lives–maybe your own.

8. Treating Hyperthermia

• Also known as heat stroke. High temperatures are just as deadly as freezing
temperatures. You need to know what to do when you or someone you are with starts
to experience heat exhaustion. At the first sign of a headache, you need to get the
person out of the heat.
• Pushing fluids, placing a cool, damp cloth on the back of the neck and staying in the
shade can help drop the body temperature quickly. You will only have a short time
before the heat exhaustion leads to heat stroke, which can be deadly.

9. Treating Burns

• This will likely come in handy in the midst and aftermath of a disaster. A burn can be
life-threatening if it isn’t quickly treated. Depending on the severity of the burn, a
person will lose several layers of skin that will leave them prone to infection.
• You will need to know how treat a 2nd and 3rd degree burn with creams and how to
bandage the burn to keep it protected without suffocating the area. Burn care is tricky
and requires regular monitoring to make sure there are no signs of infection or skin
death.

Activity 3.1
a. Identify two other basic recovery skills of first aid.
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………

Join me as we move on to the concept of cardiopulmonary resuscitation.

What is Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation?

Every year, over 350,000 cardiac arrests happen outside of a hospital setting. Considering
they can do serious damage within a short amount of time, or can even be fatal, this is an
alarmingly high number. While you can’t stop cardiac arrests from happening, you can
certainly be proactive and help mitigate the damage. How? Through the use of
cardiopulmonary resuscitation, or CPR.

It's far better to do something than to do nothing at all if you're fearful that your knowledge or
abilities aren't 100 percent complete. Remember, the difference between your doing
something and doing nothing could be someone's life.

Now let’s have a look at some definitions of Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation.

Cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) is a lifesaving technique useful in many emergencies,
including a heart attack or near drowning, in which someone's breathing or heartbeat
has stopped.

Another definition says, Cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) is an emergency procedure that

can help save a person’s life if their breathing or heart stops.
From the above the definitions it is observed that CPR is used t saves people lives in times of
emergency when the heart of a person suddenly stops.. Again, from the definitions it is
observed that, you just dent get up and perform CPR it follows some guidelines in other to
perform it.

Activity 3.2

In not more than two lines cast your own definition of CPR.

…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………

STEPS IN PERFORMING CARDIOPULMONARY RESUSCITATION

Performing CPR on a heart attack victim who isn’t breathing or responsive can significantly
increase their chance for survival. While CPR can seem confusing or overwhelming for
someone who’s never done it before, it’s actually fairly easy. First and foremost, before you
start CPR or any other medical care, it’s imperative that you call your local EMS line (such as
119) and check your environment. If it isn’t safe for you to help, then don’t. Call EMS, stay
clear of any hazards and tell dispatch what you know. If it is safe, then follow these seven
fundamental CPR steps until an ambulance, fire truck, or a higher medical authority arrives:

1. Put the heel of your dominant hand at the center of the person’s chest. Make sure
the person is lying on a hard, flat surface, such as a floor. You cannot effectively
perform CPR if a person is in bed or in a seated position.
2. Put your other hand over your dominant hand, then interlock your fingers. If
you’re doing CPR on a child (someone one to eight years old), you can use one hand.
For a baby (someone newborn to 12 months old), you use two fingers.
3. Start chest compressions. Lean directly over the person and keep your arms straight.
Press down into their chest, then come up. It’s important to let the chest rise again
fully. You should be trying to push down about two inches, or five centimeters. Aim
to do around 100 compressions per minute, or to the beat of Staying’ Alive. Complete
30 chest compressions.
4. Open the person’s mouth. Once you’ve done 30 chest compressions, stop; tilt the
persons head back and open their mouth at the chin. Cover their face with a pocket
mask or barrier device.
5. Add a rescue breath. Breathe into the person’s mouth, enough for their chest to
begin to rise. If you can’t see the chest starting to rise, reposition their head and try
again.
6. Watch the chest fall, then do another rescue breath. Once the person’s chest is
settled, you can re-adjust the head if needed, then complete another rescue breath.
7. Continue the 30 compressions, 2 breaths cycle. Do this until EMS arrives, the scene
becomes unsafe, or if the person wakes up. If you can, switch out with another trained
person, every two minutes.

While CPR can seem complex, it’s much simpler and straightforward than most would think.
It all comes down to the seven fundamental CPR steps.]

ACTIVITY 3.3

In pairs of two, follow the above steps and perform CPR and give account of your
experiences during the session.

…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………

REASONS WE SHOULD LEARN CARDIOPULMONARY RESUSCITATION

1. You’ll save Lives

The most obvious and rewarding reason to learn CPR is that you can save lives. Even if you
only know the basics, it can be enough to help circulate the person’s blood until you either
get more advanced tools or an ambulance arrives on the scene.

If you happen upon someone who is going into cardiac arrest, you can just walk on and hope
someone else who knows CPR can help. But if you know CPR, then you can jump in and
provide vital help in those crucial moments.

90% of people who have cardiac arrests outside of hospitals die; by learning CPR, you can do
your part in helping these people live. CPR doubles (or even triples) the chance of survival.
2. Feel More Confident in Emergencies

Everyone goes into a panic while there’s an emergency. Although you may have a vague idea
of how to do CPR, you may suddenly forget everything if you’re faced with a real person
going into cardiac arrest.

When you’ve been through proper CPR training, you’ll pretty much have muscle memory for
this procedure. That means when someone collapses and you feel anxious, your body will
kick into gear and handle things efficiently.

3. It’s Easy

You may be scared to learn CPR; it’s a lifesaving procedure after all, so it must be hard to get
a hang of, right?

You couldn’t be more wrong. While it can save someone’s life, CPR doesn’t require you to
know rocket science.

Usually, it involves you doing mouth-to-mouth as well, but if you don’t feel comfortable
doing that, you can just do hands-only CPR. While giving occasional breaths is more helpful,
doing chest compressions is better than doing nothing at all.

4. Keep Your Family Safe

Remember how over 350,000 cardiac arrests happen every year? 7 out of 10 of those happen
at home.

While mostly older, more out-of-shape people experience this, your children and healthy
spouse can potentially have cardiac arrests as well. That means there a chance of this
happening to any family member in your household.

If you and/or your loved ones know how to perform CPR, you can drastically improve your
chances of survival. You’ll buy time for the ambulance to arrive and take you to the hospital.

5. Stop Brain Death

In cardiac arrest, the heart stops pumping, which means your body isn’t getting the blood
flow it needs. In your blood is precious oxygen your various body parts need in order to
function correctly.

One major organ that needs blood is your brain. When cardiac arrest happens, your brain
won’t receive oxygen, which means the cells will start dying. In about 5 minutes, you can
experience brain death.

Once brain death happens, this means you start losing some of your brain function,
permanently. What CPR does is prolong the time to brain death.
How? When you’re doing chest compressions, you’re essentially taking over the beating
function for your heart. While it’s not as effective as the heart itself, at least it’s getting some
blood and oxygen to your vital organs, especially your brain.

6. Learn a Valuable Life Skill

You know how the saying goes: knowledge is power. Even if you never have to use CPR, at
least you’ve learned this skill.

Since it’s so easy to do, you’ll remember it for years to come, if not forever. You can then
teach it to others. Who knows, they may save someone’s life because of what you’ve taught
them.

7. Have a Leg up on the Competition

For many Nanning, babysitting, or teaching jobs involving young children, listing CPR on
your resume can give you a leg up on the competition. Parents are leaving their precious
children under your care, so when they read you have critical lifesaving skills, they’ll have
more peace of mind about leaving their kids with you.

Every year, less than 3% of the US population gets CPR training. By investing some time
into learning CPR, you can put yourself way above your competition when it comes to
applying for jobs.

8. You’ll get to Learn How to Use an AED

An AED (automatic electronic defibrillator) is a device used to get the heart pumping
normally again. Usually, you’d perform CPR until you get your hands on an AED or
paramedics arrive and use the ones they have on hand.

Since the use of AEDs is so widespread now, CPR classes will usually teach you how to use
these devices as well. As a result, you’ll be even better equipped to handle emergency
situations when people go into cardiac arrest.

Summary

It’s evident that the importance of CPR is significant. It can literally mean the difference
between life and death for someone!

Seeing as bystander interference can help tremendously with cardiac arrests, you should
highly consider learning CPR, as well as get an AED for your home or business. With the
proper training for both, you can help save some lives. If you’d like to keep you, your family,
employees, or clients safe, consider getting an AED for your home or business.
UNIT 3- HUMANS AND THE ENVIRONMENT
Cherished student teacher, I welcome you to the third unit of the course “Introduction to
Integrated Science II”. This unit has been restricted to the basic knowledge of the relationship
between the environment and the fundamental science theories. As a student teacher, you will
meet learners and even members of your community who will be asking you questions relating
to health, hygiene, infection and diseases and many more. Successful completion of this unit
will put you in the best position to be able to answer some of these questions. You will need to
take your time to go through this unit step by step because the understanding of one segment
will enable you to better understand the next segment. Try your hands on every activity in this
unit and trust me, you will enjoy it.
On successful completion of this unit, student teachers will be able to;

Learning Outcomes learning indicators

4. Demonstrate basic knowledge of 4.1 explain the concept of health and its classes
the relationship between the 4.2 explain the concept hygiene and its types
environment and fundamental 4.3 explain infection and how to prevent them
science theories (NTS 1g, 2c, p.12 4.4 explain diseases and how to prevent them
&19) 4.5 explain natural resources and their uses and
prepare an analytical report on land degradation in the
school community.
4.6 demonstrate the effect of human activities on the
environment.

This Unit ‘HUMANS AND THE ENVIRONMENT’ has being divided into six sections which
are as follows:

SECTION 1- HEALTH
SECTION 2- HYGIENE
SECTION 3- INFECTIONS
SECTION 4- DISEASES
SECTION 5- NATURAL RESOURCES AND THEIR USES
SECTION 6-EFFECTS OF HUMAN ACTIVITIES ON THE ENVIRONMENT
SECTION 1- HEALTH
Introduction
My dear student teacher, I welcome you once again to the first section of this unit which is
based on the sub-topic Health. In this section, we will start our discussion by looking at the
concept of health and its classifications and discuss the characteristics of good health and the
various factors that go into maintaining it. Take your pencils, pens, erasers, note books and find
a comfortable place to sit and let us get started. I assure you that you will enjoy the section.
Learning Objectives
By the end of the lesson, you will be able to:
• define health
• classify health
• explain personal health
• elucidate domestic/family health
• explain community/ public health
• explain environmental health
• discuss the characteristics of good health

Background
You may have heard the word ‘health’ used in our day-to-day conversations. We all use it very
often. Sometimes you may say, ‘My grandfather is in good health’ or you may use it to describe
people, for example, ‘my neighbour has a healthy attitude’ or a ‘healthy relationship’. You
must have heard the saying that ‘a healthy population is the wealth of every nation’. Health is
of primary concern to all individuals as well as the community at large. Good health requires
certain efforts and cannot be purchased. We eat, drink, bath, excrete etc. These are things we
do in our everyday lives. Nevertheless, how do we go about these activities? The way we do
them can have a major impact on our health. The various practices that help in maintaining
good health are called hygiene. Hygiene refers to a set of practices adopted by a community
that are associated with the preservation of health and healthy living: your own cleanliness and
that of those around you. You will also learn about the classification of hygiene. Health and
hygiene go hand in hand or they are interrelated. Proper nutrition, physical exercise, rest and
sleep, cleanliness and medical care are essential parts of maintaining good health.

Concept of Health

With the above discussion, what then is Health?---------------------------------------------------

What then is the meaning of health? It is the state of being well and free from illness.
Does health mean the absence of disease alone? Let us consider the following if they can bring
out a clear meaning of health. One may be considered healthy if the person has: no sickness,
no social pressure, no apprehension, no mental problem, no physical handicap, sufficient
energy and willingness to be active and many more. We can then say that health is a condition
or state of complete well-being of both body and mind; good health is necessary for our happy
existence in this world and for our survival as a whole.

Look at the image below and compare the two scenes. What are some of the things we do to
make our lives healthy and unhealthy?-------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------

Fig.1.1 Healthy and unhealthy life styles. Source- Vector stock images.

Health is a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being. According to WHO,
(World Health Organization) health is a state of complete physical, mental and social well-
being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity. WHO 1948 further explained health
as “A resource for everyday life, not the objective of living. Health is a positive concept
emphasizing social and personal resources, as well as physical capacities."
The definition does not only consider the physical, mental and social aspects of health but also
other dimensions like spiritual health. The conditions required for good health include the
availability of resources to meet basic human needs and protection from all environmental
hazards. It also involves a sense of security and wellbeing.
What is good health?
The concept of good health varies from one person to the other. Good health is not just the
absence of diseases but it goes beyond that. It involves the proper functioning of all body
organs. It also involves a sound state of both body and mind. A person enjoying good health is
cheerful, free from stress and adore life to the fullest and is ready for productive work. Health
cannot be the sole responsibility of doctors, midwives, physician assistants, pediatricians,
nurses and other health workers. It is the duty of all (individuals, families, communities and
governments, and multi-national agencies) to make health our number one priority.
The conditions required for good health include the availability of resources to meet basic
human needs and protection from all environmental hazards. It also involves a sense of security
and wellbeing. If your living or work environment is deficient in some way, it could cause you
to suffer from both physical and mental (psychological) problems. In effect, good health
involves our total well-being.

Fig. 1.2 Healthy, happy and cheerful family. Source-Vector stock images

Basic conditions needed for a good health:

1. Practicing good personal and domestic hygiene.
2. One must have regular physical exercise.
3. Consume a safe, healthy and balanced diet
4. The availability of clean air and water
5. Proper recreation and sleep.
6. Maintaining good habits like avoiding tobacco, smoking, alcohol and drugs.

Fig. 1.3 Representation of personal hygiene. Source- Community health and hygiene

Pause and do the activities below:

1. What is health according to WHO -------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------
2. Complete physical, mental and social well-being is called ----------------------------------------
----------------------
3. Tick any two of the following options that help in maintaining good health.
a. Drink/eat a safe, healthy and balanced diet
b. eat too much food
c. Laugh loudly
d. Do irregular exercise
After the above discussions on health, how will you classify health? ------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------

Classification of Health
Health is generally classified into:
1. Personal health
2. Domestic/family health
3. Community/ public health
4. Environmental health
Let us talk about the classes of health in detailed.
Personal Health

Personal health refers to the wellness of the individual. Personal Health is the ability to take
charge of your health by making conscious decisions to be healthy. It dos not only refers to the
physical wellbeing of an individual but it also comprises the wellness of emotional, intellect,
social, economic, spiritual and other areas of life. Personal health is taking care of oneself to
remain healthy and free from diseases. It’s easy to get caught up in the continuous cycle of
work, sleep, and more work. After a while, your body screams in protest and demands you pay
attention to its needs.

The components of personal health are:

1. Social health
2. Physical health
3. Mental health

Physical health consist of the health of the physical body which include the health of different
parts of the body, the internal organs, their proper functioning and maintenance.
Mental health includes preservation and promotion of good mental stature and prevention of
mental illness. A mentally healthy person is cheerful, calm, well-adjusted, self-controlled and
satisfied with him or herself as well as with others.
Social health also includes the healthy attitude and behaviour that enable individuals to lead a
healthy and productive life in the society.
In order to keep healthy, one must have the following requirements: elimination of body waste,
right posture, good nutrition, personal hygiene and care, healthy habits, mental health, domestic
and environmental hygiene.

Ways of taking care of yourself

Taking care of yourself can feel like a really big task, but it doesn’t have to be overwhelming.
Learn to manage your physical, mental, and emotional health so that you can enjoy your day-
to-day life more and reduce the risk of various health problems later down the road. From
getting adequate sleep to setting healthy boundaries, you will be pleased by how quickly you
notice a difference in your quality of life when you start making your health a priority. More
often than not, we are not good caregivers to ourselves. We do not tend to take time off to get
a checkup, to do a cholesterol test, to assess our own well-being. Do we have our priorities
straight? It’s so important to make sure you take good care of our body, mind, and soul every
day, not just when we are sick.

Below are some of the ways we can take care of ourselves:

1. Exercise your body for a happy mind

A little exercise will go a long way to reducing stress. Even just a brisk walk in the morning
will energize and motivate you for the day ahead. Set your alarm for a little earlier than
usual and hit the pavement. Do something you enjoy, like walking, jogging, biking, weight
lifting, swimming, or playing some kind of group sport. Your body will feel better, and the
endorphins will boost your emotional health, too. We all know exercise is good for us, but
do we really know how good it is? Daily exercise as seen n figure 1.4, can help you, both
physically and mentally, boosting your mood and reducing stress and anxiety, not to
mention helping you shed extra weight, reduce the risk of developing several diseases like
type II diabetes, cancer and cardiovascular diseases.

Fig. 1.4 daily exercises to improve your mood and to reduce stress. Source- Kelie Lugo images

2. Proper elimination of waste from our bodies

Proper elimination of waste from the body is as important as food. Proper functioning of the
bowels is essential for the maintenance of optimum health. The proper functioning of the major
organs that are involved in the elimination of waste, such as liver, lungs, skin, kidney and
intestine is very important. Along with this, people should assume the responsibility for their
own health by cultivating clean and healthy habits, and avoiding bad habits like the
consumption of liquor, drugs, cigarettes, etc. that might destroy some vital excretory organs.
Health is mainly the result of following a good life style with adequate exercise, rest, sleep and
recreation.
3. Eat healthy

Eating healthy means we must eat a balance diet. A balance diet is a diet that contains all the
food nutrients at the right proportions needed to maintain good health and growth. It also
includes the correct proportion of carbohydrates, proteins, vitamins, minerals, fats and oils,
water and roughage in your diet. A balance diet (fig. 1.5) is important to our personal health
because our organs in our bodies and the tissues need proper nutrition to work effectively.
Without good nutrition, your body is more prone to diseases, infection, fatigue and poor
performance.

Fig.1.5 food stuffs that give a variety of nutrients. Source -Shutterstock image and
British Nutrition.

Eating healthy means eating variety of foods that give you the nutrients you need to maintain
your health, feel good and have energy. The images above give you some few clues about
healthy eating.

The food we eat has the potential to either keep us healthy or contribute to weight gain or
diseases such as diabetes, but it can also keep our minds working and alert. Eating the right
foods can help prevent short-term memory loss and inflammation, both of which can have long-
term effects on the brain and, in turn, the rest of the body.

Fig. 1.6 a balance diet. Source-Fountain image

4. Say no to others, and say yes to your self-care.

Learning to say no is really hard; many of us feel obligated to say yes when someone asks for
our time or energy. However, if you’re already stressed or overworked, saying yes to loved
ones or coworkers can lead to burnout, anxiety, and irritability. It may take a little practice, but
once you learn how to politely say no, you will start to feel more empowered, and you will
have more time for your self-care.

5. Stay hydrated by drinking 8-10 glasses of water every day. Water does wonders for your
body! Drink enough water every day to help your organs run more efficiently, make your skin
look better, and keep you energized and alert. Try drinking a glass of water every morning
when you first wake up to get your daily routine started.

Write five importance of drinking water-----------------------------------------------------------------

Fig. 1. 7 water. Source-Fountain image

6. Make your weekend about you, not work. Many people take their work home with them
and never really get a day off. Take time on the weekend to do things you enjoy. Spend more
time with your family, not with your home office. Take a mini vacation as seen in fig. 1.8.
Limit distractions by resisting the urge to check email. Participate in hobbies or activities that
you enjoy. Join a local sports team or volunteer at your favorite organization. Remind yourself
that you are fabulous. Don’t let deadlines and a demanding job get you down. Remind yourself
of all the things you have accomplished and don’t get caught up in problems or failures. You
are not your job and taking the time to remember things that define you as an individual outside
your work will contribute significantly to peace of mind. Your body and mind are your most
valuable assets. To get through each day both need to be kept in good shape. Remember to give
yourself a tune up every day by doing some of the activities mentioned above. Schedule time
for yourself and your mind and your body will thank you.

Fig. 1. 8 a mini vacation with less distractions. Source- Kelie lugo images
7. Connect to Your Community

A great way to feel emotionally strong and resilient in times of stress is to feel connected to a
broad community. Think about the things you like to do. You can expand your social network
by looking into a community organization that brings people together who share the same
interests. For instance, many communities have local biking, hiking, or walking groups. Is there
something you've always wanted to do like learn a new language? Take a class, or join a local
group. You also may find the support you need through local support groups for a specific issue
like parenting, dealing with a health problem, or caring for a loved one who's ill.

Fig. 1. 9. A community chat. Source-Kylie Lugo images

8. Create Joy and Satisfaction

Studies show that

• Laughing decreases pain, may help your heart and lungs, promotes muscle relaxation,
and can reduce anxiety.
• Positive emotions can decrease stress hormones and build emotional strength.
• Leisure activities offer a distraction from problems, a sense of competence and many
other benefits. For example, in one study observing twins, the one who participated in
leisure activities was less likely to develop Alzheimer's disease or dementia than their
fellow twin.

Fig 1.10. People in exciting mood. Source-Helena Lopes images

9. Take a self-care trip.

Taking a self-care trip can make a huge difference in your life. Even if you’re not feeling
particularly stressed, getting away for a weekend every now and then can help you disconnect,
relax, and be rejuvenated. These self-care trips don’t have to be costly; simply drive to the next
town over and see the sights, or go camping nearby. The goal is to veer away from your
normal schedule and take the time to do something just for yourself. Spending time outside can
help you reduce stress, lower your blood pressure, and be more mindful. Studies have even
shown that getting outside can help reduce fatigue, making it a great way to overcome
symptoms of depression or burnout. Getting outside can also help you sleep better at night,
especially if you do some physical activity, like hiking or walking, while you are outside.

10. Cook at home to care for yourself.

Many people don’t take the time to make themselves meals, preferring instead to stop for fast
food or popping a pre-made meal in the microwave. But these "fast" meals aren’t usually
sufficient when it comes to feeding your body the right kinds of calories and nutrients. Even if
it’s only once a week, consider making a healthy meal for yourself or your whole family. You
could even look into a meal delivery service or meal kit that can help you get started.

11. Get enough sleep.

One must always get enough rest each day by having enough sleep. If you are a teen, try to get
8-10 hours of sleep a night; if you are older than 18, aim for 7-9 hours of sleep. Go to sleep and
wake up at the same time every day to get your body into a routine. Keeping your room dark
and cool can help you get a better night’s sleep. Sleep is not only good for the body, but it is
also good for the mind. A well-rested body and mind can accomplish great things.

Fig. 1.11. A lady having enough sleep. Source-Fountain image

Domestic health
Apart from good personal health, we should take proper care of domestic hygiene too. This
includes following hygienic methods of cooking and storing food, and keeping the house and
its premises neat and clean. Microorganisms present in the environment can infect and spoil
our food. So food should be cooked properly to destroy them. The utensils used for cooking
food should always be clean. The food should be covered and stored in a proper place away
from the reach of flies and insects.
Fig. 1.12. A proper way of keeping food. Source- Community health and hygiene
Everyone should be aware of the fact that good health is the result of personal efforts and habits.
Good health is not supplied by others or purchased. Domestic health includes taking care of
the health of each one in the family or home. In our normal traditional settings, we see our
mothers taking a lead role in taking care of each and every member of the family. From babies
to our daddies. They cook, clean the house, wash the clothes and do all the other house chores.
All these they do so that the members in their nuclear family will stay safe and free from
diseases. Domestic health should not be the responsibility of mothers alone but each and every
member must take their health very seriously. The physical and mental health of all family
members, from the newborn to the oldest, is important and all should have a prominent role in
maintaining family or domestic health.

Now from domestic health, let us move on to community health.

In a sentence, explain community health.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
The efforts taken to promote and maintain the health of human beings, animals and birds that
depend on the family for food and shelter comes under this. Proper food, water, fresh air,
shelter, attention and care, medical care and personal and environmental hygiene all are
important to maintain good domestic health.

Community Health
The health of a community as a whole depends on the personal habits of the individuals who
make up the community. Dirty and unhygienic habits of individuals can therefore create
problems for the whole community. This is because some dirty habits of individuals make it
difficult to keep the environment clean and healthy. WHO Expert Committee (1974), stated
that community health refers to the health status of members of the community, the problems
affecting their health and the totality of the health care provided for the community. In a
community, this implies the integration of curative, preventive and promotional health services.
The focus is on three levels:
1. The individual
2. The home and family
3. The community
Community or public health has also been defined as the science and art of promoting health
and preventing diseases through the organized efforts of the society, organizations (public and
private), communities, families and individuals (Wikipedia). It includes activities undertaken
at the government or local organization level for controlling diseases, maintaining health and
thereby prolonging the life span of the people. Now you can see that personal, domestic and
community health are inter-related. Those managing community health interventions should
focus on personal and family health issues as well. It is concerned with threats to health, based
on population health analysis.

Population refers to a small group of people in a suburb of a town or a community as in the

case of epidemics, or as large as all the inhabitants of several continents (Africa, North
America, South America, Australia, Asia, Europe and Antarctica) as in the case of pandemics.
Like what the world is currently experiencing now in the case of COVID 19. It started as a
small community disease (epidemics) in a town known as WUHAN in CHINA and then spread
to other communities in China and from there, to other neighbouring countries and now the
entire world is suffering from this disease (pandemic). If the world had kwon that this disease
from this small town was going to be that devastating across the entire world, the world would
have been prompt in finding a cure or preventive measures would have been put in place at the
onset of the disease.

We often read in newspapers or watch on the television cases of widespread diseases in some
areas that require immediate attention. Local or government organizations must take the right
steps to control the spread of the disease by creating awareness and ensuring adequate supplies
of medicines and other medical logistics in other to contain its spread. On the main stream
media, the print media and on social media platforms we see notices and banners put up by the
government of our country and the government of other nations, giving dates and time of
immunization programmes or the precautions to be taken against certain diseases such as
cholera, dysentery, malaria, dengue, HIV/AIDS, poliomyelitis and hepatitis B. COVID 19 is
the new baby in town with so much campaign against its spread and its preventive measures.

Recently in Ghana during the lockdown to prevent the spread of COVID 19, the government
used other agencies to clear the cities out of waste and to spray market, schools and other public
places. The measures taken by the government and other agencies to control these diseases
have received a lot of publicity recently. These are all examples of health care measures taken
to protect and promote the health of the community. The focus of public health interventions
is to improve health and quality of life through the prevention and treatment of diseases and
other physical and mental health conditions, through surveillance of cases and the promotion
of healthy behaviours.
Source: Adapted from WHO (1992). And module 2-Community health and hygiene, State
Resource Centre, Kerala.

With your understanding in personal health, domestic health and community health, explain
what you think environmental health is.----------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
If your answer is -environmental health is the area of public health that deals with all the
different ways the world around us can impact our physical and mental well-being, you are
right. If not don’t worry, we shall go through it.
Environmental health
After studying personal health, domestic health and community health, let us now look at
environmental health. How would you define the word ‘environment’? The term environment
refers to the physical, biological, social and cultural surroundings affecting human life as
well as the life of plants and animals surrounding it. It includes both the living and non-living
things that surround us. It not only includes air, water and soil, but also the ecological, social
and economic conditions under which we live.

The three major components of the environment are:

Physical environment: includes air, water, soil, shelter, waste, radiation, climatic factors, etc.
Biological environment: includes all kinds of vegetation and animals including invisible
bacteria and viruses, insects, rodents, the natural resources, the ecosystem, etc.
Social environment: includes habits, culture, customs, income, religion and occupation, i.e.,
all the social and economic conditions under which man lives.

Whatever we do in the physical, biological and the social environment has a direct impact on
our health. Let us look at the picture below: what can we say about how our own activities
impact our health.

Fig. 1.13. How the environment impacts our health. Source; World Health Organisation
Humans interact with the environment constantly. These interactions affect quality of life,
years of healthy life lived, and health disparities.
Environmental health looks at all the three components of the environment and how they affect
the health of people. Environmental health is essential for the healthy existence of human lives
in the present and future generations. It is very much related to human activities as it sometimes
interfere with the environment. Human activities sometimes change our healthy atmosphere by
releasing toxic chemicals into the atmosphere. Indeed, activities such as, dumping of waste in
public places and throwing away or burning plastic materials harm the physical environment
or pollute the atmosphere. There are also some environmental agents that are directly
responsible for causing poor health. These include: ultraviolet rays from the sun that can cause
skin cancer and lack of minerals in the soil that can result in nutritional disorders.

Environmental health is the science and practice of preventing human injury and illness and
promoting well-being by identifying and evaluating environmental sources and hazardous
agents and limiting exposures to hazardous physical, chemical, and biological agents in air,
water, soil, food, and other environmental media or settings that may adversely affect human
health.

Environmental health has been defined in a 1999 document by the World Health Organization
(WHO) as: Those aspects of the human health and disease that are determined by factors in the
environment. It also refers to the theory and practice of assessing and controlling factors in the
environment that can potentially affect health.

Creating healthy environments can be complex and relies on continuing research to better
understand the effects of exposure to environmental hazards on people’s health.

Keeping a healthy environment is central to increasing quality of life and years of healthy life.
Environmental factors are diverse and far reaching. The themes of the Environmental Health
topic area draw attention to elements of the environment and their linkages to health. The
themes are

1. Infrastructure and surveillance

2. Outdoor and indoor air quality
3. Surface and ground water quality
4. Global environmental health
5. Toxic substances and hazardous wastes
6. Homes and communities

Outdoor and indoor Air Quality

Air quality, including both ambient outdoor air and indoor air quality are essential to our
environmental health. Poor air quality is linked to premature death, respiratory diseases,
cancer, and damage to cardiovascular systems. Decreasing air pollution is an important step in
creating a healthy environment for each and every one living under the sun.

Infrastructure and Surveillance

Preventing exposure to environmental hazards relies on many partners, including state and
local health departments. Personnel, surveillance systems, and education are important
resources for investigating and responding to disease, monitoring for hazards, and educating
the public. Additional methods and greater capacity to measure and respond to environmental
hazards are needed.

Global Environmental Health

Water quality is an important global challenge. Diseases can be reduced by improving water
quality and sanitation and increasing access to adequate water and sanitation facilities.

Homes and Communities

We spend our time either at home, work, or in the school environment. Some of these
environments may have adverse effect on our health. Some of these environment may expose
people to: Indoor air pollution, lead-based paint hazards, inadequate heating and sanitation and
many more.

Surface and Ground Water

Water they say is life. If it is life then we must protect it with our own lives. We often treat our
water bodies poorly by throwing waste from our homes, sewage from factories, liquid waste
disposal, including city waste water treatment plants and on-site waste water disposal systems,
such as septic tank systems and chemical toilets, Medical waste management and disposal etc.
into water bodies. Surface and ground water quality concerns apply to both drinking water and
recreational waters. Adulteration by infectious agents or chemicals in our water bodies can
cause mild to severe illness. Keeping water sources clean and minimizing exposure to
contaminated water sources are important parts of environmental health.

Poor environmental quality has its greatest impact on people whose health status is already at
risk. Therefore, environmental health must address the societal and environmental factors that
increase the likelihood of exposure and disease.

In short, health implies a sound mind in a sound body living in a sound family and community
surrounded by a sound environment. This health is influenced by human activities and the
surrounding physical and biological environment.

Summary
We have learnt that-
1. Health is a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being.
2. WHO 1948 further explained health as “A resource for everyday life, not the
objective of living. Health is a positive concept emphasizing social and personal
resources, as well as physical capacities."
3. The conditions required for good health include the availability of resources to meet
basic human needs and protection from all environmental hazards. It also involves
a sense of security and wellbeing.
4. Health is generally classified into: personal health, domestic/family health,
community/ public health and environmental health.
5. Eating healthy means we must eat a balance diet. A balance diet is a diet that
contains all the food nutrients at the right proportions needed to maintain good
health and growth. It also includes the correct proportion of carbohydrates, proteins,
vitamins, minerals, fats and oils, water and roughage in your diet.
6. Domestic health includes following hygienic methods of cooking and storing food,
and keeping the house and its premises neat and clean.
7. Community or public health has also been defined as the science and art of
promoting health and preventing diseases through the organized efforts of the
society, organizations (public and private), communities, families and individuals
(Wikipedia).
8. The term environment refers to the physical, biological, social and cultural
surroundings affecting human life as well as the life of plants and animals
surrounding it.
9. The three major components of the environment are physical environment,
biological environment and social environment.
10. Environmental health is the science and practice of preventing human injury and
illness and promoting well-being by identifying and evaluating environmental
sources and hazardous agents and limiting exposures to hazardous physical,
chemical, and biological agents in air, water, soil, food, and other environmental
media or settings that may adversely affect human health.

Activities
1. Defined health according to WHO.
2. The definition of health does not only consider the physical, mental and social
aspects of health but also other dimensions like ----------------------------.
3. Write three things you see on a person enjoying good health.
4. Write three basic conditions needed for a good health.
5. In one sentence, explain personal health.
6. What is domestic health?
7. The term environment refers to the ----------------------------------------------, ---------
-------------------------------------------------, -----------------------------------------------
and -------------------------------- surroundings affecting human life as well as the life
of plants and animals surrounding it.
8. How did WHO in a 1999 document define environmental health?
Suggested answers to activities
1. According to WHO, (World Health Organization) health is a state of complete
physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or
infirmity.
2. spiritual health.
3. A person enjoying good health is cheerful, free from stress and adore life to the
fullest and is ready for productive work.
4. Basic conditions needed for a good health:
• Practicing good personal and domestic hygiene.
• One must have regular physical exercise.
• Consume a safe, healthy and balanced diet
• The availability of clean air and water
• Proper recreation and sleep.
• Maintaining good habits like avoiding tobacco, smoking, alcohol and drugs.
5. Personal Health is the ability to take charge of your health by making conscious
decisions to be healthy.
6. Domestic health includes following hygienic methods of cooking and storing food,
and keeping the house and its premises neat and clean.
7. physical, biological, social and cultural
8. Environmental health has been defined in a 1999 document by the World Health
Organization (WHO) as: Those aspects of the human health and disease that are
determined by factors in the environment. It also refers to the theory and practice
of assessing and controlling factors in the environment that can potentially affect
health.

Self-assessment
1. How did WHO explained Health in 1948?
2. Write and explain the conditions required for good health.
3. Health is generally classified into personal health, domestic/family health
community/ public health and -------------------------------------------------------------
4. Write the three components of personal health.
5. List and explain five ways through which we can take care of ourselves.
6.

If an individual is eating the food in the image above, what is the individual practicing?

References

Abbey, T. K., Alhassan, M. B., Ameyibor, K., Essiah, J. W., Fometu, E., & Wiredu, M.B. (2008).
Ghana association of science teachers integrated science for senior high schools. Accra:
Unimax MacMillan.
Abbey, T. K., & Essiah, J.W. (1995). Ghana association of science teachers physics for
senior high schools. Accra: Unimax Macmillan.
Ameyibor, K., & Wiredu, M. B. (2006). Ghana association of science teachers’ chemistry for
senior high schools. Accra: Unimax MacMillan.

World Health Organization (2006). Preventing disease through healthy environments. Geneva,
Switzerland: WHO;
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards (2010).
Our Nation's air: Status and trends through 2008. Washington, DC: EPA.

Patz J, Campbell-Lendrum D, Holloway T, et al (2005). Impact of regional climate change on

human health. Nature. 17; 438(7066):310-17.

Kinney PL (2008). Climate change, air quality, and human health. Am J Prev Med.; 35(5):459-
467

WHO (1992). And module 2-Community health and hygiene, State Resource Centre, Kerala.
SECTION 2
HYGIENE
Introduction
Dear student teacher, I believe you have enjoyed the lesson in section I on health very well. In
continuing the lesson on Human and the Environment, I am going to take you through the
concept of hygiene. In this topic we shall look at hygiene and classification of hygiene such as
personal hygiene, domestic hygiene, community hygiene and environmental hygiene. Don’t
forget to take your pens, pencils, note books and erasers. Sit beside your desk comfortably and
enjoy this lesson as the previous one.

Objectives

By the end of this section, you will be able to:

10. Explain the term hygiene

11. List the classifications of hygiene
12. Explain personal hygiene and list at least three components of personal
hygiene and explain
13. Write chronologically the hand washing techniques
14. Explain domestic hygiene
15. Explain community hygiene and list the various types of communities and explain how
they can keep it neat.
16. Explain environmental hygiene

Concept of Hygiene
Answer the following questions-
1. Did you take your bath today before going to school, the market, the hospital, the bank
or before travelling to the next town?-----------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
2. Why didn’t you go without bathing?------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
3. Did you clean your room and the entire house after getting out of birth? If yes why and
if no why? ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
4. Have you ever taking part in a communal labour in your area before? If yes, why did
you take part, if no, why didn’t you take part? ------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
5. What general name can we give to the cleaning from your body, to your house and the
community?
Answers

1. Yes
2. It induces sleep, it removes toxins from our bodies, one looks beautiful when she/he
bath, , it helps to reduce stress, one smells nice when he/she bath, you will feel confident
to walk around etc.
3. Yes. Your house will always be clean, your will be less stressful, your home will be
more aesthetically pleasing, you will spend less time cleaning, you’ll prevent pest
infestations, you will expand the life of the materials in your home, your home will be
safer for children and many more.
4. Yes. Keeping our environment clean and neat is our responsibility. It is necessary to
keep our environment clean in order to get fresh air, reduce pollution etc. An unclean
environment leads to a bad condition of a society, arrival of diseases and many more.
5. Hygiene.

If your answers are similar or the same as what you see above, congratulations. If you have
different answers, don’t worry, we shall study them into details for you to understand.

With your good answers to the questions above, what then is hygiene?----------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

What is Hygiene?
Hygiene refers to all those practices that help in maintaining good health and preventing
diseases. Hygiene can also be known as any good practices that prevent diseases and lead to
good health, especially cleanliness, proper disposal of wastewater and drinking water supply.
It refers to all the activities that are done to improve, preserve and maintain good health. The
word ‘hygiene’ comes from the Greek word ‘hygieia’ which means ‘Goddess of health and
cleanliness’. Therefore, we can presume that health and hygiene go hand in hand or they are
interrelated.
In general, hygiene means practices that prevent the spread of disease-causing organisms. In
this era of Covid 19, we are being asked to clean our hands as often as possible in order to get
rid of the virus. Almost every home, and public place have water, soap and tissues in front for
people to wash their hands under running water. Cleaning (e.g., hand washing) is the process
of removing disease causing germs as well as dirt and soil. It is one of the means of achieving
hygiene.
Hygiene practices can vary widely between genders, culture, religious groups, and
geographical and climatic conditions. What is considered acceptable in one culture might not
be acceptable in another. In short, hygiene refers to the practices that help in preserving and
promoting health while preventing diseases.
Germs can affect people in a number of ways. The most vulnerable groups are people
recovering from illness, the elderly, babies under the age of one, children under the age of five
and pregnant women. These groups are easily susceptible to all sorts of health problems. Most
of the people who died during the Covid 19 era were the vulnerable people in society and so
we must keep our environment clean so that we can save their lives.
Classification of Hygiene
Like health, hygiene can also be classified into four main categories. These are:
1. Personal hygiene
2. Domestic hygiene
3. Community hygiene
4. Environmental hygiene
Personal hygiene
Activity
There are some activities you perform every day in order to keep yourself clean. These include
the care of your skin, hair, teeth, eyes, ears, hands, feet and the whole body. The picture below
gives a morning scene of a village. People are involved in performing their daily activities. List
as many as you can from the scene the activities that promote hygiene?
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Figure 2.1: A typical morning scene in a village source- Community health and hygiene State
resource center, Kerala
Personal hygiene is a concept that is commonly used in medical and public health practices.
Personal hygiene can also be explained as the principle of maintaining cleanliness and
grooming of the external body. It is also widely practised at the individual level and at home.
It involves maintaining the cleanliness of our body and clothes. Personal hygiene is personal,
as its name implies. In this regard, personal hygiene is defined as a condition promoting
sanitary practices to the self. The aim of personal hygiene is to promote standards of personal
cleanliness, within the setting of the condition where people live to prevent or minimize the
incidence and spread of communicable diseases.
Personal hygiene includes bathing, clothing, washing hands and toileting, care of the nails, feet,
teeth, spitting, coughing, sneezing, personal appearance, and inculcation of clean habits when
young.

Aesthetic values of personal hygiene

A person with clean hands is proud while eating because they feel confident of preventing
diseases. Teachers in schools are always happy to see their students/pupils with clean hands,
faces, dressed in clean clothes etc. Again, teachers will send students who are neat and send
them to buy food or run other errands for them. A mother is mentally satisfied to feed her infant
with clean hands because she ensures the preservation of her child’s health. Cleanliness
produces pride, comfort and dignity at home and in public places. Mothers with clean babies
are always proud displaying their babies in public. Caring about the way you look is important
to your self-esteem.

Social impact

A person with poor personal hygiene might be isolated from friends because telling the person
about the situation might be sensitive and culturally difficult. It is always difficult for friends
to approach their colleague to tell him/her that they smell. They usually resort to shunning the
persons company. For this reason, it will be very difficult for you to have success in an
interview since your appearance is the first thing they look at. This can also affect your chance
of promotion.
Components of personal hygiene
Body hygiene
The body has nearly two million sweat glands. Moistened and dried sweat and dead skin cells
all together make dirt that sticks on to the skin and the surface of underclothes. The action of
bacterial decomposes the sweat, thereby generating bad odour and irritating the skin. This is
especially observed in the groin, underarms and feet and in the clothing that has absorbed
sweat. Skin infections such as scabies, pimples and ringworm are results of poor body hygiene.

Figure 2.2: A male taking an early morning bath/shower. Source: Healthline.

The first task in body hygiene is to find water, soap and other cleansing materials. Taking a
bath or shower as shown in figure 2.2, requires the use of body soap, sponge and water to
wash your body at least once a day or after sweating or getting dirty is very important to
ensuring our body stays healthy and clean. After thorough rinsing, dry the body with a clean
towel, change dirty underwear into clean and dry ones and put on clean clothes. Put on some
body pomade, roll on or spray if one desires. Avoid sharing soaps and towels because of cross
infections.

Oral hygiene
The mouth is the area of the body which is most prone to collecting harmful bacteria and
generating infections. Our mouth mechanically breaks food into pieces. This process leaves
food particles (food debris) that stick to the surface of our gums and teeth. Our mouth cavity is
full of bacteria and is a good environment for bacterial growth. Why is the mouth a good
environment for bacterial growth? It is at the optimum temperature (37°C) and is often rich in
food particles that support bacterial growth. The decaying process that takes place on the
surface of the teeth eventually produces a build-up called plaque (a sticky deposit on which
bacteria grow) that is then converted into tartar (a hard, yellowish, calcified deposit on the
teeth, consisting of organic secretions and food particles). The result is tooth decay. In addition,
unpleasant smelling breath (halitosis or stinking odour), teeth and gum infections could be as
a result of poor oral hygiene.
How to keep the mouth clean
1. Rinse the mouth after each meal
2. Brush your teeth with a fluoride-containing toothpaste twice a day – before breakfast
and before you go to bed.
3. Cleaning the mouth with twigs is possible if done carefully
4. Fill your mouth with water and swish it around to get rid of any food particles
5. Floss your teeth at least once a day.

Figure2.3: Cleaning of the teeth. Source: Healthline

Hand washing/hand care

The cleanliness of our hands is very important in all our daily activities. In our normal activities
our hands frequently get dirty. There are many situations in which microorganisms are likely
to attach to our hands along with the dirt. Hand hygiene plays a critically important role in
preventing transmission of diseases. Hygienic hand washing involves the mechanical removal
of microorganisms from contaminated hand surfaces using soap or detergent. Hand washing
should involve more than a quick rinse under a tap (faucet) or in running water. Hand washing
techniques are discussed briefly below.

Figure 2.4: Hand washing techniques ([Link])

Hand washing techniques
Below are some hand washing techniques one must follow in order to get rid of germs:
1. First wet your hands with clean water and lather with a bar of soap.
2. Rub your hands together vigorously and scrub all surfaces up to your wrists.
3. Clean under your fingernails
4. Continue for 15–30 seconds or about the length of a little tune (for example, the Happy
Birthday’ song). It is the soap combined with the scrubbing action that helps dislodge
and remove germs.
5. Rinse your hands well with clean running water (pour from a jug or tap).
6. Dry your hands in the air to avoid recontamination on a dirty towel – do not touch
anything until your hands are dry.
7. Wood ash will also rub off any dirt and smells. The slight irritation you feel when you
wash your hands with ash shows the cleansing power of ash.
8. Local seeds such as indod (Lemma’s plant), which are known to be good cleaning
agents, can also be used for regular hand washing.
9. Clean sand with water can be used for hand washing to help to rub off dirt.
Figure 2. Hand washing (cleaning).
(Photos: Abera Kumie, Basiro Davey, USAID/HIP,WaterAid in Ethiopia)

Figure 2. 5. Handwashing at a standpost. Source: Healthline

When to wash your hands

1. Washing hands after using the toilet (or disposing of human or animal faeces) helps stop
the spread of germs.

Figure 2. 6. Washing of hands after using the W.C. Source: Healthline

2. After changing a baby’s diaper and disposing of faeces.
3. Immediately after touching raw food when preparing food (meat, chicken etc.)
4. Washing hands before preparing food helps keep germs out of our bodies.

Figure 2. 6 washing of hands before preparing a meal. Source: Healthline

5. Washing hands before eating or feeding infants stop germs getting into our bodies

Figure 2. 7 washing of hands before eating. Source: Healthline

6. After handling pets and domestic animals
7. Washing hands after blowing the nose or sneezing into the hands stop the spread of germs.

Figure 2.8 washing of hands after blowing the nose. Source: Healthline
Face hygiene
Face hygiene includes hygiene in all parts of the face. The most important area to keep clean
is the eyes. The eye discharges protective fluids that could dry and accumulate around the eye.
They are visible when a person gets up in the morning. The organic substance that the eye
discharges can attract flies and this is dangerous because the fly is a carrier (vector) of trachoma
and conjunctivitis. A person should wash their face every morning in order to remove all dirt
that they have come into contact with during the course of the day. This will keep your face
clean all day. Children are advised to wash their face frequently. Never share your face towel
with others. Why is it inadvisable to share a face towel? Because some diseases such as
conjunctivitis and trachoma can be transmitted easily from person to person in this way
Nail care
A nail is a horn-like keratinous envelope covering the tips of the fingers and toes in most
primates. Fingernails and toenails are made of a tough protective protein called alpha-keratin
which is found in the hooves, hair, claws and horns of vertebrates. Long fingernails tend to
accumulate or trap dirt on the underside. The dirt could be as a result of defecation or touching
infected and contaminated surfaces. Keeping nails trimmed and in good shape weekly is
important in maintaining good health. Clip nails short along their shape but do not cut them so
close that it damages the skin. Razor blades and fingernail cutters or scissors are used to cut
nails.
Nail cutters should not be shared with others.
Why is it inadvisable to share nail cutters? ------------------------------------------------------------
Because some diseases, such as fungal infections, can be transmitted easily from person to
person in this way.
Ear care
As secretion comes out of the ear, it collects dust particles from the air. Daily washing with
soap and water is enough to keep the outer ear clean. Do not reach farther than you can with
your little finger into your ear. Putting in hairpins, safety pins or blunt-edged things for cleaning
purposes might harm the ear.
If you feel wax has accumulated and is plugging your ears and interfering with hearing, consult
your doctor.
Hair care/hygiene
The hair follicles from which the hair grows produce oil from the sebaceous glands that keeps
the hair smooth. The scalp (the skin covering the head) also has numerous sweat glands and is
a surface for the accumulation of dead skin cells. The oil, sweat and dead cells all add together
and can make the hair greasy and look dirty unless you wash it regularly. Poor hair hygiene
could cause dandruff and skin infections such as Tinea capitis. Dandruff is dead skin on the
scalp that comes off in tiny flakes when sebaceous glands produce too much oil and accumulate
on the scalp. Head hair is a good harbour for head lice (Pediculus humanus capitis) and nits
(eggs of head lice). The head louse is a tiny insect that lives by sucking blood. Children are
especially prone to lice infestation. Lice spread from one head to another when there is close
contact as in school environments. They make the scalp itchy and are a cause of annoyance,
irritation and embarrassment. Shaving of the head hair is possible in cases of heavy lice
infestation. Sharing blades with others however should be discourage.
Steps in cleaning the hair are:
1. Use clean water to wash your hair regularly with soap or shampoo.
Figure 2. 9 washing of hair source – wiki
2. Massage your scalp well with gentle pressure in order to remove dead skin cells, excess
oil and dirt.

Figure 2.10 Hair cleaning

3. Rinse well with clear and clean water

Figure 2. 11. Rinsing of hair. Source wiki

4. One may condition if you have long hair in order to make combing easier.
5. Comb the hair with a wide tithed comb
6. Dry the hair and the head with a clean towel.
7. Comb the hair for it to look beautiful.
Figure 2.12 Combing of hair
Foot hygiene/foot care
We spend a lot of time using our feet. Our feet sweat as we walk day and night and the sweat
accumulates on all foot surfaces and between the toes. The sweat may stain the shoes and can
produce an unpleasant odour.
What causes sweat on the skin to produce an unpleasant odour? ------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
The action of bacteria as they decompose the sweat produces odour. Bacteria and sweat also
encourages fungal growth between the toes. This is called athlete’s foot.
The symptoms of athlete’s foot are scaly skin and sores or blisters, which start between the toes
but can often spread to the soles of the feet. This is a minor irritation and often disappears by
itself but sometimes these cracks and sores become the site for other infections. The feet should
be washed daily, or at least twice weekly.

Figure 2. 13 A traditional man practicing foot hygiene. Source- State resource center,
Kerala.
Armpit and bottom hygiene
These are body parts that easily get sweaty and where ventilation is very poor. After puberty,
our sweat gains a specific and unpleasant odour which may be offensive to others. The armpits
and the bottom should be washed daily. Anal cleansing is the hygienic practice of cleaning the
anus after defecation. The anus and buttocks may be cleansed with clean toilet paper or similar
paper products. Water may be used to clean the anus. Hands must be washed with soap
afterwards.
Clothes hygiene
We usually have two layers of clothing. The internal layer is underwear such as pants, vest and
T-shirt. These are right next to our skin and collect sweat and dead skin cells, which can stain
the cloth. Bacteria love to grow on this dirt and produce a bad smell in addition to the specific
odour of the sweat. Underwear must be washed more frequently than the outer layer of clothing.
Clothes hygiene is an important aspect of one’s dignity.
Changing used clothes for clean ones every day is recommended. Washing dirty clothes
requires adequate clean water, detergents (solid or powdered soap) and washing facilities. If
possible, the washed clothes must be dried in the sun as seen in the figure below and ironed to
help the destruction of body lice and nits. Boiling water or insecticides can be used to destroy
clothes infestation. Frequent changing into clean clothes might not always be possible in poor
households. However, the frequency of changing is advised to be twice a week for internal
wear and once or twice per week for outerwear.

Figure 2.14. Washing and Hanging clothes in the sun helps to kill some disease-causing germs and
parasites.
Menstrual hygiene
The vagina is able to clean itself; no special care is needed other than washing the external
genitals. Washing the outer genital area with clean water must be a daily practice. Change
tampons and sanitary napkins or pads regularly. Always wash your hands before and after
handling a tampon or pad. Clean and soft cloths can be used in place of sanitary pads. The use
of dirty cloths must be discouraged. Menstrual blood-absorbing items must be properly
disposed of in a burial pit or other appropriate method.

Respiratory Hygiene/Cough Etiquette

The following measures must be adhered to in order to contain respiratory secretions.

• Cover your mouth and nose with a tissue when coughing or sneezing;
• Use in the nearest waste receptacle to dispose of the tissue after use;
• Perform hand hygiene (e.g., hand washing with non-antimicrobial soap and water,
alcohol-based hand rub, or antiseptic hand wash) after having contact with respiratory
secretions and contaminated objects/materials.

Figure 2. 15An example of respiratory hygiene. Source. State resource center, Kerala
Domestic hygiene
What is domestic hygiene?
This addresses hygiene from the point of view of your family and highlights the range of actions
the family members need to undertake in order to protect themselves from infectious diseases.
These are includes: individual hygiene, food and water hygiene, safe disposal of human and
other waste, and the hygiene of the home and its surroundings.

Domestic hygiene: domestic hygiene means cleanliness in our homes. Domestic hygiene
comprises of the home, use of soap, need of fresh air, light, ventilation, hygiene in storage of
food, disposal of waste, avoidance of household pests, rats, mice, insects. Domestic hygiene
activities include all the work which is done to keep the house and people's clothes and bedding
clean. These jobs include sweeping and washing floors, cleaning the toilet, washing clothes
and bedding, and washing dishes and cooking utensils after meals. It is important that the house
be kept clean so that it is a healthy place.

Fig. 2. 16. A lady cleaning her house. State resource center, Kerala

If the house and everything in it are not cleaned often, moisture and dirt gather and it becomes
an ideal place for germs, parasites and vectors (disease-carrying animals) to breed and multiply.
These germs can cause the people living in the house to get sick. The toilet need to be cleaned
regularly because it is an important part of the house. If it get dirty and surfaces become
contaminated with germs, people could get sick.

Ways of keeping our homes clean.

The following are some ways we can keep our homes clean and make it safe for the people
living within it:

Protecting food from contamination

Correct food handling practices and food storage helps prevent bacteria from contaminating
and multiplying on foods. The following action needs to be taken to prevent bacterial
contamination:

Fig. 2.17. Covering of food to prevent contamination. Source-State resource center, Kerala

How do you prevent food contamination/poisoning?

Given the right conditions such as warmth, moisture and time, bacteria can easily grow on food
and multiply very quickly. That’s why food that is not properly stored or thoroughly cooked
can cause food borne illnesses.

There are four simple steps you can take to prevent food poisoning:

• Clean – always wash your hands before and after handling and eating food, after visiting
the toilet or playing with pets or animals
• Cook – make sure that food is thoroughly cooked in order to destroy any harmful
bacteria that might be present.
• Chill – keep food cool in order to prevent bad bacteria from growing; make sure that
your fridge is at the correct temperature to keep cold foods chilled – aim to keep your
fridge at 5°C or below.
• Separate to prevent cross-contamination – separate raw and cooked foods during
storage and cooking and never let raw food, for example raw meat, come into contact
with food that is ready-to-eat.

According to WHO, the five key principles of food hygiene are as follows:
1. Prevent contaminating food with pathogens spreading from people, pets and pests.
2. Separate raw and cooked foods to prevent contaminating the cooked food.
3. Cook food for the appropriate length of time and at the appropriate temperature to kill
pathogens.
4. Store food at the proper temperature.
5. Use safe water and safe raw materials.

Keeping a Clean kitchen: Cooking utensils, bowls, spoons, forks, cooker, fridge, deep
freezers, plates, cups, blender, sinks and many more used in the kitchen must always be kept
clean. You might have heard of or seen the age old practice of applying cow dung paste on the
traditional stove or furnace and allowing it to dry after the cooking is over in the evening or
night. This had two advantages. Cow dung is a good disinfectant so no germs will enter the
stove. Also it conserves heat. Today it is much easier to clean modern stoves and kitchens with
sponge, soap, water and napkin.

Fruits and vegetables: Fruits and vegetables should be washed several times in clean water
to ensure they are free from germs and pesticides (chemicals sprayed on plants to keep them
insect free or to prolong their shelf life) before consumption or cooking. Cleaning them first
with plain water, then with water in which a little salt or turmeric powder is added, and again
rinsing in plain water was the traditional practice to remove pesticides and chemical residues.

Hygiene in cooking: Food should be prepared in a clean kitchen and in a clean manner. While
cooking food, it is important to heat it to the temperature required to kill any germs present.
Cooked food should be eaten as soon as it is prepared or stored in a cool place free from flies.
It should always be covered. Milk stored in the refrigerator or outside should be boiled again
to make it germ free.

Keeping the house clean: The house should be cleaned every day to remove dirt. The furniture
must also be wiped and cleaned. Cobwebs from the walls and roof should be cleared at least
once a week.

Food hygiene: is another very important factor in maintaining individual as well as community
health. Contaminated or adulterated food represents one of the greatest health risks in any
population and is a leading cause of disease outbreaks and transmission.

Food that is kept too long without refrigeration, certainly gets spoiled and gets contaminated
with toxic chemicals or pathogens. Dirty hands, unclean water, ﬂies and unhygienic
surroundings can contaminate foodstuffs that are eaten raw. Improperly prepared food can also
cause problems. Therefore, to promote good health, food should be hygienically prepared and
properly stored.

It is important that people understand the principles of basic hygiene and know how to prepare
and store food safely and hygienically with minimum loss of nutrients. Therefore, to promote
good health, food should be hygienically prepared and properly stored. These points should
be kept in mind while preparing food for the home, a group or in hotels or other food outlets.

Waste disposal:
What do you do with the garbage in your house? ------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Do you dump it anywhere, bury it or burn it? ----------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Do you throw it outside the compound or use it for composting? -----------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Waste disposal include the activities and actions required to manage waste from its inception
to its final disposal. This includes the collection, transport, treatment and disposal of waste,
together with monitoring and regulation of the waste management process.

When you make waste in your house, do not throw your household garbage on the roadside.
This makes the streets dirty and allows flies, mosquitoes and other animals to breed. This
garbage do not only give a dirty look to the area but also produces a foul smell and may even
cause health problems. Garbage should be placed inside dustbins and disposed of without
causing problems to other people or the environment. The bins should also be cleaned after
emptying the garbage. Domestic waste can pile up and cause many health problems.

Correct food handling:

Always wash hands with soap and warm water before handling food. Wet the hands before
applying the soap. Make sure you rub in between fingers and on the front and backs of hands.
Remember to clean under fingernails. Rubbing with soap loosens bacteria. They must be rinsed
off with water. Always wash hands with soap and warm water after going to the toilet or
touching any parts of the body, such as the skin or nose. If sneezing, turn away from the food
and use a tissue. Always clean and sanitize utensils and benches. Insects, rats, mice and other
pests cannot get into the food preparation area. Pets must never be allowed into a shop or
community kitchen. Dispose of rubbish regularly and correctly. Make sure the floors, walls,
window sills and all fixtures in the food preparation area are regularly and properly cleaned.

Water contamination and disease

Water is one of the most important substances on earth. All plants and animals must have water
to survive. If there was no water there would be no life on earth. Disease-causing germs and
chemicals can find their way into water supplies. When this happens the water becomes
polluted or contaminated and when people drink it or come in contact with it in other ways they
can become very sick.

Apart from drinking it to survive, people have many other uses for water. These include:

• cooking
• washing their bodies
• washing clothes
• washing cooking and eating utensils; such as saucepans, crockery and cutlery
• keeping houses and communities clean
• recreation; such as swimming pools

Diseases in Indigenous communities caused by germs and parasites resulting from

inadequate domestic and personal hygiene

Poor domestic and personal hygiene practices can aid the transmission of disease-causing
germs: There are many sicknesses which can be caused by inadequate (poor) domestic or
personal hygiene.

• Directly by the faecal-oral route, or by person to person or pet to person contact.

• Indirectly by vectors coming into contact with people or their food, people breathing in
airborne droplets of moisture which contain germs or eating contaminated food.
Signs of poor domestic hygiene include:

• not cleaning the toilet

• not getting rid of rubbish
• not washing clothes and bedding frequently
• not storing food properly

Signs of poor personal hygiene include:

• not washing hands

• not showering
• not washing hair

Unclean surroundings may become breeding grounds for flies and germs, and thereby leading
to the spread of diseases from home to home and then the entire community.

What then is community hygiene?------------------------------------------------------------------------

Community Hygiene
A community is a social unit (a group of living things) with commonality such as norms,
religion, values, customs, or identity. Communities may share a sense of place situated in a
given geographical area (e.g. a country, village, town, or neighbourhood) or in virtual space
through communication platforms. Durable relations that extend beyond immediate
genealogical ties also define a sense of community, important to their identity, practice, and
roles in social institutions such as family, home, work, government, society, or humanity at
large. Although communities are usually small relative to personal social ties, "community"
may also refer to large group of affiliations such as national communities, international
communities, and virtual communities.
Just as domestic hygiene refers to the practices that help keep the home clean and its members
healthy, community hygiene refers to those practices that help keep and promote the health of
individuals in the community as a whole. Community hygiene pertains to the hygiene practices
that prevent or minimize the spread of diseases in the community and in everyday life settings,
where people gather, such as social gatherings, public transport, workplace and markets.
Some health measures can be undertaken only by the community as a whole; these include
water source protection, proper disposal of solid waste and excreta, wastewater drainage,
controlling animal rearing and market hygiene. Individual community members play an
important role in community hygiene, and have a responsibility to their neighbours and to the
community to promote good health and a clean environment. For example, everyone in the
village must keep their houses and compounds clean, because one dirty house can affect many
neighbours and contribute to the spread of diseases. Community leaders can promote
cleanliness in the home by regularly checking on village households and by using by-laws to
encourage household maintenance.
Figure 2. 18. Bad practice in a water source. Source- State resource center, Kerala
People must not engage themselves in bad practices which can endanger the lives of others in
the entire community. As shown in the figure above, the man is washing his cow into a water
source of his community. This can be a source of disease transfer to all occupants of the
community. This is a very bad practice which must not be encouraged in our communities.

The community as a whole can undertake certain communal activities that can prevent the
spread of diseases and promote health. Some of these activities include water source
protection, proper disposal of solid waste and excreta, wastewater drainage, hygienic
animal rearing and market hygiene.

Individual community members also play important roles in community hygiene and have a
responsibility to their neighbours and to the community in order to promote good health and a
clean environment. For example, if everyone in the village starts to keep their houses and
compounds clean, there would be no problem at all. But if one house is dirty and become the
breeding place for diseases causing organisms, this can spread to his or her neighours and then
spread to the entire community.

What are the different types of communities? ------------------------------------------------------

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Since traditional psychology studies people on a fairly individual level, community psychology
seeks to understand them within the context of their communities. Time and again, community
psychologists will view their subjects with varying levels of analysis, the majority of which
reference different types of communities.

Beneath are five levels of analysis used for research in community psychology and the
corresponding types of communities that may be associated with each:

1. Individuals

As you may have guessed already, an individual is not a community but rather its subject and
agent. In terms of its focus, this is the narrowest level for analysis. The main consideration for
this level is examining how an individual interacts with his or her community and vice versa.

2. Microsystems

Just beyond the level of the individual are microsystems. Microsystems are the most intimate
groups with which an individual participates, engages, and grows.
These groups may consist of the following:

• Families
• Friends
• Classmates and teachers
• Coworkers
• Activity or team members

As you can see, most microsystems refer to the places and people an individual visits and
interacts with on a regular basis.

3. Organizations

Beyond the level of microsystems is organizations. This level is comprised of the institutions
that often contain an individual’s microsystems. These institutions can, depending on their own
processes, influence either microsystems or the individual through various linkages.

Examples of these types of communities may include the following:

• Schools
• Workplaces
• Neighborhood associations
• Religious centers

4. Localities

For many of us, where we live is foundational to our sense of community. Locality, meaning
the numerous spaces in which an individual resides, orients, identity through the cultural,
political, and economic events and activities that occur within them. Localities can be as small
as neighborhood blocks or as large as entire towns, cities, and regions.

5. Macro systems

Of all these levels of analysis, macro systems are the broadest and, to a degree, the most
intangible. Macro systems encompass a wide range of behaviors and ideas characterizing
community systems that are more universal in their scope, such as:

• Cultures
• Societies
• Governments
• Belief systems
• Social movements

How do we keep these communities in order to make us safe and sound?

Let us consider the hygiene of some few communities.

Figure 2. 19. An image of a community

School hygiene
When we say schools, they are made up of kindergartens, primary schools, junior high schools
and senior high schools etc. All the above mentioned schools are located in your communities.
School administrators, are in charged with the physical and mental health of their students
body. Our classroom environments allow children to feel safe to create, explore and discover.
School children spend about one third of their time either in schools or doing school
assignments, during which time they may be exposed to a variety of physical, social and
psychological harm. Schools provide an ideal opportunity to detect poor hygiene practices.
Healthy environment facilitate more effective learning. School compound, washrooms,
classrooms, libraries, school canteen, refuse site must be very clean. School children must be
taught how to clean their environment and the health benefit of keeping their environment
clean.
Cleanliness is vital in keeping your child safe and healthy. In classrooms with children
crawling, all teachers and parents who enter the rooms are asked to slip off their shoes or slip
on provided shoe coverings. All spaces and surfaces that children come into contact with must
be disinfected on a regular basis. Children and teachers are asked to wash their hands often,
such as when entering the room, before eating, after coming into contact with any bodily fluids,
after diapering or assisting with the restroom, after coming in from outside, after messy
projects, etc.

Schools have a direct impact on student and teacher health. Improving cleanliness, indoor air
quality, lunchroom nutrition and physical activity can boost health and wellness and make the
school day better for students, teachers and staff.
Figure 2.20 Healthy pupils in a clean classroom. Source: Meridean Public Schools images

Below are a number of things to do to make the pupils healthy:

Fun with fitness.

Physical activity can come in all forms and at any time of the day. Promote student and staff
health by providing fun opportunities for active learning. Students must be encouraged to
exercise since it will boost their wellbeing. Exercise is defined as any movement that makes
your muscles work and requires your body to burn calories.

There are many types of physical activities, including swimming, running, jogging, walking
and dancing, just to mention a few.

Being active has been shown to have many health benefits, both physically and mentally. It
may even help you live longer.

There are many benefits of regular exercise and maintaining fitness and these include:

• Exercise increases energy levels

• It Is Good for Your Muscles and Bones
• It Can Reduce Your Risk of Chronic Disease
• It Can Help Skin Health
• It Can Help Your Brain Health and Memory
• It Can Help With Relaxation and Sleep Quality
• It Can Reduce Pain

Exercise improves both the strength and the efficiency of your cardiovascular system to get the
oxygen and nutrients to your muscles. When your cardiovascular system works better
everything seems easier and you have more energy for the fun stuff in life.
Exercise offers incredible benefits that can improve nearly every aspect of your health from
the inside out. Regular physical activities can increase the production of hormones that make
you feel happier and help you sleep better.

MARKET

Markets often represent a health hazard because foodstuffs may not be stored properly and
because the markets may lack basic services, such as water supply, sanitation, solid waste
disposal and drainage. Ideally, markets should have several taps to provide traders and
customers with ready access to safe water for drinking and washing. Many vegetable and fruit
sellers regularly sprinkle their produce with water, and it is important that they have access to
clean water for this.
The sanitation facilities should also be appropriate for the number of people who will visit the
market, with separate facilities for men and women. Water and sanitation facilities for a market
are often relatively easy to support by charging a small user fee, or by using part of the market
fee to pay for such services. If people are charged a fee to use the facilities, discounts can be
offered to traders who already support the facilities through their market tolls.
Foodstuffs sold at the market should be inspected daily by health officials. This is particularly
important for meat and fish, which should be inspected before sale to ensure that they have
been prepared according to national regulations and that they do not contain pathogens or other
contaminants. Markets usually generate a lot of solid waste and it is important that it is dis-
posed of properly, to prevent vermin such as rats and insects from feeding and breeding among
it.
The layout of market stalls should thus allow easy access for vehicles that collect waste and
clean the area. Solid waste should be collected and disposed of daily, and preferably more
often. Strategically located waste bins (often concrete bunkers) can make this more effective.
Market areas should also be properly drained to prevent flooding and insect breeding.
Market traders can have a strong voice in improving conditions, since they generate significant
income for communities and provide essential food distribution services. Traders’ associations
can set up standards for the market, can successfully manage water and sanitation facilities,
and can organize regular waste collection.
Animal rearing
In many communities, animal rearing is a means of generating food high in protein content and
nutritional value, and for generating additional income. Animals can also provide many other
products, such as leather and fuel that improve the quality of life. However, if it is not practiced
safely like as seen in the picture below, there can be animal-human transmission of diseases.

Figure 2.21 Humans and animals using the same water source. [Link]
Food from outside home
Today many people buy or consume food outside the home (cafes, restaurants, canteens,
bakeries, etc.). If basic health and safety rules for preparing, storing and handling food are not
followed in such eating outlets, these places become a health hazard for customers and may
cause serious disease outbreaks. The most important aspects of food hygiene in these
establishments, relate to sanitation, water supply and personal cleanliness.

Providing clean water for washing and drinking, and separate sanitation facilities away from
the kitchen area, for customers, cooks and food-handlers, is essential. The staff should wear
clean clothes or uniforms while cooking, serving and cleaning, and should have regular medical
check-ups. Food should be freshly prepared daily. Food that is spilled or not used should be
disposed of daily. The kitchen, storage place and eating areas, must be kept clean and free from
rodents and insects. The place should be well ventilated, with adequate lighting, and have
provisions for dealing with fires and accidents.

The figure below differentiates between an ideal food outlet and an unhygienic polluted food
outlet.

Figure2. 22. An ideal food outlet and an unhygienic polluted food outlet. Source - State
resource center, Kerala.

Environmental Hygiene
You have already learned the definition of the environment. It is all the external factors and
conditions which surround people, affect their lives and the growth of plants and animals. You
can keep your body clean but what will happen if you live in dirty surroundings? If so, you are
sure to fall sick. Thus, to have a healthy living, one must live in a clean surroundings. Unclean
surroundings may become breeding ground for flies and germs, thus, leading to spread of
diseases.

Do you remember WHO’s definition of environmental sanitation? ---------------------------------

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
WHO defines, ‘environmental sanitation as the control of all those factors in people’s physical
environment’?

So what are the requirements for good environmental hygiene? ------------------------------------

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
They include the following:
1. Clean air
2. Safe and peaceful settlements
3. Stable global environment
4. Safe and sufficient water
5. Adequate and safe food
In short, the environment relates to the surroundings in which we live or exist, while
environmental hygiene refers to the activities which help improve or maintain the standards of
our environment. Thus, all the measures we undertake to keep the human environment safe and
healthy, including waste disposal, clean water supplies, food safety controls and good housing,
all fall under environmental hygiene.

Many of the health problems throughout the world, particularly in developing and
underdeveloped countries, are due to poor environmental hygiene: thus unsafe water, polluted
soil, unhygienic disposal of human excreta and refuse, poor waste management, poor housing,
attack of insects and rodents, and unclean surroundings etc. Air pollution is also a growing
concern in many places. The high death rate, infant mortality rate, increased morbidity or
sickness rate, increasing disability rate, and poor health status, are, in fact, largely due to
defective environmental hygiene.

Safe and wholesome water

As mentioned earlier, water is the most important factor in safeguarding your health. Water
intended for human consumption should be free from disease causing germs and harmful
chemical substances. It should be pure and clean with a pleasant taste and not having any colour
or odour. Without ample and safe drinking water, we cannot provide health care to the
community. Water is also essential for domestic, public, industrial and agricultural uses.
Therefore, proper handling and economic use of water is essential to protect our water sources
and to conserve it for future generations.

Although we cannot exist without water, it can be harmful if it is used or stored improperly or
when it is collected from a stagnant source. Poorly maintained water systems can harbour
bacteria including legionella that could cause infections so it is very important to maintain
constant circulation in a water system. Care should be taken to assure the quality of water used
for various purposes by avoiding misuse and dumping of all kinds of waste into water sources.
Hygienic environments and surroundings too are very important to ensure the quality of water.

By now you have realized that personal, domestic, community and environmental hygiene are
all inter-related. Environmental hygiene is closely related to the production and consumption
of safe and quality food and water. In addition, good housing conditions and well ventilated
houses free from insects, moths, mosquitoes, etc. are also important to maintain environmental
hygiene. Pollution-free environments or those with minimum levels of pollution are requisites
for maintaining hygiene and safety.
Environmental hygiene includes environmental sanitation or keeping the surroundings clean.
To keep the environment healthy, we should be careful about the disposal of the garbage. Some
of the practices for disposing garbage are:
1. Throwing garbage in dustbins: Do not throw your household garbage on the roadside. This
makes street dirty and allows flies, mosquitoes and other animals to breed. This garbage not
only gives a dirty look but also produces foul smell. Garbage should be thrown inside the
dustbins. The bins should also be cleaned after emptying the garbage.
2. Keeping dustbins covered: To prevent entry of insects and other animals inside the house,
dustbins should be kept covered.
Environmental hygiene includes environmental sanitation or keeping the surroundings clean.

Fig. 2.21. A hygienic environment.

Are human beings unhygienic in nature? ---------------------------------------. In one paragraph,

write your own observations of the human nature.-----------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

SUMMARY OF SESSION 2

You have learned that:

1. Personal hygiene is a necessity for our daily activities. It is very important for the
protection of our health and helps to prevent the spread of communicable diseases.
2. Personal hygiene has social and aesthetic values. An individual who follows the
practice of proper personal hygiene gains confidence, pride and dignity.
3. Personal hygiene applies to all parts of the body, but hand hygiene is probably the most
important for public health.
4. The procedures that apply in personal hygiene (such as hand washing and oral hygiene)
need to be followed strictly to gain the best results.
5. The promotion of personal hygiene should aim to change human behaviour. The
provision of hygiene information first impacts on knowledge and then practice.
6. The promotion of personal hygiene must be well planned in order to bring positive
changes.
7. Domestic hygiene means cleanliness in our homes.
8. Domestic hygiene comprises of the home, use of soap, need of fresh air, light,
ventilation, hygiene in storage of food, disposal of waste, avoidance of household pests,
rats, mice, insects. Domestic hygiene activities include all the work which is done to
keep the house and people's clothes and bedding clean
9. Ways of keeping our homes clean are Protecting food from contamination, Keeping a
Clean kitchen, Fruits and vegetables and Hygiene in cooking,
10. Waste disposal include the activities and actions required to manage waste from its
inception to its final disposal. These are the collection, transport, treatment and disposal
of waste, together with monitoring and regulation of the waste management processes.
11. Signs of poor domestic hygiene include: not cleaning the toilet, not getting rid of
rubbish, not washing clothes and bedding frequently and not storing food properly
12. A community is a social unit (a group of living things) with commonality such as
norms, religion, values, customs, or identity.
13. Communities may share a sense of place situated in a given geographical area (e.g. a
country, village, town, or neighbourhood) or in virtual space through communication
platforms.
14. According to community psychology, the different types of communities are
Individuals communities, microsystems communities, organizations, localities and
macro system communities.

Activities
1. Why is it inexpedient to share a face towel? --------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------
2. Why is it inadvisable to share nail cutters? ----------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------
3. What causes sweat on the skin to produce an unpleasant odour?---------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
4. What could be the reason if you get reports that diarrhoea is a frequent problem in one
out of ten villages?
5. Identify the components of personal hygiene that are numbered in the Figure below.
6. Write the names of one or two communicable diseases or conditions and the recommended
frequency of washing or cleaning for the following respective components of personal hygiene.

Components Diseases/conditions Recommended frequency of cleaning

Eye hygiene
Hair hygiene
Body hygiene
Oral hygiene
Feet hygiene
Hand hygiene
Clothes hygiene

Components Diseases/conditions Recommended frequency of cleaning

Daily every morning and when the face is
Eye hygiene Trachoma, conjunctivitis
dirty
Dandruff, Tinea capitis, Twice weekly; preferably once every other
Hair hygiene
infestation (lice, nits) day
Body hygiene Bad smell, scabies Once or twice a week
Tooth decay, gum infection,
Oral hygiene Brushing twice a day; rinsing after each meal
bad breath
Feet hygiene Athlete’s foot, wound Every day
Every time after touching contaminated
Diarrhoea, typhus fever,
Hand hygiene surfaces; every time before eating and
dysentery, ascariasis
touching clean surfaces
Clothes Bad smell, unclean, relapsing
Once or twice a week
hygiene fever, typhus

Self-assessment
1. Write three benefits of regular exercise.
2. --------------------------- is a social unit (a group of living things) with commonality such
as norms, religion, values, customs, or identity.
3. Signs of poor personal hygiene include --------------------------------- ---------------------
-------------------------------- ------------------------------------------------ -------------------
--------------------------------------------------------.
4. Poor domestic and personal hygiene practices can aid the transmission of disease-
causing germs. True/ false.
5. Apart from drinking water to survive, people have many other uses for water. Mention
four of the uses of water aside drinking.
6. List at least four daily activities that one must perform in his or her kitchen in order to
keep it clean and free from disease causing organisms.
7. According to WHO, the five key principles of food hygiene are----------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
8. You have bought some food stuffs from the community market for a birthday party in
your house over the weekend. How will you keep your food in order to prevent food
poison during your party?
9. List and explain any four ways of keeping your home clean.
Use the image above to explain domestic hygiene.

Retrieved from-
[Link]
manual-atsi-cnt-l~ohp-enhealth-manual-atsi-cnt-l-ch3~ohp-enhealth-manual-atsi-cnt-l-ch3.7
[Link]
[Link]

[Link]

[Link]
SESSION 3

INFECTION

Introduction
Dear student teacher, I believe you have enjoyed the lesson in section 2 on hygiene very well.
In continuing the lesson on Human and the Environment, I am going to take you through the
concept of Infection. In this topic we shall look at infection, agents of infections/pathogens,
diseases caused by the agents of infection and preventions of infection. As usual, remember to
take your pens, pencils, note books and erasers. Sit beside your writing desk comfortably and
enjoy this lesson as the previous one.
Learning Objectives

By the end of this section, you will be able to:

1. Define and explain the term infection

2. List the agents of infection/pathogens
3. Describe bacteria in terms of it shapes and diseases caused by the organism.
4. Describe a virus, viral infections, diseases caused by virus and prevention of viral
diseases.
5. Explain fungus, fungal infection, diseases caused fungus and prevention of fungal
infections.
6. Explain protozoans, diseases caused by protozoans and prevention of diseases caused
by protozoans.
Activity
Have you visited the hospital before? -------------------------------------------------------------------
If yes, what was the reason behind you going to the hospital? ---------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
What did the doctor tell you about your conditions?---------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
When you visited the hospital, what did you see, heard or came into contact with?--------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

When you visit the hospital, you can hear babies crying, people are wheezing or moaning in
pain, people anxious to see the doctor, a little relief in watching the worst cases being rushed
to an operating room etc. Some of these people may have been diagnosed of-
• influenza
• bacterial infections, including Clostridium difficile, a bacterium that causes diarrhea
and stomach issues
• infections after surgery or hospital care
• tuberculosis
• pneumonia
• parasite infections
• HIV

Some of the people may also have their urine tested for a number of reasons.

Fig 3.1. A chat with a doctor.

Doctors request a urine test to help diagnose and treat a range of conditions including kidney
disorders, liver problems, diabetes and infections. Doctors can also tell a lot from how your
urine looks and smells. For example dark urine could be a sign of dehydration; a cloudy
appearance may suggest infection; if the urine is a reddish colour there may be blood in it; and
a sweet smelling urine can be a sign of diabetes. With the above discussions, one of the
common questions people normally ask is-----

Do I have an infection?

The most common reason for analyzing urine is to identify a bacterial infection in your urinary
tract. Urine tests not only tell you if there’s an infection, they can identify the offending
organism (a bacteria, virus, protozoan etc.). That helps the doctor know how best to treat the
infection, including prescribing the right type of antibiotic (one that particular microorganism
is sensitive to).

The first test uses a dipstick or strip test (sometimes called a rapid urine test). This involves
dipping a specially treated plastic or paper strip into a urine sample collected in a sterile plastic
pot.

The doctor compares the colour of the test strip with a chart of standard colours. If the strip test
detects (is positive for) white blood cells (leucocytes), blood and/or chemicals called nitrites,
infection is likely.
What then is infection?

INFECTIONS
Infection is the invasion of an organism's body tissues by disease-causing agents, their
multiplication, and the reaction of host tissues to the infectious agents and the toxins they
produce. Tissues are groups of cells that have a similar structure and act together to perform a
specific function.

Fig. 3.2. A group of cells similar in structure (tissues) Source; Wikipedia- a sample tissue

Infection can also be explained as the invasion and multiplication of microorganisms such as
bacteria, viruses, and parasites that are not normally present within the body. Infection can as
well be explained as the state produced by the establishment of one or more pathogenic agents
(such as a bacteria, protozoans, or viruses) in or on the body of a suitable host.

An infection happens when a foreign organism enters a person's body and causes harm. When
a pathogen like a virus, bacteria, fungus, prions, etc. enters into the body of a host and multiply
or replicate over time, causing harm to the host, we say an infection has occurred. The organism
uses that person's body to sustain itself, reproduce, and colonize. These infectious organisms
are known as pathogens (disease causing organisms). Examples of pathogens include bacteria,
viruses, fungi, and prions. Pathogens can multiply and adapt quickly. Some infections are mild
and barely noticeable, but others are severe and life-threatening, and some are resistant to
treatment.

Infection can be transmitted in a variety of ways. These include skin

• Contact
• Bodily fluids
• Contact with feces
• Airborne particles,
• Touching an object that an infected person has also touched.

The immune system is an effective barrier against infectious agents, but colonies of pathogens
may grow too large for the immune system to fight. At this stage, infections become harmful.
Many pathogens give off toxins that trigger negative responses from the body. An infection
may cause symptoms and be clinically visible or they may cause no symptoms and be
subclinical.
An infection may cause no symptoms and be subclinical, or it may cause symptoms and be
clinically apparent. An infection may remain localized (if it does not get spread and remain at
the infected place only), or it may spread through the blood or lymphatic vessels to become
systemic (body wide). Microorganisms that live naturally in the body are not considered
infections. For example, bacteria that normally live within the mouth and intestine are not
infections.

Infection can occur anywhere on the body, but it is usually visible on the skin, which is the
largest organ of the body. Infection can be caused by a numerous variety of pathogens,
symptoms may be mild or serious. A mild infection is easily treatable whereas serious one
should be treated under medical supervisions.

Agents of infection/pathogens

Some agents of infections are bacteria, viruses, fungi, protozoa, parasites, and prions. These
agents of infection vary in size, shape, function, genetic content, and how they act on the body.
For example, viruses are smaller than bacteria, and they can enter a host and take over cells.
However, bacteria can survive without a host. Treatment of infection is usually based on the
type of pathogen.

Bacteria

Bacteria are one-celled organisms visible only with a microscope. Bacteria can also be
described as single-celled microorganisms known as prokaryotes. They are so small that if you
lined up a thousand of them end to end, they could fit across the end of a pencil eraser.

Fig. 3.3 Bacteria on a slid. Source- MedicalNewsToday

There are estimated to be at least one nonillion bacteria on Earth. A nonillion is a one followed
by 30 zeros. Much of Earth's biomass is made up of bacteria.

Bacteria take three main shapes:

• Spherical: These are usually the simplest to treat and are known as cocci.
• Rod-shaped: These are called bacilli.
• Spiral: Coiled bacteria are known as spirilla. If the coil of a spirillus is particularly tight,
they are known as spirochetes.

Fig. 3.4. The shapes of bacteria. Source; microbiology [Link]

Bacteria can live in almost any kind of environment, from extreme heat to intense cold, and
some can even survive in radioactive waste. There are trillions of strains of bacteria, and few
of these cause diseases in humans. Some of them live inside the human body without causing
harm, for example in the gut or airways. Some "good" bacteria attack "bad" bacteria and
prevent them from causing sickness.

Not all bacteria are harmful, and some bacteria that live in your body are helpful. For instance,
Lactobacillus acidophilus — a harmless bacterium that resides in your intestines — helps you
digest food, destroys some disease-causing organisms and provides nutrients.

Many disease-causing bacteria produce toxins — powerful chemicals that damage cells and
make you ill. Other bacteria can directly invade and damage tissues. Some infections caused
by bacteria include:

• bacterial meningitis
• otitis media
• Pneumonia
• food poisoning
• eye infections
• sinusitis
• urinary tract infections
• skin infections
• sexually transmitted diseases
• tuberculosis
• upper respiratory tract infection
• gastritis

Some bacterial diseases are deadly:

These include:

• cholera
• diphtheria
• pneumonia
• tuberculosis
• typhoid
• typhus
• dysentery
• bubonic plague

Bacterial infections can be treated with antibiotics, but some strains become resistant and can
survive the treatment.

Viral infections

Fig. 3.4 Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2". Source –Wikipedia

Viral infections are caused by a virus. A viral infection is a proliferation of a harmful virus
inside the body. Viruses cannot reproduce without the assistance of a host. Viruses are small
particles of genetic material (either DNA or RNA) that are surrounded by a protein coat. They
are incapable of reproducing on their own. Viruses depend on the organisms they infect (hosts)
for their very survival. Viruses get a bad rap, but they also perform many important functions
for humans, plants, animals, and the environment. For example, some viruses protect the host
against other infections.

Millions of types of virus are thought to exist, but only 5,000 types have been identified.
Viruses contain a small piece of genetic code. They are protected by a coat of protein and fat.
Viruses invade a host and attach themselves to a cell. As they enter the cell, they release genetic
material. The genetic material forces the cell to replicate, and the virus multiplies. When the
cell dies, it releases new viruses, and these go on to infect new cells.
Fig. 3.5. HINI Virus. Source; [Link]

Not all viruses destroy their host cell. Some of them change the function of the cell. In this
way, viruses such as human papillomavirus (HPV) or Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) can lead to
cancer by forcing cells to replicate in an uncontrolled way. Viral infections are contagious for
varying periods of time depending on the virus.

A virus may remain dormant for a period before multiplying again. The person with the virus
can appear to have recovered but may get sick again when the virus reactivates.

Some examples of viral infections are;

• the common cold, mainly caused by the rhinovirus, coronavirus, and adenovirus

Fig. 3.6. A boy suffering from common cold. Source Medical news today.

• Warts and skin infections, caused by the human papillomaviruses (HPV) and herpes
simplex virus (HSV).
• gastroenteritis, caused by the novavirus
• encephalitis and meningitis, caused by enteroviruses and the herpes viruses
• Zika virus
• human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)
• hepatitis C
• polio
• influenza
• Dengue fever
• H1N1 swine flu
• Ebola
• Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS-CoV)

Some disease caused by virus are;

• AIDS
• Common cold
• Influenza
• Measles
• Chickenpox and shingles
• Ebola hemorrhagic fever
• Genital herpes

Antiviral Medication and Other Treatment

Countless viral infections resolve on their own without treatment. Not all viral infections can
resolve on their own. The treatment of viral infections focuses on symptom relief, not fighting
the virus. For instance, cold medicine helps alleviate the pain and congestion associated with
the cold, but it doesn't act directly on the cold virus.

The medication that work directly on viruses are called antiviral medications. They function
by obstructing the production of virus particles. Some interfere with the production of viral
DNA. Other antiviral medications prevent viruses from entering host cells. In general, antiviral
medications are most effective when they're taken earlier on in the course of an initial viral
infection. Antiviral medication can either prevent the virus from reproducing or boost the host's
immune system.

Viral Illness Prevention

Vaccines can reduce the risk of acquiring some viral illnesses. A vaccine is a substance
containing a virus or bacterium in a form that is not harmful, given to a person or animal to
prevent them from getting the disease that the virus or bacterium causes . A vaccine is a
biological preparation that provides active acquired immunity to a particular disease
(Wikipedia). A vaccine typically contains an agent that resembles a disease-causing
microorganism and is often made from weakened or killed forms of the microbe, its toxins, or
one of its surface proteins. Vaccines are available to help protect against the flu, hepatitis A,
polio, rabies, rotavirus, and other viruses hepatitis B, chickenpox, herpes zoster (shingles),
cancer-causing strains of human papillomavirus (HPV), measles/mumps/rubella (MMR).

Fungal infection

A fungus is an often multi-cellular parasite that can decompose and then absorb organic matter
using an enzyme. The fungal branch of the eucaryotic kingdom includes both unicellular yeasts
(such as Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Schizosaccharomyces pombe) and filamentous,
multicellular molds (like those found on moldy fruit or bread). Most of the important
pathogenic fungi exhibit dimorphism—the ability to grow in either yeast or mold form. The
yeast-to-mold or mold-to-yeast transition is frequently associated with infection. Histoplasma
capsulatum, for example, grows as a mold at low temperature in the soil, but it switches to a
yeast form when inhaled into the lung, where it can cause the disease histoplasmosis.

Fig. 3.7. A fungus. The fungal reproduce by spreading out spores. Source- MedicalNewsToday.

The fungus reproduce through the spreading of single-celled spores, and the structure of a
fungus is normally long and cylindrical with small filaments branching from the main body
known as hypha.

Fig. 3.8. A fungus

There are approximately 51 million species of fungus. Many fungal infections will appear in
the upper layers of the skin, and some progress to the deeper layers. Inhaled fungal spores can
lead to systemic fungal infections, such as thrush, or candidiasis. Systemic diseases affect the
whole body.

The body usually has a population of "good" bacteria that help to maintain the balance of
microorganisms in the intestines, mouth, vagina, and other parts of the body.

If enough "good" bacteria are destroyed, for example, by overusing antibiotics, fungi can grow
and cause health problems for the host. There are many varieties of fungi, and we eat quite a
few of them. Mushrooms are fungi, as is the mold that forms the blue or green veins in some
types of cheese. And yeast, another type of fungus, is a necessary ingredient in most types of
bread.

Other fungi can cause illness. One example is candida — a yeast that can cause infection.
Candida can cause thrush — an infection of the mouth and throat — in infants and in people
taking antibiotics or who have an impaired immune system. Fungi are also responsible for skin
conditions such as athlete's foot and ringworm.

Those with a higher risk of developing a fungal infection include people who:

• use strong antibiotics for a long time

• have a weakened immune system, due, for example, to HIV or AIDS, diabetes,
chemotherapy treatment, and those who have undergone a transplant, as they take
medications to prevent their body from rejecting the new organ

Examples of fungal infections are:

• valley fever, or coccidioidomycosis

• ringworm
• some eye infections
• athlete's foot
• rash

Fungal Infection Symptoms

A fungal skin infection might cause:

• Irritation
• Scaly skin
• Redness
• Itching
• Swelling
• Blisters

Fungi diseases

Some fungus diseases are

• fungal nail infection- common infections of the fingernails or toenails

• vaginal candidiasis- caused by the yeast Candida or vaginal yeast infection
• ringworm –a common fungal skin infection that often looks like a circular rash
• blastomycosis
• paracoccidioidomycoss

Transmission of an infection can be through orally, sexually, droplet contact (respiratory

route), fecal transmission, direct contact transmission, transmission through the vector.

Treatment of fungi diseases

Treatment usually involves antifungal medications. You might use an over-the-counter cream
such as:

• Clotrimazole
• Miconazole
• Terbinafine

Prevention of fungi diseases

Take note of the following in order to prevent fungus infection:

• Practice good personal hygiene

• Do not share personal belongings such as towels, sponge, combs, underwear, dresses
with others.
• Wear clean and neat clothing every day.
• Avoid wearing of clothing that are too tight on you.
• Stay away from pets that have signs of fungi infections.
• Dry off properly after washing down.

Prion Disease

A prion is a protein that contains no genetic material. Prions are infectious agents that are
replicated in the host by copying an aberrant protein structure. It is normally harmless, but if it
folds into an abnormal shape, it can become a rogue agent and affect the structure of the brain
or other parts of the nervous system. They can occur in yeasts, and they cause various
neurodegenerative diseases in mammals. Prions do not replicate or feed on the host but trigger
abnormal behavior in the body's cells and proteins. Prion diseases are rare, but they progress
rapidly and all are currently fatal.

Prions cause degenerative brain diseases, such as:

• bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE), also known as mad cow disease which
occasionally spreads to humans who eat infected parts of the cow
• Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (CJD)
• scrapie in sheep

Researchers have linked some cases of Alzheimer's disease to prion infection.

Symptoms

Common symptoms of prion diseases include brain damage, memory loss, and cognitive
difficulties. They can also trigger the buildup of plaque in the brain, causing it to waste away

Protozoans

Protozoans are single-celled organisms that behave like tiny animals — hunting and gathering
other microbes for food. Protozoan parasites have more elaborate life cycles than do fungi.
These cycles frequently require the services of more than one host. Malaria is the most common
protozoal disease, infecting 200–300 million people every year and killing 1–3 million of them.
It is caused by four species of Plasmodium, which are transmitted to humans by the bite of the
female of any of the 60 species of Anopheles mosquito. Plasmodium falciparum—the most
intensively studied of the malaria-causing parasites—exists in no fewer than eight distinct
forms, and it requires both the human and mosquito hosts to complete its sexual cycle. Gametes
are formed in the bloodstream of infected humans, but they can only fuse to form a zygote in
the gut of the mosquito.

It cause other diseases, such as:

• Giardia
• Toxoplasmosis

Protozoans often spend part of their life cycles outside of humans or other hosts, living in food,
soil, water or insects. Some protozoans invade your body through the food you eat or the water
you drink. Others, such as malaria, are transmitted by mosquitoes.

Causes

The cause of an infection is said to be whichever type of organism has invaded the body.

ACTIVITY

With all the discussions above, write ten best ways you can keep yourself and your family free
from diseases.

Prevention of infectious diseases

What's the best way to stay disease-free? Prevent infections. There is no single way to prevent
all infectious diseases, but the following tips can reduce the risk of transmission:

• Clean surface areas and avoid leaving room-temperature food exposed when cooking.
• Frequently disinfect rooms where there may be high concentrations of bacteria, such as
the kitchen and bathroom.
• Take antibiotics when prescribed, and be sure to complete any recommended course
even if symptoms improve earlier than anticipated.
• Hand-washing. Often overlooked, hand-washing is one of the easiest and most
effective ways to protect yourself from germs and most infections. Wash your hands
thoroughly before preparing or eating food, after coughing or sneezing, after changing
a diaper, and after using the toilet. When soap and water aren't available, alcohol-based
hand-sanitizing gels can offer protection.
• Vaccines. Vaccination is your best line of defense for certain diseases. As researchers
understand more about what causes disease, the list of vaccine-preventable diseases
continues to grow. Many vaccines are given in childhood, but adults still need to be
routinely vaccinated to prevent some illnesses, such as tetanus and influenza.
• Medicines. Some medicines offer short-term protection from particular germs. For
example, taking an anti-parasitic medication might keep you from contracting malaria
if you travel to or live in a high-risk area.
• Do not share personal items such as blades, towels, sponge, foot wears, toothbrushes,
combs, drinking glasses, spoons, plates, kitchen utensils etc.
• Practice safe sex by receiving regular STD checks, using condoms, or abstaining
altogether.
• Follow a doctor's advice about traveling or working when you are ill, as you could
infect others.
• Eat a well balance diet to boost your immune system.
• Exercise frequently.
• A healthy, active lifestyle can help keep the immune system strong and able to defend
the body against different kinds of infection.

Comparing infection and Diseases

Basis for
Infection Disease
Comparison
Due to the weakening of the body's
immune system after the infection of any
Infection is an attack and growth of
kind of pathogens, the body starts
Meaning microorganisms inside the body,
responding automatically showing
therefore causing harm to the body.
symptoms of pain, fever, aches. This
state of the body is termed as a disease.
There are different symptoms
shown by body of a different kind of It also depends on the kind of pathogen
Symptoms infection, like a headache, stomach attacked on the body and the place where
ache, chills, sweating, body ache, it infected in the body.
weight loss, loss of hunger, etc.
Disease occur when the body's immune
Infection is a kind of body's immune
When it system gets weakens and the pathogen
response, against the attack of the
happens starts harming the cells of the body part
pathogen.
where it has infected.
Infection can sometimes be treated
Disease are of many types, and there are
if properly diagnosed. It will also be
Treatment different kinds of treatment available for
helpful in the prevention of disease
different diseases.
in further spreading.
Lungs infections are of many types But if proper care not taken, these
which starts with allergies, infections shapes into the big and life-
Example
shortness in breathing, sneezing, threatening diseases like asthma,
coughs etc. tuberculosis, bronchitis, etc.
SUMMARY

Infection is the invasion of an organism's body tissues by disease-causing agents, their

multiplication, and the reaction of host tissues to the infectious agents and the toxins they
produce.

Infection can be transmitted in a variety of ways. These include skin

• Contact
• Bodily fluids
• Contact with feces
• Airborne particles,
• Touching an object that an infected person has also touched.

Some agents of infections are bacteria, viruses, fungi, protozoa, parasites, and prions

Bacteria take three main shapes:

• Spherical: These are usually the simplest to treat and are known as cocci.
• Rod-shaped: These are called bacilli.

Spiral: Coiled bacteria are known as spirilla. If the coil of a spirillus is particularly tight, they
are known as spirochetes.

Some infections caused by bacteria include:

• bacterial meningitis
• otitis media
• Pneumonia
• food poisoning
• eye infections
• sinusitis
• urinary tract infections
• skin infections
• sexually transmitted diseases

Viral infections are caused by a virus. A viral infection is a proliferation of a harmful virus
inside the body.

Some examples of viral infections are;

• the common cold, mainly caused by the rhinovirus, coronavirus, and adenovirus
• Warts and skin infections, caused by the human papillomaviruses (HPV) and herpes
simplex virus (HSV).
• gastroenteritis, caused by the novavirus
• encephalitis and meningitis, caused by enteroviruses and the herpes viruses
The fungus reproduce through the spreading of single-celled spores, and the structure of a
fungus is normally long and cylindrical with small filaments branching from the main body
known as hypha.

Those with a higher risk of developing a fungal infection include people who:

• use strong antibiotics for a long time

Examples of fungal infections are:

• valley fever, or coccidioidomycosis

• ringworm
• some eye infections
• athlete's foot
• rash

Prevention of fungi diseases

Take note of the following in order to prevent fungus infection:

• Practice good personal hygiene

Protozoans are single-celled organisms that behave like tiny animals — hunting and gathering
other microbes for food. Protozoan parasites have more elaborate life cycles than do fungi.

There is no single way to prevent all infectious diseases, but the following tips can reduce the
risk of transmission:

5. What is a viral infection?

6. Write any four diseases caused by a virus.
Suggested answers to activity questions.
1. If an infection does not spread and remain at the infected place only, it is said to be called
localized and if the infection gets spread to the whole body through blood or lymphatic vessels
it becomes systematic.
2. Skin
3. Some agents of infections are bacteria, viruses, fungi, protozoa, parasites, and prions
4. Bacteria
5. A viral infection is a proliferation of a harmful virus inside the body.

6. Some disease caused by virus are;

• AIDS
• Common cold
• Influenza
• Measles
• Chickenpox and shingles
• Ebola hemorrhagic fever
• Genital herpes

SELF ASSESSMENT
1. Name the three main shapes of bacteria.
2. What is the difference between a virus and a bacteria?
3. What is a prion infection?
References
Abbey, T. K., Alhassan, M. B., Ameyibor, K., Essiah, J. W., Fometu, E., & Wiredu, M.B. (2008).
Ghana association of science teachers integrated science for senior high schools. Accra:
Unimax MacMillan.
Abbey, T. K., & Essiah, J.W. (1995). Ghana association of science teachers physics for senior high
schools. Accra: Unimax Macmillan.
Ameyibor, K., & Wiredu, M. B. (2006). Ghana association of science teachers’ chemistry for senior
high schools. Accra: Unimax MacMillan.

[Link]
[Link]
SESSION 4

DISEASES

Introduction
Dear student teacher, I hope you have enjoyed the lesson in section 3 on infection very well.
In continuing the lesson on Human and the Environment, I am going to take you through the
concept of Diseases. In this session we shall look at diseases, infectious diseases, zoonotic
diseases, bacterial diseases, viral diseases, fungal diseases, causes of infectious, non-infectious
diseases and causes, modes of transmission, symptoms and control of diseases. As usual,
remember to take your pens, pencils, note books and erasers. Sit beside your writing desk
comfortably and enjoy this lesson as the previous one.
Learning Objectives

By the end of this section, you will be able to:

1. Define the term diseases

2. List the two main types of diseases.
3. Explain infectious diseases
4. Explain non-infectious diseases and their causes
5. Explain bacteria diseases, causes, mode of transmission and prevention of viral
diseases
6. Explain fungal diseases, causes, mode of transmission and prevention of viral diseases
7. Explain viral diseases, causes, mode of transmission and prevention of viral diseases

DISEASES
Introduction
Microorganisms abound in our environments especially those environments that are
characterized by poor sanitation. The environments include the atmosphere surrounding us,
water bodies and the soil in which crops are cultivated. Whilst some of the microorganisms are
beneficial, others are harmful. The harmful microorganisms include those that cause various
kinds of diseases to humans, crop plants and livestock.
Disease-causing microorganisms are technically referred to as pathogens. Humans, plants and
livestock become diseased when they are infected by pathogens transmitted from diseased
living organisms. The modes of transmission of pathogens depend on their nature and life
cycles. Diseases may also be caused by non-living factors. These include extreme
environmental conditions, stress, malnutrition and poisons.
Diseases are generally detrimental to the health and well-being of all living organisms. They
also cause considerable economic losses to humans and nations. For these reasons, scientists
have done a lot of studies and research into diseases and developed credible methods of
preventing and controlling them.

Explain diseases.--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
If your answer is – ‘A disease is any disorder that interferes with normal functioning of the
body of an organism in a negative way’ congratulations, you have done very well. If you didn’t
get it right, don’t worry, we shall go through it and you will get it.
Diseases
A disease is any disorder that interferes with normal functioning of the body of an organism in
a negative way. A disease is defined as any deviation from health or any state when body is not
at ease. Disease may be the sickness of the body or the mind. A disease can be as mild as a sore
throat, common cold, and stomach upset or as serious as cancer. Disease can strike almost any
part of the body and anybody at some stage or the other. They can also affect a person’s mental
and emotional health. You may have heard of some common diseases or maybe you have seen
people suffering from some diseases, such as typhoid, malaria, rickets, jaundice, scurvy,
common cold, etc.
Can these diseases be categorized on some basis?
Diseases can be pathogenic (caused by pathogens) or non-pathogenic (caused by nutritional
or metabolic disorders). Pathogenic diseases are caused by microorganisms - bacteria, fungi,
viruses and protozoa. Pathogenic diseases can be classified into the following groups:
Infectious diseases - diseases that are easily transmitted from one organism to another through
a vector (an insect) or a medium, such as air, water and food, e.g. cholera and anthrax.
Contagious diseases - diseases transmitted through contact with an organism suffering from
the disease; mainly viral diseases, e.g. mumps and swine fever.
Zoonotic diseases - diseases that affect both livestock and humans, e.g. anthrax and rabies.
Epizootic diseases - diseases that are prevalent only temporarily, e.g. tick-borne diseases, such
as red water and heart water in livestock.
Endemic diseases - diseases that are prevalent in particular geographic regions on a regular
basis, e.g. trypanosomiasis.

Bacterial diseases
Bacteria (singular: bacterium) are microorganisms visible only under a microscope. They are
the most versatile group of pathogens, but they are readily controlled by strict hygiene,
vaccination and the use of antibiotics. Diseases caused by bacteria include tuberculosis,
cholera, tetanus in humans; anthrax, brucellosis and foot rot in livestock.

Fig. 4.1 a bacterium

Bacteria live almost everywhere - in the air, water, food, soil and the bodies of animals and
plants. In favourable conditions of sufficient moisture, warmth and food, they reproduce
rapidly. In adverse conditions, such as heat and drought, many bacteria survive by encysting,
that is, by developing a thick coat.
Bacteria have various shapes - round (coccus), rod (bacillus) and spiral. A rod-shaped type is
shown in Figure 1.190.
Disease-causing bacteria are parasites. They feed on their host. Their excretory substances,
which are often poisonous and the main cause of the disease, are called toxins.
Protozoan diseases
Protozoa (singular: protozoan) are single-celled microscopic organisms. The diseases they
cause, such as malaria and amoebic dysentery in humans, trypanosomiasis in both humans and
livestock, and coccidiosis and redwater in livestock, are often accompanied by high fever, loss
of appetite, emaciation (loss of weight) and death within 2-3 weeks of attack.

Viral diseases

Fig. 4.2 a virus particle

Viruses (singular: virus) are ultra-microscopic organisms (Figure4.2). They can only be seen
under an electron microscope. They are so tiny that if they were to be lined up in a row across
the page of an exercise book, there would be over 2 million of them. They consist of two parts:
a protein coat and nucleic acid (either DNA or RNA).
Viruses are parasites. The viral DNA or RNA is injected into the living cell and it 'takes over'.
The host's chemicals are used to produce more and more new viruses. Eventually, the cell bursts
and the new viruses attack other host cells. This explains why they are so harmful.
Viral diseases are easily transmitted but they cannot easily be prevented or controlled. Many
serious human diseases, such as measles, poliomyelitis, yellow fever and rabies, are caused by
viruses. Livestock diseases include rinderpest, foot and mouth disease, swine fever and
Newcastle disease are also caused by virus.

Fungal diseases
Fungi (singular: fungus) are very tiny lower organisms whose parasitic forms causes diseases,
such as athletes foot, ringworm and aspergillosis in fowl.

Rickettsial diseases
Rickettsiae (singular: rickettsia) are microorganisms which were once classified as viruses,-but
are now considered as a special kind of bacterium because they fall mid-way in characteristic
features between bacteria and viruses. They are, however, smaller in size than bacteria but, like
viruses, they reproduce only in living cells.
Rickettsiae live primarily in the cells of livestock parasites, such as ticks and mites, and cause
livestock diseases, such as heartwater. Symptoms of rickettsial diseases include high fever,
body muscle convulsion, rashes and sudden death. They are controlled effectively with
antibiotics, dipping and deticking to control ticks, and the destruction of seriously affected
animals.

Non-infectious diseases
A non-infectious disease is non-pathogenic, that is, one that is caused by the absence or
deficiency of something in the body. It is often linked to nutrition, e.g. deficiency diseases.
Generally, non-pathogenic diseases in livestock are caused by poor animal husbandry and
management practices. The predisposing factors to such diseases include those discussed
below.
Poor nutrition
Poor nutrition refers to the feeding of unbalanced diets to animals and inadequate or over-
feeding. This makes it difficult for the animals to carry out their normal physiological function
due to the effects of nutrient deficiency diseases they may suffer from. Examples of diseases
caused by poor nutrition are crazy chick disease in poultry, hypocalceamia (milk fever) in dairy
cattle, pregnancy toxaemia in sheep and goats, and bloat in ruminants.
In humans poor nutrition causes non-pathogenic diseases, such as kwashiorkor, rickets and
beriberi.
Genetic disorders
These cause non-pathogenic diseases that are inheritable from parents to offspring. They
include sickle cell anaemia, haemophilia, colour blindness, piglet anaemia and Huntington
disease in humans.
Stress
This refers to a group of factors that produce great strain in both animals and humans. In farm
animals, extreme climatic conditions, beating the animals, transportation, over-crowding,
castration and debeaking are some stress factors. They cause abnormal functioning of the
systems of the animals, resulting in non-pathogenic diseases, such as porcine stress syndrome
(PSS) in pigs. In humans stress causes depression and ill health.
Poor sanitation
Poor sanitation in and around animal houses is predisposing factor to both non-pathogenic and
pathogenic diseases of farm animals.
Poisons (or toxins)
Poisonous and toxic substances, such as substances injected into animals during snake bites,
cause a degeneration of the systems of the animals. This results in serious ill health and often
death.

Modes of transmission, symptoms and control of diseases

Disease infection refers to the entry of disease-causing organisms (pathogens) into healthy
animals resulting in a disturbance of physiological functions and creating a disease condition
in the infected animal(s).
Disease pathogens are transmitted through different modes depending on the type of disease
and nature of pathogen. Below in table 4.1 are descriptions of the modes of disease transmission
for selected groups of diseases.

Communicable diseases - diseases are communicable if they are easily transmissible between
people, mainly through direct and indirect contact. Most contagious and infectious diseases are
communicable diseases spread by infected droplets exhaled or coughed into the air. Examples
are anthrax, contagious bovine pleuro-pneumonia (CBPP), tuberculosis (TB) and African
swine fever. The six childhood killer diseases are also communicable.

Zoonotic diseases - these are infectious diseases of animals that can be transmitted to humans.
Examples are anthrax, rabies, brucellosis, salmonellosis and tuberculosis. Zoonotic diseases
fall under different groups of diseases. They therefore have several different modes of
transmission including contact, food contamination and inhalation of pathogens in the air.

Air-borne diseases - these are diseases caused by pathogens that are in the form of particles,
droplets or dust that easily saturate the surrounding air and are also transmitted by moving air.
Transmission is effective in poorly ventilated and over-crowded environments. Most
respiratory diseases are air borne. They include tuberculosis, chronic respiratory diseases
(CRD) in poultry and contagious bovine pleuro-pneumonia in ruminants. Examples of airborne
diseases of humans are measles, smallpox, common cold, whooping cough and influenza.

Water-related diseases - the pathogens of these diseases are transmitted by water. Drinking water
contaminated by the pathogen is the usual way to get infected. Guinea worm disease is a water-
related disease. These diseases are very common in Ghana and some other West African
countries. Other examples are cholera, schistosomiasis (bilharzia), poliomyelitis and infective
hepatitis.

Insect-borne (vector) diseases - some insect pests, called vectors, carry pathogens which transmit
diseases when they bite animals or humans. The tsetse fly, which transmits the trypanosomiasis
disease of livestock, is one example of such vectors.
Other examples are ticks, which transmit heart water and redwater diseases of farm animals,
mosquitoes, which transmit malaria parasites through their bites and the simulium fly (black
fly), which transmits onchocerchiasis (river blindness).
Food contamination - food and feed contaminated with pathogens which transmit diseases to
humans and animals, respectively, through the eating of such foods and feeds. Examples of
food contaminated diseases are African swine fever and Aspergillosis.

Sexually transmitted diseases - sexual intercourse and mating in humans and animals,
respectively, transmit these diseases from the sick to the healthy. AIDS, gonorrhoea and
syphilis are major sexually transmitted diseases of humans. Brucellosis is an example of this
class of diseases among farm animals.

The symptoms and control measures of the diseases described under the different modes of
transmission are outlined in Tables 4.1-4.3

Table 4.1 Details of some animal diseases

Disease Pathogen Animals Transmission Symptoms Prevention and
affected control
African swine Virus pigs (swine) direct contact high fever, anorexia; good hygiene;
fever with coughing and quarantine;
contaminated vomiting; diarrhoea; breeding for
food, water and foul-smelling resistance; isolation
equipment; wild discharges from the and destruction
pigs are carriers nose and eyes; of affected pigs
paralysis of the
hindquarters
Disease Pathogen Animals Transmission Symptoms Prevention and
affected control
Rabies Virus cattle, dogs, through the saliva profuse salivation; quarantine;
cats, of the infected paralysis and vaccination;
humans animal dumbness; voice destruction of
changes; refuses animal in acute
water and is cases
sometimes frightened
by the sight of water;
hiding in dark
corners; furious
without provocation
blue tongue Virus Sheep by midges intensive fever, loss seek veterinary
of appetite; nasal assistance;
discharge; mouth slaughter infected
ulcers; lameness; animals
coughing
tuberculosis bacterium: ail livestock inhalations of coughing; laboured Seek veterinary
Mycobacter and bacteria, contact breathing; chronic assistance;
ium humans and food illness; loss of coat slaughter infected
tuberculosis colour, diarrhoea; animals
discharges from
mouth and nose;
death
4. 1 Details of some animal diseases (continues)
Disease Pathogen Animals Transmission Symptoms Prevention and control
affected
heartwater rickettsia: cattle, ticks (Amblyommo) intense fever, walking in action against ticks; anti-
Cowdria sheep and circles; paralysis; heartwater serum
ruminantium goats pericarditis; protruding vaccination; use of
tongue; galloping antibiotics
movement; collapse and
death
redwater protozoon cattle, Ticks loss of appetite; red urine use antibiotics and sulpha
(babersiosis) Babersia spp. sheep, due to breakdown of red drugs; action against
pigs, dogs blood cells; stiff walking; ticks; vaccination; strict
pale and yellowish mucus sanitation
membrane; abortion in
pregnant animals;
salivation; anorexia;
death
foot rot bacterium: sheep, open wound; swollen foot; acute use of dry bedding in
Fusiformis goats, contaminated water lameness; sore hooves; pens; use of antibiotics on
nodosus cattle, contact anorexia; sudden high sores; good sanitation;
pigs, body temperature; provision of copper
donkeys cracked and ulcerated sulphate formalin
interdigital spaces; footbath; intravenous
inability to rise injections of
recommended sulpha
drugs; isolation
aspergillosis: fungus: poultry, contaminated wet difficulty in breathing; use clean feed, water and
(brooder Aspergillus especially litter; mouldy dull comb and skin; high equipment; culling of sick
pneumonia) fumigatus fowl feeds, especially chick mortality rate birds; use of antibiotics in
chicks groundnut cake feed and water; spray
during litter with phenyl-
brooding mercuric chloride
solution
tetanus bacterium: Most wounds; muscle spasm; limb prevent wound infections
(lockjaw) Clostridium livestock contaminated deep stiffening; jaws cannot through anti-tetanus
Tetani and cut move; profuse sweating; serum immunization;
humans increased insensitive of give glucose saline; give
skin; careful chewing and tranquillizers to relax
swallowing; death muscles

Table 4.2 Diseases caused by bacteria

Disease, bacterium and Symptoms and course of disease Treatment and control
method of spread
diphtheria (bacillus) Incubation period 2-4 days. Bacteria Treatment: injection of antitoxin,
Corynebacterium grow on mucous membranes of antibiotics, e.g. penicillin and
diphtheria air borne respiratory tract, releasing a powerful erythromycin. Control: mass
toxin. Slight fever and sore throat are immunisation with diphtheria
followed by severe damage to heart, toxoid (toxin which has been
nerve cells and adrenal glands.
Disease, bacterium and Symptoms and course of disease Treatment and control
method of spread
treated so that it is no longer
harmful).

typhoid and paratyphoid Incubation period 6-7 days. Mild fever Treatment: antibiotics, e.g.
(bacilli) Salmonella typhi and slight abdominal pains with chloramphenicol and ampicillin
and S. paratyphi water constipation, followed by step-like (semi-synthetic penicillin).
borne and food borne increase in fever level, increasing pain Control:
and diarrhoea. Ulceration and rupture purification of water supplies,
of the intestine may occur. safe disposal of sewage,
pasteurization of milk, vaccination
with killed bacteria.
Table 4.2 Diseases caused by bacteria (continued)
Disease, bacterium and Symptoms and course of disease Treatment and control
method of spread
whooping cough Occurs mainly in young children. Treatment: antibiotics.
(bacillus) Incubation period 2 weeks. Severe Control: vaccination with killed
Bordetella pertussis coughing bouts, with cough followed bacteria.
air borne by 'whoop' sound as air is inspired
through narrowed air passages.
bubonic plague (bacillus) High fever. Swelling of lymph nodes in Treatment: antibiotics, such as
Pasteurella pestis Spread groin and armpits to form buboes. streptomycin.
by rat flea bite Capillary haemorrhages give dark Control: eradication of rats and
appearance to skin, hence the name storage of grain, etc. in rat proof
'black death'. containers.
yaws (spirochaete) Occurs mainly in children under 15. Treatment: antibiotics, such as
Trepoanoma pertenue Open sores (lesions) spread over the penicillin.
spread by direct contact body surface. Bones also affected in Control: improved standards of
With sores severe cases. hygiene and prevention of over-
crowding.
tetanus (lockjaw) Toxins produced by bacteria cause Treatment:
(bacillus) muscular spasms (strong contractions), injection of antitoxin from horses
Clostridium tetani first in the region of the mouth and injection of muscle relaxing drugs,
bacteria present in soil, neck, then throughout the body. antibiotics, such as penicillin.
dust or animal faeces Eventually, convulsions may be so Control: immunization with tetanus
contaminate skin wounds severe and frequent that the patient dies toxoid.
of exhaustion or lack of oxygen.
Commonest in war (infected wounds)
and newborn babies (infected stump of
umbilical cord).
pneumonia (lobar) Short incubation period, followed by Treatment: antibiotics, such as
(coccus) coughing, fever and chest pain. Fluid penicillin and sulphonamides.
Diplococcus pneumoniae builds up in lungs. Bacteria often Control: good ventilation and
air borne present in throat, but become active and prevention of over-crowding.
invade the lungs when the patient is
weakened by other illness. Several
types of pneumonia exist, including
some caused by viruses.
meningitis (spotted fever) Bacteria multiply in mucous Treatment: antibiotics, such as
(coccus) membranes of the nose and throat, penicillin and sulphonamides.
Neisseria meningitidis producing a sore throat, then enter the Control: prevention of over-
air borne bloodstream and infect brain coverings crowding, especially in sleeping
(meninges). High fever, vomiting and accommodation.
severe headaches, with general body
rash.
tuberculosis (IB) Disease may show itself many years Treatment: antibiotics, such as
(bacillus) after first infection. Tubercle bacilli streptomycin.
Mycobacterium may affect many organs, but pulmonary Control: detection by mass
tuberculosis (lung) TB is the most common. General radiography, eradication of cattle
air borne, occasionally weight loss and cough, sometimes with TB
via Infected cow's milk sputum containing blood; slight vaccination with BCG (Bacille
afternoon fever. Calmette Guerin)
pasteurisation of milk.
leprosy (bacillus) Incubation period of many months or Treatment: drugs, such as
Mycobacterium leprae even years. Two forms: streptomycin, dapone, sulphone.
air borne, occasionally by nodular, with thickened areas of skin Control: segregation and isolation;
direct contact over long anaesthetic in which the peripheral now less common than in previous
periods nerves are destroyed. centuries.
cholera (vibrio) Vibrio Bacteria release powerful toxin, Treatment:
cholera causing inflammation of the gut and injection of saline solution to
water borne severe diarrhoea ('rice water'). The replace water and salts
resulting loss of water and mineral salts drugs, such as tetracycline,
may lead to death. chloramphenicol and sulphadiazine.

Table 4.3 Diseases caused by viruses

Disease and method of Symptoms and course of disease Treatment and control
spread
Measles Occurs mainly in young children. Treatment: injection of gamma globulin a
air borne Incubation period of 2 weeks, followed few days after exposure.
by sore throat, runny nose, watery eyes, Control:
cough and fever. Small, white spots live, attenuated vaccine
(Koplik's spots) appear inside mouth on isolation of patient and avoidance of
wall of cheek. Two days later, rash overcrowding in schools.
appears at the hairline, in the neck and
behind the ears, spreading over rest of the
body. If no complications, patient
recovers completely 1 week later, but
virus can damage heart muscle, kidneys
or brain and secondary infections by
bacteria may cause pneumonia, etc.
rubella (German Occurs mainly in older children and Treatment:
measles) young adults. Incubation period of 2 mild analgesics, such as aspirin and
air borne weeks, followed by slight fever and body paracetamol
rash which disappears after 3 days. for pregnant women, injection of gamma
Complications rare except in women globulin within 8 days of exposure.
during the first four months of pregnancy, Control: vaccination of girls aged 11-14
when there is a 20 per cent chance of with live attenuated virus.
blindness, deafness or other serious
defects in the baby.
Mumps Occurs mainly in children. Incubation Treatment: aspirin, etc. to relieve
air borne or spread by period of 2-3 weeks, followed by fever symptoms. Control: a vaccine has been
contact with infected and swelling of the salivary glands on developed, but as yet availability is
saliva one or both sides,lasting about 10 days. limited.
Other organs may be affected, including
testes, ovaries and pancreas.
Inflammation of the testes in a male after
puberty may cause sterility.
chicken pox Occurs mainly in children and young Treatment: no drugs effective against
air borne adults. Incubation period 2 weeks, virus; antibiotics used to treat secondary
followed by fever, headache, sore throat bacterial
and rash (typically on chest, spreading infections. »
over body). Blister- like spots are very
itchy; if scratched may become infected
by secondary bacteria and leave
permanent scars. Virus may migrate up
sensory nerve fibres and lie dormant for
years, becoming active again when
immunity weakens to produce shingles (a
painful condition affecting the skin
supplied by the nerves concerned).
common cold Nasal and bronchial irritation, resulting in Treatment: aspirin, etc.
air borne sneezing and coughing. Control: colds can be caused by many
different viruses so vaccine production is
impracticable. People who have
recovered from a cold caused by one
virus are not immune to colds caused by
other viruses.
influenza (sweating Incubation period 1-3 days. Sudden fever Treatment: Analgesics antibiotics to
sickness) with headache, sore throat and muscular prevent secondary infections.
air borne aching. Recovery within 1 week, but Control: vaccination with inactivated
after-effects such as tiredness and virus may give immunity for 1-2 years.
depression (especially in older people)
may last well over a month. Secondary
infection of the lung tissue by bacteria,
leading to pneumonia may occur in some
cases.
Table 4.3 Diseases caused by viruses (continued)
Disease and method Symptoms and course of disease Treatment and control
of spread
Rabies Incubation period 7-21 days, followed Treatment:
contracted from bite of within a few days by convulsions and wash and disinfect wound
rabid animal (dog, cat, inability to swallow. Accumulated saliva inject horse serum containing antibodies
bat, etc.) causes 'foaming at the mouth'. Usually near wound, inject vaccine.
fatal. Control: strict import and quarantine
controls on animals entering rabies free
areas
vaccination of domestic dogs in other
areas.
poliomyelitis (infantile Incubation period 7-21 days, followed by Treatment: no known drug or chemical
paralysis) fever, headache and feeling of stiffness in treatment.
air borne, food borne or neck and other muscles, causing paralysis Control: vaccination with formaldehyde
water borne, also and muscle wasting. If breathing muscles treated virus (Salk vaccine) or mutated
contagious are paralysed a respirator ('iron lung') virus (Sabine vaccine) taken orally.
may be needed. Many people have a very
mild form of the disease which they do
not notice but which makes them
immune. Most cases of paralysis occur in
children 4-12 years but adults may also
be affected.
infective hepatitis Incubation period 15-40 days, followed Treatment: injection of human gamma
water borne, also by loss of appetite, vomiting and jaundice globulin soon after exposure.
contagious - yellow colour of sclerotic or 'eye white' Control: boiling of drinking water and
caused by bile pigments and showing attention to hygiene; injection of gamma
liver disorder. In pale- skinned people the globulin usually too expensive for
yellow colour may affect the whole prophylactic (preventative) use.
complexion in addition to the sclerotic
yellow fever spread by Incubation period 2-4 days, followed by Control:
bite "from Aedes high fever, severe headaches and general removal of mosquito breeding places
mosquito body pains. Three days later, symptoms spraying insecticides to kill adult
include swollen eyes, bleeding gums, mosquitoes
vomiting and jaundice. Sever liver sleeping under mosquito net
damage is common. The disease is vaccination with mutated virus, effective
endemic in Africa and South and Central and long lasting (10 years).
America. Monkeys act as a reservoir.
dengue fever spread by High fever, with severe pain in joints. Control: anti-mosquito measures as for
bite from Aedes Fever subsides and then returns with a yellow fever.
mosquito typical rash. Recovery after about 5 days.
Summary
We have learnt that:
A disease is any disorder that interferes with normal functioning of the body of an organism in a
negative way.
Diseases can be pathogenic (caused by pathogens) or non-pathogenic (caused by nutritional or
metabolic disorders).
Pathogenic diseases are caused by microorganisms - bacteria, fungi, viruses and protozoa.
Pathogenic diseases can be classified into the following groups:
Infectious diseases - diseases that are easily transmitted from one organism to another through a
vector (an insect) or a medium, such as air, water and food, e.g. cholera and anthrax.
Contagious diseases - diseases transmitted through contact with an organism suffering from the
disease; mainly viral diseases, e.g. mumps and swine fever.
Zoonotic diseases - diseases that affect both livestock and humans, e.g. anthrax and rabies.
Epizootic diseases - diseases that are prevalent only temporarily, e.g. tick-borne diseases, such as
red water and heart water in livestock.
Endemic diseases - diseases that are prevalent in particular geographic regions on a regular basis,
e.g. trypanosomiasis.
Bacteria (singular: bacterium) are microorganisms visible only under a microscope. They are the
most versatile group of pathogens, but they are readily controlled by strict hygiene, vaccination
and the use of antibiotics.
Disease-causing bacteria are parasites. They feed on their host. Their excretory substances, which
are often poisonous and the main cause of the disease, are called toxins.
Viral diseases are easily transmitted but they cannot easily be prevented or controlled. Many
serious human diseases, such as measles, poliomyelitis, yellow fever and rabies, are caused by
viruses. Livestock diseases include rinderpest, foot and mouth disease, swine fever and Newcastle
disease are also caused by virus.
Fungi (singular: fungus) are very tiny lower organisms whose parasitic forms causes diseases, such
as athletes foot, ringworm and aspergillosis in fowl.
Rickettsiae (singular: rickettsia) are microorganisms which were once classified as viruses,-but are
now considered as a special kind of bacterium because they fall mid-way in characteristic features
between bacteria and viruses.
Symptoms of rickettsial diseases include high fever, body muscle convulsion, rashes and sudden
death.
A non-infectious disease is non-pathogenic, that is, one that is caused by the absence or deficiency
of something in the body.
A non-infectious disease is non-pathogenic, that is, one that is caused by the absence or deficiency
of something in the body. It is often linked to nutrition, e.g. deficiency diseases.
Causes of non-infectious diseases are poor nutrition, genetic disorder, stress, poor sanitation,
poisons etc.
Communicable diseases - diseases are communicable if they are easily transmissible between
people, mainly through direct and indirect contact.
Air-borne diseases - these are diseases caused by pathogens that are in the form of particles,
droplets or dust that easily saturate the surrounding air and are also transmitted by moving air.
Food contamination - food and feed contaminated with pathogens which transmit diseases to
humans and animals, respectively, through the eating of such foods and feeds. Examples of food
contaminated diseases are African swine fever and Aspergillosis.
Sexually transmitted diseases - sexual intercourse and mating in humans and animals,
respectively, transmit these diseases from the sick to the healthy. AIDS, gonorrhoea and syphilis
are major sexually transmitted diseases of humans. Brucellosis is an example of this class of
diseases among farm animals.
Activity
1. What is a disease?
2. What are the two main groups of diseases?
3. What is a zoonotic diseases?
4. What is an epizoonotic diseases?
5. In which conditions do we have bacteria reproducing rapidly?
6. Write three symptoms of rickettsial diseases
7. Explain a non-infectious diseases
8. Write down four causes of non-infectious diseases.
9. Explain communicable diseases.
Suggested answers to activities
1. A disease is any disorder that interferes with normal functioning of the body of an organism
in a negative
2. Pathogenic (caused by pathogens) and non-pathogenic (caused by nutritional or metabolic
disorders).
3. Zoonotic diseases - diseases that affect both livestock and humans, e.g. anthrax and rabies.
4. Epizootic diseases - diseases that are prevalent only temporarily, e.g. tick-borne diseases,
such as red water and heart water in livestock.
5. In favourable conditions of sufficient moisture, warmth and food, they reproduce rapidly.
6. Symptoms of rickettsial diseases include high fever, body muscle convulsion, rashes and
sudden death.
7. A non-infectious disease is non-pathogenic, that is, one that is caused by the absence or
deficiency of something in the body.
8. Causes of non-infectious diseases are poor nutrition, genetic disorder, stress, poor
sanitation, poisons etc.
9. Communicable diseases - diseases are communicable if they are easily transmissible between
people, mainly through direct and indirect contact.
Self-assessment
1. What is infectious diseases?
2. What is contagious diseases?
3. Write down three diseases caused by virus.
4. Write three examples of communicable diseases.
5. Complete the table below:
Disease Pathogen Animals Transmission Symptoms Prevention
affected and control

African swine
fever
Rabies
Tuberculosis

References
Abbey, T. K., Alhassan, M. B., Ameyibor, K., Essiah, J.W., Fometu, E., & Wiredu, M.B. (2008).
Association of Science Teachers Integrated Science for Senior High Schools-Integrated Science
for Senior High School. Ghana. Accra: Unimax MacMillan. Page: 176-178
Abbey, T. K., & Essiah, J.W. (1995). Ghana association of science teachers physics for senior high
schools. Accra: Unimax Macmillan.
Ameyibor, K., & Wiredu, M. B. (2006). Ghana association of science teachers’ chemistry for senior high
schools. Accra: Unimax MacMillan.
SECTION 5
NATURAL RESOURCES
Introduction
My dear student teacher, welcome to another section of the unit ‘Human and the Environment’. I
trust that you enjoyed the lesson in section 4 on Diseases very well. In this section, we shall discuss
natural resources, categorizing of natural resources, two main types of natural resources depending
on their renewability, uses of natural resources and conservation of natural resources.
As we do always, don’t forget to take your pens, pencils, note books and erasers. Sit beside your
writing desk soothingly and enjoy this lesson as the previous one.

Learning Objectives

By the end of this section, you will be able to:

1. Explain what natural resources are and give some examples.

2. List and explain the categories of natural resource
3. List and explain with examples the two main types of natural resources depending on their
renewability
4. List and explain the uses of natural resources
5. Describe how natural resources can be conserved
6. Explain the ecosystem approach to natural resource management
Introduction
Activity 5. 1
1. How many of you have been to your village for a visit before?
2. What did you see the village folks do early in the morning?---------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------
3. What did you do in the morning to help your grandmother or grandfather?---------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Expected answers-
1. Yes
2. Some of the ladies swept their surroundings, went to fetch water and firewood in the farm
or in the bush around them. The men helped in breaking the big wood into smaller pieces
for the ladies to use to set fire to cook breakfast. After eating, the men took their working
gears and set of for the farm. The ladies also followed to go and help the men in the farm.
3. I helped my grandmother to fetch water for the house.

What general name can you give to the wood the ladies used to make the fire and the water they
used in preparing the food? -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
If your answer is NATURAL RESOURCES, well done. If you didn’t get it, don’t worry, we are
going to discuss it into details.

What then are NATURAL RESOURCES?

Natural resources can be defined as the resources that exist (on the planet) independent of human
actions. A natural resource can also be anything useful which occurs naturally. Natural resources
are resources that exist without the actions of humankind. Natural resources can also be explain as
the resources that are found in the environment and are developed without the intervention of
humans. A natural resource is therefore not man-made.
These resources includes all valued characteristics such as magnetic, gravitational, and electrical
properties and forces. On earth it includes: sunlight, air, minerals, fossil fuels, oil, coal,
atmosphere, water, land (includes all minerals) including all vegetation, crops and animal life that
naturally subsists upon or within the heretofore identified characteristics and substances.

A natural resource may exist as a separate entity such as fresh water, air, and as well as any living
organism such as a fish, or it may exist in an alternate form that must be processed to obtain the
resource such as metal ores, rare-earth metals, petroleum, and most forms of energy.

These natural resources are derived from the environment. While few of them are used for our
survival like water, air, and the rest of them like coal, gas, oil are used for satisfying our daily
needs. From forests to mountains to minerals to coastal shores and wetlands, each of these natural
resource has its own importance.

There may also be genetic resources for human use; for example, seed stores, sperm banks
cryopreservation, i.e. storage of cells from embryos and shoot times in liquid nitrogen at - 1960C.
This means the material can be preserved indefinitely for human use. The natural resources are
naturally occurring materials that are useful to man or could be useful under conceivable
technological, economic or social circumstances or supplies drawn from the earth supplies such as
food, building and clothing materials, fertilizers, metals, water, and geothermal power.

There are various methods of categorizing natural resources. These are include:

4. Source of origin
5. Stage of development
6. Their renewability.
Basis of origin

On the basics of origin, natural resources may be divided into two types:

• Biotic — Biotic resources are obtained from the biosphere (living and organic material),
such as forests and animals, fossil fuels and the materials that can be obtained from them.
• Abiotic – Abiotic resources are the resources that come from non-living and non-organic
materials. Examples are fresh water, air land, , rare earth metals and heavy metals
including ores, such as, iron, copper, silver, gold, etc.

Stage of development

On the basis of stages of development, natural resources may be put under the following:

• Potential resources: Potential resources are those that may be used in the future. Example,
petroleum in sedimentary rocks that until drilled out and put to use remains a potential
resource.
• Actual resources: Those resources that have been surveyed, quantified and qualified and,
are currently used. Development, such as wood processing, depends on technology and
cost.
• Reserve resources: The part of an actual resource that can be developed profitably in the
future.
• Stock resources: Those that have been surveyed, but cannot be used due to lack of
technology. Example hydrogen.

Their renewability
Natural resources can be put into two main types;
1. Renewable natural resources
2. Non -renewable natural resources
Renewable natural resources
Renewable natural resources are those resources which are mainly living things or the
products from living things which can be used, reused or once used can be replaced
through proper management; for instance resources such as food crops are easily renewed
in short time scales since we do get regular annual harvest from them.

Though many renewable resources do not have such rapid recovery rate, these resources are
susceptible to depletion by over-use. Resources from a human use perspective are classified as
renewable so long as the rate of replenishment/recovery exceeds that of the rate of consumption.
They replenish easily compared to Non-renewable resources. Provided we do not catastrophically
damage our environment, as in desertification, these renewable natural resources are always
available.
Some examples of renewable natural resources include: forest, wildlife, air, water, fisheries, soil
etc. as shown in figures 5.1-5.

Fig 5.1 and 5.2 WATER Source- African Development Bank Group

Fig 5.3 a picture of the Udachnaya pipe, an open-pit diamond mine in Siberia.
An example of a non-renewable natural resource. Source-Wikipedia.

r y
Fig. 5.4 Removal of esker for use as natural resources. Deposits laid down in latest ice age by
nature. Naturally rounded stones and gravel. Source-Canstock.
Fig.5.5 Wood logs of Siamese. Source-Stock photo Fig.5.6 Source-getty images. Group of men in a dark
mine

Fig. 5.7 xitou nature education area located in the lugu township of nantou, taiwan. xitou village
is home to abundant natural resources. xitou has plenty of rains, and is cool and moist all the
year round. Source- Stock photo.

Fig. 5.8 Hematite from Morocco. Source- stock photos- Fig. 5.9 pile of wood in the green
forest.

1. Water

While the earth may be mostly water, only about 2.5 percent of it is fresh water. Out of that, about
2.5%, even less is considered to be potable. Potable water is water that is considered to be safe to
drink and cook with. While many countries are working to build water treatment plants, the fact is
that due to changes in the climate, the amount of rain and ice melts from winter have dropped off
and lowered the reserve supplies of freshwater to be treated. There are initiatives to educate and
regulate the use of water in the world, as well as exploration into the technology of water farming
in arid countries too.

Air

Clean air is necessary for the existence of life on this planet. It is essential for the existence of
plants, animals and wildlife. It is important to reduce air pollution as polluted air degrades the
environment and can enter our body and can cause health related problems. There are a number
of ways to keep the air clean and reduce air pollution like riding bus instead of using your own
vehicle, carpooling etc.

Forests and Timber

As the world gets more modern and population grows, there is more of a demand for housing and
construction projects. This reduces open green spaces. Forests are necessary to preserve the
ecology of the world that supports all of the natural resources and life. Forests also play a critical
role in providing clean air and the lumber that builds the homes.

Apart from the ones listed above, rocks and sediments, rivers and lakes, mountains, farmland,
wetlands, coastal shores, clays, sand, copper, manganese and stone are some of the other natural
resources.

Non-renewable natural resources

Non-renewable natural resources are mostly non-living things and the products of things that
are once alive. They can also be explained as resources that are limited in abundance due to their
non-renewable nature and whose availability may run out in the future. Non-renewable resources
either form slowly or do not naturally form in the environment. Minerals are the most common
resource included in this category. From the human perspective, resources are non-renewable
when their rate of consumption exceeds the rate of replenishment/recovery; a good example of
this are fossil fuels, which are in this category because their rate of formation is extremely slow
(potentially millions of years), meaning they are considered non-renewable.

Some resources naturally deplete in amount without human interference. The most notable of
these being radio-active elements such as uranium, which naturally decay into heavy metals. Of
these, the metallic minerals can be re-used by recycling them, but coal and petroleum cannot be
recycled. Once they are completely used they take millions of years to replenish. Their formation
is a very slow process, taking thousands or millions of years, and once used cannot be replenished
or replaced on human time/scale. Examples Include: coal. Oil ( as seen in figure 5.10), natural
gas, minerals, etc.

Fig. 5.10 Oil barrels and drum containers. Source -Stock Photo
Difference between Renewable and Non-Renewable Resources

Renewable resource Non-renewable resource

It can be renewed as it is available in Once completely consumed, it cannot be renewed due

infinite quantity to limited stock

Sustainable in nature Exhaustible in nature

Low cost and environment-friendly High cost and less environment-friendly

Replenish quickly Replenish slowly or do not replenish naturally at all

Natural resources and their uses

Forest

A forest is a large area subjugated by trees. Forests are the dominant terrestrial ecosystem of
Earth, and are distributed around the globe. Human society and forests influence each other in
both positive and negative ways. Forests provide ecosystem services to humans and serve as
tourist attractions. Forests can also affect people's health. Human activities, including harvesting
forest resources, can negatively affect forest ecosystems.

People began life on this planet as forest dwellers. They were food gatherers and depended on
the forest for all their needs: food, clothing, and shelter. They gradually became food growers,
clearing a small patch in the forest to grow food. But they continued to depend on forests to meet
a lot of their needs. Even today people depend on the forest for paper, timber, fuel wood, medicine,
and fodder.
Importance: Forests are of great economic importance. They produce commercial timber for
construction of homes and other buildings. The forest can provide timber for furniture, boats,
canoes, etc. Forests also produce charcoal and firewood for domestic use for man's comfort. We
get useful things like medicines, tanning chemicals and oils, gum, resin, wild rubber, etc. from
forest trees. Certain species of trees are also food or can be used for the manufacture of pulp for
papers used such us printing exercise books, note books etc.
Forests are also beneficial to man since they check strong winds which will normally sunroof
buildings and cause soil erosion. Forests can also increase the amount of rainfall in the area by
causing the precipitation of water from damp air. Forest trees, by their extensive root system, hold
the soil in place and prevent erosion by water or by wind.
Forests provide food and shelter for many animals which man in turn hunts for food. Many
streams and rivers arise in forest mountain regions where rainfall is heavy; thereby supplying
water for both man and animals. Honey, ropes and resin are all provided by the forest. They
provide fodder for livestock and edible fruits for humans. A very well managed forest reserve has
scenic beauty capable of attracting tourists for revenue.
Uses of forests

Some uses of forest are:

1. Soil erosion check 4. Fencing

2. Fodder 5. Wind breaks and shelter belts

3. Fuel 6. Soil improvement etc.

Soil erosion check

The roots of trees bind the soil and prevent erosion caused by wind or water. Leaf fall
also provides a soil cover that further protects the soil.

Fodder
Fodder (food) from the forest forms an essential source of food for cattle and other grazing
animals in the hilly and the arid regions and during a drought. There are many varieties of
trees, grasses, and shrubs that are nutritious for the livestock. Trees that produce a large
crown above the reach of cattle are preferred.

Fuel wood
In the rural communities, wood is an important source of energy for cooking and heating.
They select smaller stems as these are easier to gather and convey into their homes. The
selected wood are usually of low moisture easy to split. Some of the wood is converted to
charcoal and used for cooking.

Fencing
In the developing countries, people fence their walls and backyard gardens with trees from
the forest. Fences made with trees and shrubs are favoured over other materials in
developing countries because they are cheap to maintain and still give same protection.
Species that have thorns or are prickly and have stiff branches and leaves that are not edible
are preferred. These species should be fast growing, hardy, and long lived.

Wind breaks and shelter belts

Trees grown for wind breaks should be bushy and sturdy to endure strong winds, both hot
and cold. Trees have been planted to check degradation.

Soil improvement
Some species of trees have the ability to return nitrogen to the soil through root
decomposition or fallen leaves. Such trees are planted to increase the nitrogen content of
the soil.

Forest products and their uses

Timber
It is used in timber-based industries such as plywood, saw milling, paper and pulp, and
particle boards.

Bamboo
The main commercial uses of bamboo are as timber substitutes, fodder, and raw material
for basket, paper and pulp, and other small-scale industries.

Fibre
Plant fibre has many different uses. Soft fibres such as jute are derived from the stems of
the plant. Hard fibre from the leaves of hemp and sisal are used to make fabrics for various
applications. Coir, another form of fibre from the fruit of the coconut, is used to make
ropes.

Floss
It is used to made cotton wool, mattresses, and pillows.

Essential oils
Tropical grasses such as lemon grass, citronella, and khus are the source of essential oils.
Oil is distilled from the wood of various species such as sandalwood, agar, and pine. Oil is
also derived from the leaves of certain plants and trees such as eucalyptus, camphor,
wintergreen, and pine. These oils are used for making soaps, cosmetics, incense,
pharmaceuticals, and confectionery.

Cane
Cane is used to make walking sticks, polo sticks, baskets, picture frames, screens, and mats.

Grasses
There are hundreds of varieties of grasses in the country that are used for a number of purposes.
Lemon grass, palmrose grass, bhabbhar, and khus grass are some of them.

Fruit
Fruit trees are an important source of income and food for the rural household. In some areas fruit
trees are commonly planted along the field borders and around the wells. Mango, coconut, orange,
pear, jackfruit and many others grow wild in the forest.

Medicinal use
Since time immemorial humans have been depending on the forest to cure them of various
ailments. Even today man is dependent on the forest for herbs and plants to fight against disease.
Of all the medicinal trees found in India, the neem is the most important. Leaves, bark, and other
parts of many other trees also have medicinal value and are used to make various ayurvedic
medicines.
FOREST CONSERVATION
Forests, like other natural resources, are limited and it is therefore very important that they are
utilized wisely. The wise use of forest should include, reforestation; that is planting new trees
where the trees have been completely destroyed.

Fig. 5.11 A forest reserve

There should also be replanting of harvested trees in plantations. Lack of funds usually does not
make this measure successful. Bad governance also affects reforestation programmes. Timber
companies must be made to plant trees to replace those fell and the trees for timber must be
chosen selectively so that only desirable mature ones are fell.
Bush burning for the purposes of land clearance should be avoided because they cause extensive
damage to the forest, smoking in the forest and lighting unguarded fires should be avoided.
Offenders when caught should be severely punished. Particularly most extensive use of natural
forests, tropical forest as a source of timber should give way to the use of more plantation. The
use of pesticides in some cases in order to kill pests and controlling diseases should be
encouraged but these pesticides may have after effects on the ecosystem hence its use should be
monitored.
Training of forest rangers and foresters to guard the forest, against intruders and to fight fires in
the forest and especially to enforce conservation laws on the forest must be done. Normally,
insufficient funding makes it difficult for forest reserve officers to pursue compliance with
conservation laws. The public should be educated on the dangers of deforestation and be made
aware of conservation methods. The use of LPG gas and kerosene should be more patronized so
as to limit the dependence on wood from forests for firewood.
The forestry commission should also prepare and implement integrated forest management plans.
They should enforce their role in regulating and harvesting of timber and other non-timber forest
products. In addition, they should register contracts and issue permits for export of forest product
and also tracking the movement of timber and wood products. These would ensure selective
cutting of trees as a food conservation practice.
Oil/crude oil
Crude oil is a liquid fuel source located underground. It is extracted through drilling.

Fig. 5.12 Crude oil Source-Wikipedia

Petroleum can be explained as a naturally occurring, yellowish-black liquid which is mostly found
in geological formations below the Earth's surface. It is usually refined into various types of fuels.
Components of petroleum are separated using a technique called fractional distillation, i.e.
separation of a liquid mixture into fractions differing in boiling point by means of distillation,
typically using a fractionating column.

It consists of naturally occurring hydrocarbons of various molecular weights and may contain
miscellaneous organic compounds. The name petroleum covers both naturally occurring
unprocessed crude oil and petroleum products that are made up of refined crude oil.

Oil is called a fossil fuel because of its origins. It was created 400 million years ago when the
remains of prehistoric algae, large quantities of dead organisms mostly zooplankton and plankton
fell to the bottom of the ocean. They are buried underneath sedimentary rock and subjected to both
intense heat and pressure. It combined with mud and then was covered by layers of sediment. The
intense pressure heated the remains over millions of years. It first became a waxy substance called
kerogen. It became liquid oil after more pressure and heat. This is the more reason why it is a
nonrenewable resource. It would take millions of years for new oil to be created when this supply
is gone. It cannot be replenished in our life time.

Sandwiched between 50% and 97% of oil is hydrocarbons. Between 6% and 10% of it is nitrogen,
oxygen, and sulfur. Less than 1% is metals such as copper, nickel, vanadium, and iron.

Petroleum has mostly been recovered by oil drilling (natural petroleum springs are rare).
Fig. 5.13. Canada’s Upstream Oil & Natural Gas Industry. Source –CAPP

Drilling of crude oil can be done after studies of structural geology (at the reservoir scale),
sedimentary basin analysis, and reservoir characterization (mainly in terms of the porosity and
permeability of geologic reservoir structures) have been completed. After drilling the oil, it is
refined and separated. It is separated by distillation, into a number of consumer products. Some of
the products are gasoline (petrol) , kerosene , asphalt and chemical reagents used to make plastics,
pesticides and pharmaceuticals.

Petroleum does not includes only crude oil, but all liquid, gaseous and solid hydrocarbons. Under
surface pressure and temperature conditions, lighter hydrocarbons, methane, ethane, propane and
butane exist as gases, while pentane and heavier hydrocarbons are in the form of liquids or solids.
However, in an underground oil reservoir the proportions of gas, liquid, and solid depend on
subsurface conditions and on the phase diagram of the petroleum mixture.
What then do we use this very important natural resource for? -----------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Let us look at some of the uses of crude oil/oil.

Petroleum products- majority of petroleum is converted to petroleum products, which includes

several classes of fuels.
Fig. 5.14 A petrochemical refinery in Grangemouth, Scotland. Source-Wikipedia.

According to the composition of the crude oil and depending on the demands of the market,
refineries can produce different shares of petroleum products.

A breakdown of the products made from a typical barrel of US oil

The largest share of oil products is used as "energy carriers", i.e. various grades of fuel oil and
gasoline. These fuels include or can be blended to give gasoline, jet fuel, diesel fuel, heating oil,
and heavier fuel oils. Heavier (less volatile) fractions can also be used to produce asphalt, tar,
paraffin wax, lubricating and other heavy oils. Refineries also produce other chemicals, some of
which are used in chemical processes to produce plastics and other useful materials. Since
petroleum often contains a few percent sulfur-containing molecules, elemental sulfur is also often
produced as a petroleum product. Carbon, in the form of petroleum coke, and hydrogen may also
be produced as petroleum products. The hydrogen produced is often used as an intermediate
product for other oil refinery processes such as hydrocracking and hydrodesulfurization
Uses of Crude Oil

Crude oil is the base for lots of products. These include transportation fuels such as gasoline, diesel,
and jet fuel. They also include fuel oils used for heating and electricity generation. Did you know
the average barrel of oil does much more than just put gasoline in your car? Crude oil also creates
petroleum products. In fact, oil is used to create a wide range of products, such as propane, asphalt,
petrochemical feedstock and more. When combined with other chemicals, oil is the base for over
6,000 items. Petroleum byproducts make tar, asphalt, paraffin wax, and lubricating oils. It is also
used in chemicals, such as fertilizer, perfume, insecticides, soap, and vitamin capsules. Figures
5.15-5.20 give examples of products from crude oil.

Fig. 5.15 Sample of Crude oil (petroleum) Cylinders of Liquified petroleum gas Sample of
Gasoline

Fig. 5.16 Sample of Kerosene Fig. 5.17 Sample of Diesel fuel Fig. 5.18 Motor oil
Fig. 5.19 Pile of asphalt-covered aggregate for formation into asphalt concrete. Fig. 5.20 Sulfur

Source of the above petroleum products-Wikipedia

Oil is the base for plastics used in everything from heart valves to plastic bags. It's used in carbon
fiber in aircraft, PVC pipes, and cosmetics. For example, it takes about 16 gallons of crude oil to
produce a sofa. Around 40% of textiles contain some petroleum byproduct. Oil is an important
part of daily life and the world for transportation, heating our homes, and plastics used in clothing,
electronics, and more.

Oil is a significant part of daily life all over the world. This powerful source of energy moves us,
heat our homes and is a component of many everyday products.

Petroleum does more than just provide gasoline for cars and jet fuel for airliners. Products and
byproducts of petroleum end up in items used daily around the world — billions of pounds of
polyethylene plastic alone go toward making plastic bags, food containers, hula hoops and other
consumer products.

Petroleum-derived products

Here are a few petroleum-derived items found in and around the modern-day home that may
surprise you.

Aspirins

Aspirin has proven itself one of the safest and most reliable medications over the past decades.
People swallow billions of tablets per year for headaches, fever and as a preventative measure
against heart conditions or stroke. Most aspirin manufacturing begins with benzene, a hydrocarbon
that is typically derived from petroleum products.

Crayon
Fig. 5.21 a crayon

From the nursery school to primary six, our school days were made fun when we were able to
draw and colour. This was made possible by oil. Oil has helped make many fond childhood
memories of drawing inside a classroom or a home. Every single crayon thing in a child's Crayola
box consists of paraffin wax, a waxy solid made from petroleum.

Candles

During our birthdays, we surround our birthday cake with candles and blow them to make our
wishes in the coming years.

Candles are made up of what? --------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Paraffin wax is used to make candles, and may even provide the polish on an apple or the glossiness
of chocolate. Paraffin wax (petroleum wax) is a soft colourless solid, derived from petroleum, coal
or shale oil that consist of a mixture of hydrocarbon molecules containing between twenty and
forty carbon atoms.

Chewing gum

Fig. 5.22. Chewing gum. . Image (Image credit: Dreamstime)

Chewing sugar-free gum might help you eat less. But to use this as a diet strategy would be to
blow the findings out of proportion

Most of us like chewing gum in one way or the other. At times we do this to help us stay awake
while driving, studying or just to exercise the jaws. People who enjoy the snap and long-lasting
texture of their chewing gum can give a nod of thanks to petroleum-derived polymers. At present
gum bases can consist of both natural latexes and petroleum products such as polyethylene and
paraffin wax, which also means most gums are non-biodegradable.
Wrinkle resistance

Fig. 5.23. Polyester shirts. Credit: Yuri Arcurs | [Link]

In the villages where there is no electricity and most of their clothes are cotton, their dresses are
always wrinkled. Cotton may represent the fabric of our lives, but polyester pants, shirts and other
clothing items bring the benefits of wrinkle resistance, durability and shrugging off stains. Those
special properties come courtesy of polyester's origin at the oil refinery, where several petroleum
products are created to eventually form the synthetic material that helps clothe millions of people.
But that's not all bad, because polyester recycling can produce new, high-quality polyester fiber.

Textiles

Clothing is commonly made from petroleum-based fibers including acrylic, rayon, vegan leather,
polyester, nylon and spandex. Even shoes and purses use petrochemicals for their lightweight,
durable, and water resistant properties.

Health & Beauty Products

Many of our personal care products are derived from petroleum including perfume, hair dye,
cosmetics (lipstick, makeup, foundation, eye shadow, mascara, eyeliner), hand lotion, toothpaste,
soap, shaving cream, deodorant, panty hose, combs, shampoo, eyeglasses, and contact lenses.

Fig. 5.25 Red lipstick on waitress meant more tips in a study. (Image credit: Konstantin Sutyagin,
Shutterstock)
There is a saying that beauty is in the shop. Have you ever compared someone with no make-up
and after some few days started applying make-up? You will bear with me that the transformations
are usually great. Humans, especially ladies have applied natural cosmetics on their lips, eyes and
faces for centuries, but most of today's lipsticks and eye liners derive their visually-pleasing magic
from petroleum products or byproducts such as acrylates, coal tar colorants, and propylene glycol.
Given that foundation, it's little surprise that many women also turn to the petroleum product
known as Vaseline (petroleum jelly) as a simple eyeliner remover or base for lipstick.

Solar panels

Fig. 5.26 (Image credit: U.S. Air Force photo by Airman 1st Class Nadine Y. Barclay)

Because of the effect from the burning of crude oil, the world is gradually moving towards the use
of environmental friendly energy known as solar energy. This is taped using solar panels.

Solar panels may help homeowners and businesses usher in renewable energy by harnessing the
power of sunlight, but most panels still rely upon petroleum-based resins and plastic components
in their photovoltaic cells. That could eventually change as companies have begun rolling out new
bio-resins and bio plastics that could replace the petroleum-based components.

Using Oil as a Transportation Fuel

Most oil is used for transportation fuels, essential to the mobility of people, goods, and services.
Most vehicles registered in the world are primarily powered by gasoline, diesel and natural gas.
Refineries turn crude oil into usable products such as transportation fuels – gasoline, diesel, and
aviation fuels;

Aviation fuels: Specialized petroleum-based fuels used to power various types of aircraft for
commercial travel and shipping.

Gasoline: Designed for internal combustion engines, commonly used in private and commercial
vehicles.

Diesel: Designed for engines commonly used in trucks, buses and public transport, locomotives,
farm and heavy equipment. Diesel contains more energy and power density than gasoline.

Oil in Everyday Products

Plastics are made from oil. Crude oils are sent to refineries where they become feedstock. The
feedstock is used in petrochemical plants and turned into plastic to make essential products used
in our everyday lives. More than 6,000 everyday products get their start from oil, including
dishwashing liquid, solar panels, food preservatives, eyeglasses, DVDs, children’s toys, tires and
heart valves. Here are some of the common petroleum products that are an important part of our
modern lifestyle.

Electronics

Due to insulating and heat resistant properties, plastics and other petroleum-based products are
used in electronic components. From your speakers and smartphones to your computers, sound
system, earpiece, bluetooth devices, cameras, and televisions, most electronics have components
derived from oil.

Sporting Goods

Are you a sportsman or you like sports? --------------------------------------------------------------------

Have you ever asked yourself where the balls you use come from? ------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Many common sports equipment contains some petroleum including basketballs, surfboards, skis,
tennis rackets, golf balls and bags, football helmets, and fishing rods. Comfortable, lightweight
and supportive running shoes are made possible by oil and natural gas

Source-The Canadian Association of Petroleum Producers (CAPP)

Medical Supplies

Modern health care relies on petroleum products that have few substitutes. Plastics are used in a
wide-range of medical devices and petrochemicals are relied on for pharmaceuticals. Products
include hospital equipment, IV bags, aspirin, antihistamines, artificial limbs, dentures, hearing
aids, heart valves and many more.

Household Products

Our homes are full of products that used petroleum in their production. From construction
materials such as roofing and housing insulation to linoleum flooring, furniture, appliances and
home decor such as pillows, curtains, rugs, and house paint are all products from petroleum. Even
many everyday kitchen items including dishes, cups, non-stick pans, and dish detergent use oil in
their creation.

How many petroleum products did you use today?--------------------------------------------------------

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------

Did you use any of the materials from the chart below? --------------------------------

If yes, then you have used a petroleum product. Some of the items such as toothbrush, soap,
shaving cream, comb, shampoo, moisturizer, hair spray etc. all have petroleum in them.

Fig. 5.27. Charts of petroleum products used in everyday life

OIL CONSERVATION
From the above discussions, it is obvious that oils or petroleum has countless uses and we must
preserve it very well. Government should exploit alternative sources of power to use in industries
to avoid overdependence on oil. Other sources of energy such as nuclear power, hydroelectric
power, wind and wave power, solar energy, etc. can be used. Wind and wave power as well as
solar power, have the added advantage of not causing pollution.

Fig. 5.28. A petroleum refinery

Very old cars (In terms of age) which consume a lot of fuel should not be allowed on the roads.
The use of geothermal energy that is heat from beneath the earth, to generate electricity should be
exploited. Oil conservation should also include the use of efficient industrial process and
machinery to conserve fossil fuel in order to reduce the rate of depletion.

MINERALS

A mineral is a solid chemical compound that occurs naturally in pure form. Minerals are most
commonly associated with rocks due to the presence of minerals within rocks. Mineral is a
chemical compound which has a definite chemical composition, inorganic and solid in nature. It
is a naturally occurring compound. A mineral can also be defined as any of a class of substance
occurring in nature, usually comprising of inorganic substances, such as quartz or feldspar, of
definite chemical composition and usually of definite crystal structure, but sometimes also
including rocks formed by these substances as well as certain natural products of organic origin,
as asphalt or coal. These rocks may consist of one type of mineral, or may be an aggregate of two
or more different types of minerals, segregated into distinct phases. Mineralogy is the study of
minerals.

In mining, anything obtained from the ground and used by man is considered to be a "mineral
commodity" or a "mineral material. Minerals without a definite crystalline structure, such as opal
or obsidian, are then more properly called mineraloids. If a chemical compound may occur
naturally with different crystal structures, each structure is considered different mineral species.
Below are some few examples of minerals:

Rhodochrosite

Fig. 5.29 Specimen of rhodochrosite from the Sunnyside Mine, San Juan County, Colorado.
Rhodochrosite is a manganese carbonate mineral (MnCO3) that is used as an ore of manganese
and is also cut as a gemstone. USGS image.
Wavellite

Fig 5.30. Deep green balls of wavellite in exposed pocket, from Mauldin Mountain Quarries,
Montgomery County, Arkansas, USA

Tourmaline

Fig 5.31. Crystals of tourmaline (uvite variety) on quartz, from Pomba pit, Serra das Éguas,
Brumado, Bahia, Brazil.

Titanite

Fig. 5.32. Crystal of titanite with adularia and minor clinochlore on matrix
Shattuckite

Fig. 5.33 Botryoidal balls of shattuckite, from Otjikotu, Kaokoveld, Kunene, Namibia

Stannite

Fig. 5.34. Ball of stepped stannite crystals flanked by splaying GEM quartzes and golden
chalcopyrite at its upper edge, from Yaogangxian Mine, Yizhang County, Chenzhou Prefecture,
Hunan Province, China

To meet the definition of "mineral" used by most geologists, a substance must meet five
requirements:

• naturally occurring
• solid
• definite chemical composition
• ordered internal structure
• inorganic

"Naturally occurring" means that people did not make it. Steel is not a mineral because it is an
alloy produced by people.

"Solid" means that it is not a liquid or a gas at standard temperature and pressure.

"Definite chemical composition" means that all occurrences of that mineral have a chemical
composition that varies within a specific limited range. For example: the mineral halite (known as
"rock salt" when it is mined) has a chemical composition of NaCl. It is made up of an equal number
of atoms of sodium and chlorine.

"Ordered internal structure" means that the atoms in a mineral are arranged in a systematic and
repeating pattern.

"Inorganic" means that the substance is not made by an organism. Wood and pearls are made by
organisms and thus are not minerals.

Minerals: Their Functions and Sources

The body needs many minerals; these are called essential minerals. Essential minerals are
sometimes divided up into major minerals (macrominerals) and trace minerals (microminerals).
These two groups of minerals are equally important, but trace minerals are needed in smaller
amounts than major minerals. The amounts needed in the body are not an indication of their
importance.

A balanced diet usually provides all of the essential minerals. The two tables below (table 5.1-5.2)
list minerals, what they do in the body (their functions), and their sources in food.

Table 5.1 Macro minerals

Major minerals
Mineral Function Sources
Table salt, soy sauce; large amounts in processed
Needed for proper fluid balance, nerve transmission, and
Sodium foods; small amounts in milk, breads, vegetables,
muscle contraction
and unprocessed meats
Table salt, soy sauce; large amounts in processed
Chloride Needed for proper fluid balance, stomach acid foods; small amounts in milk, meats, breads, and
vegetables
Needed for proper fluid balance, nerve transmission, and Meats, milk, fresh fruits and vegetables, whole
Potassium
muscle contraction grains, legumes
Important for healthy bones and teeth; helps muscles relax Milk and milk products; canned fish with bones
Calcium and contract; important in nerve functioning, blood clotting, (salmon, sardines); fortified tofu and fortified soy
blood pressure regulation, immune system health milk; greens (broccoli, mustard greens); legumes
Important for healthy bones and teeth; found in every cell; Meat, fish, poultry, eggs, milk, processed foods
Phosphorus
part of the system that maintains acid-base balance (including soda pop)
Nuts and seeds; legumes; leafy, green vegetables;
Found in bones; needed for making protein, muscle
Magnesium seafood; chocolate; artichokes; "hard" drinking
contraction, nerve transmission, immune system health
water

Sulfur Found in protein molecules Occurs in foods as part of protein: meats, poultry,
fish, eggs, milk, legumes, nuts
Trace minerals (micro minerals)

The body needs trace minerals in very small amounts. Note that iron is considered to be a trace
mineral, although the amount needed is somewhat more than for other micro minerals.

Table 5.2 Trace minerals

Trace minerals
Mineral Function Sources
Organ meats; red meats; fish; poultry;
Part of a molecule (hemoglobin) found in red blood shellfish (especially clams); egg yolks;
Iron cells that carries oxygen in the body; needed for legumes; dried fruits; dark, leafy greens;
energy metabolism iron-enriched breads and cereals; and
fortified cereals
Part of many enzymes; needed for making protein and
genetic material; has a function in taste perception,
Meats, fish, poultry, leavened whole
Zinc wound healing, normal fetal development, production
grains, vegetables
of sperm, normal growth and sexual maturation,
immune system health
Found in thyroid hormone, which helps regulate Seafood, foods grown in iodine-rich soil,
Iodine
growth, development, and metabolism iodized salt, bread, dairy products
Selenium Antioxidant Meats, seafood, grains
Legumes, nuts and seeds, whole grains,
Copper Part of many enzymes; needed for iron metabolism
organ meats, drinking water
Widespread in foods, especially plant
Manganese Part of many enzymes
foods
Drinking water (either fluoridated or
Involved in formation of bones and teeth; helps
Fluoride naturally containing fluoride), fish, and
prevent tooth decay
most teas
Unrefined foods, especially liver,
Works closely with insulin to regulate blood sugar
Chromium brewer's yeast, whole grains, nuts,
(glucose) levels
cheeses
Legumes; breads and grains; leafy
Molybdenum Part of some enzymes greens; leafy, green vegetables; milk;
liver

USES OF MINERAL

The importance of minerals in our everyday lives can be recognized all around us. From eating
nutrient-rich foods to powering smartphones with copper, almost everything we use is a mineral
resource. Below are a few common ways we use minerals today.
Fig. 5.35 Common minerals in vitamin products

Minerals are common in vitamin products

Mined minerals are an important part of human nutrition. Iron, manganese, selenium, and calcium
all provide day-to-day nutrients that the body needs in order to function. Foods that are full of
micronutrients (or vitamins and minerals) can help strengthen cells, fight against harmful viruses,
and boost the immune system.

We use minerals in school, on the farm, and in the kitchen

Minerals can be found in many of the products that we know and love. In fact, we use or consume
more than 25 minerals daily. Some of these include:

• Graphite is often referred to as the most stable form of carbon. Since the early 17th
century, the Greeks have used graphite as a writing tool–or pencil.
• Also known as brown coal, Lignite is a mineral that takes millions of years to form. Lignite
helps to generate electricity and can be found in plant fertilizer products.

• Every cell in our bodies uses Phosphorus because it promotes growth and energy. This
reactive mineral is an active ingredient in items like baking soda, glass, and kitchenware.
• Minerals can be found in batteries, jet engines, and other modern technologies

Minerals and metals became an integral part of modern technology because they have the power
to create everything from home energy storage to AA batteries.

Here are three of the earth’s most common minerals and their uses:

Copper Nickel Lithium

Copper was originally Nickel is a silvery Lithium is a soft chemical element that
refined from its ores to chemical element that gained praise after being discovered to
make instruments, is typically made from treat psychiatric diseases in the mid-1800s.
weapons, and hunting two mineral deposits, Today, lithium and its compounds have
tools. pentlandite and been used to:
pyrrhotite.
This popular metal is 1. Make Li-Ion batteries
Copper Nickel Lithium
applied to a number of Since the 19th century, 2. Produce commercial electric
minerals, such as cuprite nickel has been a vehicles
(copper oxide) and bornite. component of coins in 3. Create underwater subsea
the United States, electrification
Copper is also one of the India, Switzerland and 4. Power telecommunication devices
best conductors of Canada.
electricity, which is why
it’s used to make computer We now use nickel to
chips, wiring, smartphone make electric guitar
displays, and car parts. strings, microphone
capsules, jet engines,
Learn more about how and power cells.
copper shapes our lives.

Common minerals & their uses

Have you ever seen some of the minerals with your naked eyes before? ---------------------------
What about their images? ---------------------------------------------------------

If yes, that is good. If no we shall see some images of some of the minerals we hear about.

Out of the ninety two elements originated from the Earth, forty of them are used in our daily lives.
Some of the names are common and well known, and others seem obscure until one sees it.

Below are some common well known minerals (sources of the images of the minerals below is
Wikipedia):

Bauxite

Bauxite is a sedimentary rock that is an important ore of aluminum. The aluminium content in it
is leeched from the soil above. It is the world's main source of aluminium.

Fig. 5.36. Bauxite with US penny for comparison

Beryllium

Beryllium is an alkaline metallic element with a chemical symbol Be and atomic number 4. It is
highly toxic. It is a relatively rare element in the universe, usually occurring as a product of the
spallation of larger atomic nuclei that have collided with cosmic rays. It is known for its sugary
sweet taste and some of its common uses are in X-rays and fluorescent lights.

Fig. 5.37. Beryllium, 99 % pure, crystalline big fragment 140 g

Chromite

Chromite is the ore of chromium and is a very hard metal, with diamond being the only thing
harder. Chromite is a mineral that is an iron chromium oxide. It has a chemical formula of
FeCr2O4.

Fig. 5.38. Chromite

Cobalt

Cobalt is famous for the incredible blue colour it imparts to glass and pigment. Cobalt is a
chemical element with the symbol Co and atomic number 27. Cobalt is found in the Earth's crust
only in chemically combined form, save for small deposits found in alloys of natural meteoric iron.
It has been found in meteorites and is used in invisible ink. It is a brittle metal and resembles iron.
Fig. 5.39 Cobalt chips

Antimony

Antimony is a metal that is used along with alloys to create batteries for storing grid power. It is
silvery gray and can be found in its pure form in nature, an uncommon characteristic.

Fig. 5.39 Antimony. Source - Smithsonian Museum of Natural History. The sample is about 4x5
cm and is from Consols mine, Broken Hill, New South Wales, Australia.

Asbestos

Asbestos has an unsavory reputation for causing cancer in people who work around it. It is a fibrous
mineral with incredible fire retarding properties. Although asbestos has a bad reputation, when
polished it becomes the well-known and popular ‘Tiger Eye’ stone.

Fig. 5.40 Asbestos (tremolite) silky fibres on muscovite from Bernera, Outer Hebrides. Photograph
taken at the Natural History Museum, London.
Barium

Barium is a chemical element with the symbol Ba and atomic number 56. Barium is a common element
used in x-ray technology, fireworks, rubber and glass making and rat poison. It is a soft, white
metallic element and alkaline. Because of its high chemical reactivity, barium is never found in nature
as a free element.

Fig. 5.41 Elementares Barium unter Argon Schutzgas / Pure barium in protective argon gas
atmosphere.

Columbite-tantalite

Columbite-tantalite group is a mineral used widely in technology. It has a submetallic luster and a
high density. Electronics, automotive systems and health products like the pacemaker need this
mineral to operate.

Fig. 5.42 Columbite Locality: Middletown, Middlesex County, Connecticut, USA (Locality at
[Link]).

Copper
Copper is a chemical element with the symbol Cu and atomic number 29. Copper is a common
metal throughout the world. It is used for currency, jewelry, plumbing and to conduct electricity.
It is a soft, malleable, and ductile metal with very high thermal and electrical conductivity. It is a
soft, orange-red metal. A freshly exposed surface of pure copper has a pinkish-orange colour.

Fig. 5.42 Copper

Manganese

Manganese is a chemical element with the symbol Mn and atomic number 25. Manganese with
iron impurities can be slightly magnetic. It is not found as a free element in nature; it is often found
in minerals in combination with iron.

Fig. 5.43 A rough fragment of lustrous silvery metal

Mica

Mica is the mineral responsible for putting a sparkle on many rocks. This mineral is very flexible,
and large sheets of it were used as window glass in the past.

The mica group of sheet silicate (phyllosilicate) minerals includes several closely related materials
having nearly perfect basal cleavage. All are monoclinic, with a tendency towards
pseudohexagonal crystals, and are similar in chemical composition.
Fig. 5.44 Mica

Molybdenum

Molybdenum is essential for supporting all life forms because it is essential for utilizing nitrogen.
Molybdenum is a chemical element with the symbol Mo and atomic number 42.

Fig. 5.45 [Link]-wikipedia

Fluorite

Fluorite/fluorspar is commonly used to create fluorescent pigment since it is very beautiful. It is

the mineral form of calcium fluoride, CaF2. It belongs to the halide minerals.
Fig. 5.45 Fluorite

Gold

Gold is the most familiar metal to most people. Gold is a chemical element with the symbol Au
and atomic number 79, making it one of the higher atomic number elements that occur naturally.
In its purest form, it is a bright, slightly reddish yellow, dense, soft, malleable, and ductile metal.
It is used for jewelry, dentistry, electronics and a host of other applications. It is the most malleable
metal which increases the way it can be used.

Fig. 5.46. Gold nugget from Australia. Source-Wikipedia

Gypsum

Gypsum is a very soft mineral with a variety of uses, most commonly in drywall, also known as
sheet rock. Gypsum is a soft sulfate mineral composed of calcium sulfate dihydrate, with the
chemical formula CaSO4·2H2O. It is widely mined and is used as a fertilizer and as the main
constituent in many forms of plaster, blackboard/sidewalk chalk, and drywall. It is also used for
road construction.
Fig. 5.47 Gypsum: Lubin, Poland

Halite

Halite (sodium chloride--salt) is used for seasoning food and softening water. Halite, commonly
known as rock salt, is a type of salt, the mineral (natural) form of sodium chloride (NaCl). Halite
forms isometric crystals. It is also used to make certain acids, in fire extinguishers and melting ice
on the road.

Fig. 5.48 Halite (common salt)

Iron Ore

Iron Ore is perhaps as important to civilization today as gold historically has been. Iron ores are
rocks and minerals from which metallic iron can be economically extracted. The ores are usually
rich in iron oxides and vary in colour from dark grey, bright yellow, or deep purple to rusty red.
It is used in all sorts of construction from vehicles to buildings.
Fig. 5.49. Source: Wikipedia

Lead

Lead has a bad reputation for its poisoning capabilities, some of which may have been exaggerated
by fear. Lead is a chemical element with the symbol Pb and atomic number 82. It is a heavy metal
that is denser than most common materials. Lead is soft and malleable, and also has a relatively
low melting point. It cannot be absorbed by the skin or breathing, but it is harmful if it touches
food or drink. It was at one time used in paint, pencils and eating utensils.

Fig. 5.50 A small gray metal cube surrounded by three gray metal nuggets in front of a light gray
background

Lithium

Lithium is used in several applications including medication for bipolar symptoms and batteries.
Lithium is a chemical element with the symbol Li and atomic number 3. It is a soft, silvery-white
alkali metal. Under standard conditions, it is the lightest metal and the lightest solid element.
Lithium has become very popular with the advent of electric cars.

Fig. 5.51 Lithium

Uses of minerals:

Some minerals such as calcium gives structure and strength to bones and teeth. It also helps in
blood clotting, enzyme function, transfer signals to nervous system etc.

Iron is required in transporting oxygen from lungs to other parts of the body. Foods rich in iron
are eggs, dry fruits, red meat etc.

Zinc plays a major role in the body’s immunity. It fights infections and various illness. Foods rich
in zinc are beans, pork, peanuts etc.

Gold is used in computers and other electronics. It is also used in dentistry.

Energy minerals are used to produce electricity, fuel for transportation, heating for homes and
offices and in the manufacture of plastics. Energy minerals include coal, oil, natural gas and
uranium.

Iron (as steel) is used in cars or for frames of buildings, copper is used in electrical wiring, and
aluminium is used in aircraft and to make drink cans. Precious metals are used in jewelry and
mobile phones.

Construction minerals include sand and gravel, brick clay and crushed rock aggregates. They are
used in the manufacture of concrete, bricks and pipes and in building houses and roads.

Industrial minerals are non–metallic minerals used in a range of industrial applications including
the manufacture of chemicals, glass, fertilizers and fillers in pharmaceuticals, plastics and paper.
Industrial minerals include salt, clays, limestone, silica sand, phosphate rock, talc and mica.

MINERAL CONSERVATION
Minerals like iron, gold, diamond, manganese and bauxite are mined from the earths, crust.
Conservation methods include recycling of waste metals in order to reduce the rate of mining and
possible exhaustation and high cost of operation. Recycling also has the advantage of reducing
land pollution caused by scrap metals. It also helps in reducing problems associated with waste
disposal.
There should be restrictions on the use of some minerals as a means of conserving them. Using
less minerals where possible should be encouraged.
Wildlife
Wildlife traditionally refers to undomesticated animal species, but has come to include all
organisms that grow or live wild in an area without being introduced by humans. Wildlife can
also be explained as living things especially mammals, birds, and fishes that are neither human
nor domesticated. Wildlife refers to wild animals and plants living in their natural habitat. It
excludes domestic animals. Wildlife can be found in all ecosystems. Deserts, forests, rainforests,
plains, grasslands, and other areas, including the most developed urban areas, all have distinct
forms of wildlife.
Wildlife traditionally refers to non-domesticated vertebrates, but has come to broadly reference
to all wild plants, animals and other organisms. Examples of wildlife are: turtles, lions, parrots,
pigeons, whales, fishes, elephants etc.
Domesticating wild plant and animal species for human benefit has occurred many times all over
the planet, and has a major impact on the environment, both positive and negative. Wildlife can
be found in all ecosystems. Deserts, forests, rain forests, plains, grasslands, other areas including
the most developed urban sites, all have distinct forms of wildlife as shown in figure 5.52- figure
5.55. While the term in popular culture usually refers to animals that are untouched by human
factors, most scientists agree that wildlife around is affected by human activities. Humans have
historically tended to separate civilization from wildlife in a number of ways including the legal,
social, and moral sense. Religions have often declared certain animals to be sacred, and in modern
times concern for the natural environment has provoked activists to protest the exploitation of
wildlife for human benefit or entertainment.

Fig. 5.52 Female bonobo with a baby is sitting on the grass. Democratic Republic of the Congo.
Africa. Source- GUDKOV ANDREY
Fig. 5.53 Great tiger male in the nature habitat. Source- Wikipedia

Fig. 5.54 Large group of African safari animals composited together in a scene of the grasslands
of Kenya. Source-Royalty-free stock photo.

Fig. 5.55 Tiger of Kabini Source-Royalty-free stock photo

Importance of wildlife
Wildlife, which refers to wild animals and plants in their natural habitat is of great importance to
mankind in various ways.
These include: plants in the forest produce timber for building house, furniture, firewood, charcoal
etc. for man's comfort. Wild plants are used for medicinal purposes, tanning chemical and oils,
pulp for our paper industry, etc. Wildlife plants provide food and shelter for, many animals which
man in turn hunts for food. Wildlife plants tend to increase the amount of rainfall in an area.
Man derives pleasure from observing wild animals in their natural habitat. Many predator wild
animals keep pests in check for man. The game reserves also serve as a source of tourist attraction
and hence generate foreign exchange for the country; eg. Mole game reserve in Ghana.
The game reserves also serve as sources of employment for people.
The beneficial uses or functions of wildlife are numerous. In agriculture, these include not only
the cropping of species growing in the wild but also their potential for future cultivation and role
in such processes as crop pollination and biological control of pests. Wild animals are used in
medicine for essential research; wild plants provide a source of drugs, and wild places can help to
relieve the tension and stress associated with modern living. Wildlife is also a sensitive indicator
of environmental change. Furthermore, research and education in the environmental sciences rely
on the conservation of natural and semi-natural areas. These areas and the species which inhabit
them have considerable aesthetic value and have inspired many great works of art. Finally, there
is a moral argument that all species have the right to exist, and that the options made possible by
the presence of wildlife should be left for future generations to use.
Write any five uses of wildlife in our everyday life.
1. --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
2. --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
3. --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
4. --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
5. --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Let us go through some of the uses of wildlife to see if your answers are correct.
USES of wildlife

Human uses of animals include both practical uses, such as the production of food and clothing,
and symbolic uses, such as in art, literature, mythology, and religion. All of these are elements of
culture, broadly understood. Animals used in these ways include fish, crustaceans, insects,
mollusks, mammals and birds.

Economically, animals provide much of the meat eaten by the human population, whether farmed
or hunted, and until the arrival of mechanized transport, terrestrial mammals provided a large part
of the power used for work and transport. Animals serve as models in biological research, such as
in genetics, and in drug testing.

Many species are kept as pets, the most popular being mammals, especially dogs and cats. These
are often anthropomorphized.

Practical uses

As food

The human population exploits a large number of animal species for food, both of domesticated
livestock species in animal husbandry and, mainly at sea, by hunting wild species.

Marine fish of many species, such as herring, cod, tuna, mackerel and anchovy, are caught
commercially, forming an important part of the diet, including protein and fatty acids, of much of
the world's population. Commercial fish farms concentrate on a smaller number of species,
including salmon and carp. Mammals form a large part of the livestock raised for meat across the
world.

For clothing and textiles

Textiles from the most utilitarian to the most luxurious are made from animal fibres such as wool,
camel hair, angora, cashmere, and mohair. Hunter-gatherers have used animal sinews as lashings
and bindings. Leather from cattle, pigs and other species is widely used to make shoes, handbags,
belts and many other items. Animals have been hunted and farmed for their fur, to make items
such as coats and hats, again ranging from simply warm and practical to the most elegant and
expensive.
For work and transport

Fig. 5.56 Horses pulling wagons in Tibet

Working domestic animals including cattle, horses, yaks, camels, and elephants have been used
for work and transport from the origins of agriculture, their numbers declining with the arrival of
mechanized transport and agricultural machinery. In mountainous regions unsuitable for wheeled
vehicles, pack animals continue to transport goods.

In science

Fig. 5.57 Laboratory mice being prepared for a radiation test at Los Alamos in 1957

Animals such as the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster, the zebrafish, the chicken and the house
mouse, serve a major role in science as experimental models, both in fundamental biological
research, such as in genetics, and in the development of new medicines, which must be tested
exhaustively to demonstrate their safety. Millions of mammals, especially mice and rats, are used
in experiments each year.

In hunting

Animals, and products made from them, are used to assist in hunting. People have used hunting
dogs to help chase down animals such as deer, wolves, and foxes.
Fig. 5.58 A poison dart frog, Phyllobates terribilis, secretes toxins powerful enough to be used to
tip blowpipe darts.

Fig. 5.59 Dayak man hunting with blowpipe

As pets

A wide variety of animals are kept as pets, from invertebrates such as tarantulas and octopuses,
insects including praying mantises, reptiles such as snakes and chameleons, and birds including
canaries, parakeets and parrots all finding a place. However, mammals are the most popular pets
in the Western world, with the most kept species being dogs, cats, and rabbits.

For sport

Fig. 5.60 Recreational fishing

A wide variety of both terrestrial and aquatic animals are hunted for sport.
The aquatic animals most often hunted for sport are fish, including many species from large marine
predators such as sharks and tuna, to freshwater fish such as trout and carp.

Birds such as partridges, pheasants and ducks, and mammals such as deer and wild boar, are among
the terrestrial game animals most often hunted for sport and for food.

Symbolic uses

In art

Animals, often mammals but including fish and insects among other groups, have been the subjects
of art from the earliest times, both historical, as in Ancient Egypt, and prehistoric, as in the cave
paintings.

Fig. 5.61 Source: Wikipedia. Famous images

WILDLIFE CONSERVATION
Human activities and natural disasters in the ecosystem have affected the natural habitats of
animals and plants leading to reduction in their numbers even to the extinction of some of them
with many more being endangered. These human activities include destruction of the forest,
overgrazing, hunting of animals for food, flooding of large areas to provide water supplies as well
as polluting the environment The endangered species are those plants and animals whose
population density has drastically reduced to such an extent that they may no longer exist if not
protected; eg. The West African elephant, The West African ostrich and the grey whale.
National parks and game reserves should be properly managed by enforcing laws on some.
Poaching which is the uncontrolled and unlawful killing of animals in a game reserve, should be
severely punished. Game cropping should rather be practiced in the national parks and game
reserves in order to reduce overpopulation, which can easily destroy the habitat and at the same
time make correct use of resources. Game cropping gets rid of old and unproductive animals.
The laws to be enacted to regulate hunting must seek to preserve endangered species.
It also enables hunting to be done outside the breeding seasons for the animals so that pregnant
animals and those nursing young ones are not killed. Species from other ecosystems should be
used to restock depleted species in other ecosystems; such species should first be monitored by
quarantine them. Public awareness of the importance of wildlife, for example, wildlife clubs be
set up in schools and in communities. The indigenous people should be educated on the importance
of wildlife conservation and its methods. In some communities, hunting is prohibited on some
specific days or times.
SOIL

Soil is a mixture of minerals, gases, organic matter, liquids, and organisms that together support
life. The body of soil, called the pedosphere, has four important functions:

• as a habitat for organisms

• as a means of water storage, supply and purification
• as a medium for plant growth
• as a modifier of Earth's atmosphere

All of the above functions, in their turn, modify the soil.

Soil consists of a solid phase of minerals and organic matter (the soil matrix), as well as a porous
phase that holds gases (the soil atmosphere) and water (the soil solution).

Fig. 5.62 A, B, and C represent the soil profile. A is the topsoil; B is a regolith; C is a saprolite (a
less-weathered regolith); the bottom-most layer represents the bedrock. Source –Wikipedia

Uses

Soil is used in agriculture, where it serves as the anchor and primary nutrient base for plants. The
types of soil and available moisture determine the species of plants that can be cultivated.

Soil material is also a critical component in the mining, construction and landscape development
industries. Soil serves as a foundation for most construction projects.
Geophagy is the practice of eating soil-like substances. Both animals and human cultures
occasionally consume soil for medicinal, recreational, or religious purposes. It has been shown
that some monkeys consume soil, together with their preferred food (tree foliage and fruits), in
order to alleviate tannin toxicity.

Soil provides minerals and water to plants. Soil absorbs rainwater and releases it later, thus
preventing floods and drought. Soil cleans water as it percolates through it. Soil is the habitat for
many organisms.

Organic soils, especially peat, serve as a significant fuel resource; but wide areas of peat
production, such as sphagnum bogs, are now protected because of patrimonial interest.

Soils filter and purify water and affect its chemistry. Rain water and pooled water from ponds,
lakes and rivers percolate through the soil horizons and the upper rock strata, thus becoming
groundwater. Pests (viruses) and pollutants,) oils (hydrocarbons), heavy metals and excess
nutrients are filtered out by the soil.

SOIL CONSERVATION
Soil conservation mainly deals with methods of maintaining soil fertility and methods of
preventing soil erosion. Soil conservation generally refers to the wise use, protects preservation
and careful management of soil in order to maintain its fertility.
Below are some methods of soil conservation;
Avoiding overgrazing: If too many animals are put into a piece of grassland, overgrazing may
result. The animals may also trample on the soil so badly that they may damage it and destroy the
plants trying to grow in it. This leads to erosion since the soil exposed easily washed away by
rain.
Mulching can also protect the soil and reduces water erosion. This is done by covering the soil
with grasses, dried leaves, etc.
Reafforestation is another effective means of soil conservation. The replanting of trees reduces
rushing down of water and therefore prevents soil erosion with the consequent loss of soil
nutrients.
Bush fallowing is a system where farmer grows crops on a piece of land for a period of time; may
be four or five years and then the land is fallowed. The farmer returns to the lane after some years
by which time the land might have regained its nutrients.
Crop rotation also ensures that the soil covered with vegetation all the time and that controls
leaching and erosion. Artificial fertilizers are also added directly to the soil to replace those that
have been lost through cropping.
Terracing and contour ploughing. This is a practice in which cultivation and planting are done
on strips of land with the same height or elevation. By this practice, ploughing is done along the
contours and never down the slopes, to prevent erosion.
Sometimes grass banks or mud banks are constructed across the slopes to help hold water in the
soil.
Activity
1. What are the key natural resources?-----------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Natural resources include: soil, wildlife, forest, sunlight, air, minerals, fossil fuels, oil, coal,
atmosphere, water, land (includes all minerals) including all vegetation, crops and animal life that
naturally subsists upon or within the heretofore identified characteristics and substances
2. What are the uses of natural resources? ------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Ans: Minerals, forest products, water, and soil are just a few of the natural resources that human
beings use to produce energy and make use of things. Within a few years or decades, certain natural
resources can be replicated. These are referred to as renewable resources.
3. How do humans depend on natural resources? ----------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Ans: Living things need the land, water, air, and energy, and they live in places with the things
they need. For all they do, humans use natural resources. Human use of energy and fuels is derived
from natural sources and its use affects the climate.
4. What are the characteristics of natural resources?-------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Ans: On Earth, it requires sunshine, air, water, land (including all minerals) along with all the
plants, crops and animal life which live naturally on or within the characteristics and substances
previously identified.
5. Does recycling save natural resources? -------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Ans: By sustainability, recycling also saves energy and natural resources. We can save natural
resources by using materials more than once. Recycling saves trees and water in the case of paper.
Growing up to 17 trees saves up to one ton of paper from recycled stock and uses 50 percent less
energy.

SUMMARY
Natural resources can be defined as the resources that exist (on the planet) independent of human
actions. A natural resource can also be anything useful which occurs naturally
On earth it includes: sunlight, air, minerals, fossil fuels, oil, coal, atmosphere, water, land (includes
all minerals) including all vegetation, crops and animal life that naturally subsists upon or within
the heretofore identified characteristics and substances.

Biotic resources are obtained from the biosphere (living and organic material), such as forests and
animals, fossil fuels and the materials that can be obtained from them.

Abiotic resources are the resources that come from non-living and non-organic materials.
Examples are fresh water, air land, , rare earth metals and heavy metals including ores, such as,
iron, copper, silver, gold, etc.
The methods of categorizing natural resources are:

7. Source of origin
8. Stage of development
9. Their renewability.

On the basis of renewability, natural resources can be put into main types;

3. Renewable natural resources

4. Non -renewable natural resources
. Potable water is water that is considered to be safe to drink and cook with.
Renewable natural resources are those resources which are mainly living things or the
products from living things which can be used, reused or once used can be replaced
through proper management; for instance resources such as food crops are easily renewed
in short time scales since we do get regular annual harvest from them.
From the human perspective, resources are non-renewable when their rate of consumption
exceeds the rate of replenishment/recovery; a good example of this are fossil fuels, which
are in this category because their rate of formation is extremely slow (potentially millions
of years), meaning they are considered non-renewable.

Some uses of forest are: soil erosion check, fencing, wind breaks and shelter belts, fodder, fuel,
soil improvement etc.

Components of petroleum are separated using a technique called fractional distillation, i.e.
separation of a liquid mixture into fractions differing in boiling point by means of distillation,
typically using a fractionating column.

A mineral can also be defined as any of a class of substance occurring in nature, usually
comprising of inorganic substances, such as quartz or feldspar, of definite chemical composition
and usually of definite crystal structure, but sometimes also including rocks formed by these
substances as well as certain natural products of organic origin, as asphalt or coal.

To meet the definition of "mineral" used by most geologists, a substance must meet five
requirements:

• naturally occurring
• solid
• definite chemical composition
• ordered internal structure
• inorganic

Wildlife can be explained as living things especially mammals, birds, and fishes that are neither
human nor domesticated.
Wildlife traditionally refers to non-domesticated vertebrates, but has come to broadly reference
to all wild plants, animals and other organisms.
Some importance of wildlife include: plants in the forest produce timber for building house,
furniture, firewood, charcoal etc. for man's comfort. Wild plants are used for medicinal purposes,
tanning chemical and oils, pulp for our paper industry, etc.
Wildlife plants provide food and shelter for, many animals which man in turn hunts for food.
Wildlife plants tend to increase the amount of rainfall in an area.
Man derives pleasure from observing wild animals in their natural habitat. Many predator wild
animals keep pests in check for man. The game reserves also serve as a source of tourist attraction
and hence generate foreign exchange for the country; eg. Mole game reserve in Ghana.
The game reserves also serve as sources of employment for people.

Soil is a mixture of minerals, gases, organic matter, liquids, and organisms that together support
life. The body of soil, called the pedosphere, has four important functions:

• as a habitat for organisms

• as a means of water storage, supply and purification
• as a medium for plant growth
• as a modifier of Earth's atmosphere

ACTIVITY
1. What are natural resources?
2. Natural resources are man-made. True /False
3. Write any four natural resources.
4. Mention two genetic resources for human use.
5. Which percentage of water is fresh water?
6. Write four differences between renewable and non-renewable resources
7. List four petroleum-derived products.
8. Name the mineral in the figure below:

9. Name the mineral used in making the pencils used in our schools.

Renewable resource Non-renewable resource

It can be renewed as it is available in Once completely consumed, it cannot be renewed due

infinite quantity to limited stock

Sustainable in nature Exhaustible in nature

Low cost and environment-friendly High cost and less environment-friendly

Replenish quickly Replenish slowly or do not replenish naturally at all

7. Aspirins, crayon, candles, chewing gums, wrinkle resistance, textiles, health and beauty
products etc.
8. Rhodochrosite
9. Graphite
SELF- ASSESSMENT
1. Out of about 2.5% fresh water, which percentage is considered potable water?
2. Explain renewable and non-renewable natural resources with examples.
3. Write five uses of the forest.
4. Explain soil erosion check.
5. Mention four everyday products made from oil (crude oil )
6. In one sentence, briefly explain soil.
7. Write the four importance functions of soil in terms of its body called pedoshere.

The Humane Society of the United States. "U.S. Pet Ownership Statistics". Retrieved 27 April
2012.
Plous, S. (1993). "The Role of Animals in Human Society". Journal of Social Issues. 49 (1): 1–9.
doi:10.1111/j.1540-4560.1993.tb00906.x
SECTION 6
HUMAN ACTIVITIES AND THE ENVIRONMENT
Introduction
My dear student teacher, welcome to the last section of the unit ‘Human and the Environment’. I
trust that you enjoyed the lesson in section 5 on Natural Resources very well. This section is about
Human Activities and the Environment. In this section, we shall discuss human interference in
nature, pollution, major forms of pollution, their causes, effects and control, pollutants, some
notable pollutants and their sources, deforestation and effects of deforestation.
As usual, take your pens, pencils, note books and erasers. Sit beside your writing desk relaxingly
and enjoy this lesson as the previous one.
Learning Objectives

By the end of this section, you will be able to:

1. Discuss human interference in nature.

2. Identify human activities that bring about undesirable change in the natural environment.
3. Explain the term pollution, causes and its effects on the environment.
4. Discuss ways and means of controlling pollution.
5. List and explain some notable pollutants and their sources.
6. Discuss desertification and effect of desertification on the environment.
7. Discuss deforestation and its effects of the environment.
BACKGROUND

Would you be surprised of this statement- ‘The world is going to end tomorrow’! Flabbergasted
right? What if this is true? Maybe not today, but someday and unfortunately, this isn’t something
one can simply joke about.
1. Have you ever asked yourself these questions before? -----------------------------------------
2. Are my activities as an individual on earth destroying my immediate environment? --------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
3. Have you ever gone on a nature walk around your community to find out how you and
your community members are destroying your environment? ----------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
4. What do I do to protect my environment? ---------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Man is causing so much damage all around the world. The atmosphere, water, land and the various
elements of the environment and to the ecosystem itself are all in great danger as a results of man’s
activities. There is so much man-made pollution and environmental degradation that the nightmare
ahead is enough jittery to shake us all.

Taking a synoptic view of the general scenario, a few trends are underway. Since the rate at which
global warming is increasing, there’s no surprise this could actually happen in the near future. Our
atmosphere on the global and regional scale is heavily polluted. The protective ozone shield in the
heavily populated latitudes of the northern hemisphere is thinning twice as fast as scientists thought
a few years ago.

The buildup of greenhouse gases will lead to significant changes in the weather patterns in the near
future leading to global warming. The destruction of ozone layer and the further warming of the
earth surface threaten catastrophic consequences such as eruption of cancerous and tropical
diseases, disruption of oceans food chain, rising of sea levels, submersion of many islands, melting
of small land-based glaciers, flooding in many low lying coastal areas and harvest loss etc.

With the mention of all these destructions, we, humans, are responsible for all of these
environmental effects. But is this the only cause we’re responsible for or are there others? Ever
since humans learned to domesticate animals, grow crops and invent things, to make life more
comfortable for ourselves, we have being destroying our environment. For example, we have been
clearing large areas of natural woodland and forest; that is deforestation. The simple reason being
to clear land, to grow crops but it is also to provide wood for fuel or for building. Wood for fuel
can course air pollution due to the smoke. Construction of roads may increase the amount of dust
in the atmosphere which can cause air pollution.

Let us find out more about the environmental effects of most of these activities caused by humans;
Human Interference in nature
As the rate of the population keeps on increasing day by day, we move nearer towards global
extinction. Since more population means more land and more land means more destruction as we
have read above. Humans are known for their greedy and careless nature. To fulfil their needs,
they will go to any extent to cause very harmful environmental effects. Humans have till date
caused the following destruction in nature:
Mining activities create a lot of dust, causing both land, water and air pollution. Quarrying of
stone, using chemicals for fishing (e.g. DDT) can cause serious water pollution. Building dams on
rivers for hydroelectricity can disturb the natural environment; burning of fossil fuel in vehicles
can produce carbon dioxide and its greenhouse effect, improper disposal of sewage and refuse,
especially into water bodies, can cause serious water pollution.
What then is pollution?
POLLUTION
Pollution is the release of substances or energy into the environment in such amounts that they
cause harm to people and other living organisms. Pollution can also be defined as the introduction
of contaminant/impurities into the natural environment that cause adverse change. Pollution can
take the form of energy /chemical substances, such as light, noise, heat etc.
Pollution has increased momentously with the growth in human population and industrialization.
With the rise of human population, there is a parallel increase in human waste products which
cannot be destroyed as fast as they are produced and so accumulate, making the environment less
hospitable to man and other organisms. The growth of cities and the growth of industrialization
with the increasing need for houses, roads, goods and services have greatly increased the rate of
pollution. The use of fossil fuel, this time as the raw material for the manufacture of many artificial
polymers (collectively known as plastics), has also contributed to solid waste pollution.
Construction of road and houses, resulting in the destruction of forests, creating earsplitting noise,
dust and smoke, by man is a major contributing factor to pollution.

POLLUTANT

Pollutants are the contaminants that get introduced into the natural environment, beyond permitted
limits, and cause deleterious effects to the inhabitants in a visible way. Pollutants can also be
defined as any substance or energy introduced into the environment that has undesired effects, or
adversely affects the usefulness of a resource. A pollutant may cause long- or short-term damage
by changing the growth rate of plant or animal species, or by interfering with human amenities,
comfort, health, or property values. Some pollutants are biodegradable and therefore will not
persist in the environment in the long term. Figure 6.1 talks about dispersal of air pollutants during
normal thermal conditions in the atmosphere and during a thermal inversion

Some notable pollutants are:

• Mercury (Hg)
• Persistent organic pollutants POPs)
• Environmental Persistent Pharmaceutical Pollutants (EPPP)
• Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons(PAHs)
• Volatile organic compounds (VOCs)
• Ozone (Ozone)
• Particulate matter (PM)
Fig. 6.1 Dispersal of air pollutants during normal thermal conditions in the atmosphere and during
a thermal inversion

Sources of Pollutants

Sources of pollutants can be grouped into;

1. Primary
2. Secondary

Primary pollutants are substances that are released into the atmosphere directly from the polluting
source. They are mostly derived from the combustion of fossil fuels. Petrol engines that ignite the
fuel in an oxygen-restricted environment produce varying quantities of carbon monoxide, nitrogen
oxides and hydrocarbons such as benzene and polycyclic aromatic compounds.

Secondary pollutants are the pollutants formed as a result of the chemical or physical interactions
between the primary pollutants themselves or between the primary pollutants and other
atmospheric components. Major examples of secondary pollutants are photochemical oxidants and
secondary particulate matter. Nitric oxide (NO) produced from vehicle engines is quickly
converted to nitrogen dioxide, and in doing so may react with ozone, reducing the atmospheric
concentration of the latter. Alternatively, when exposed to sunlight in the lower atmosphere both
NO and NO2 react with oxygen to produce ozone (O3).
Major forms of pollution

Major forms of pollution include: Radioactive contamination, thermal pollution, visual pollution,
water pollution, air pollution, light pollution, littering, noise pollution, plastic pollution, soil
contamination etc.

Air Pollution

Air pollution occurs when harmful or excessive quantities of substances are introduced into
Earth's atmosphere. An air pollutant is a material in the air that can have adverse effects on
humans and the ecosystem. The substance can be solid particles, liquid droplets, or gases. The rate
of air pollution is increasing by each passing day due to human interference and it’s no surprise
that it will now soon hit the peak or already has hit. Air pollutants may be transported long
distances in the air causing adverse effects on the environment.

Air pollution caused by air pollutants have a negative effect on plants as they tend to change the
pH levels of the soil, solubilizing toxic salts of metals like Aluminium. Oxides of sulphur and
nitrogen are emitted into the atmosphere by combustion of fossil fuels. Later these gases convert
into acidic precipitation or rain drop which form acidic rain and infect plants and other forms of
vegetation thereby making the food we eat harmful and toxic materials. Fig. 6.2 is a schematic
drawing of causes and effects of air pollution.

Fig. [Link] drawing of causes and effects of air pollution: (1) greenhouse effect, (2)
particulate contamination, (3) increased UV radiation, (4) acid rain, (5) increased ground-level
ozone concentration, (6) increased levels of nitrogen oxides.
Source of image- Wikipedia.
Causes and Effects of Air Pollution
Causes of air pollution includes:
• Sulphur dioxide
• chlorofluorocarbon (CFC)
• Carbon dioxide
• Smoke
• Smog
• Radiation
• Dust
• Noise
• lead

Fig. 6.3 Air pollution Source- Wikipédia.

Sulphur dioxide (SO2)
Sulphur dioxide (SO2): This is a toxic gas which is released into the atmosphere when fossil fuels
are burnt from exhaust pipes of vehicles, iron industries, electricity generating stations, coal
mines, etc. SO2 is also produced by volcanoes and in various industrial processes. Coal and
petroleum often contain sulfur compounds, and their combustion generates sulfur dioxide. The
sulphur dioxide dissolves in rain water to form weak sulphuric acid which is acid rain. Acid rain
is common in industrial areas in the cities.

Fig. 6.4 Air pollution in the US, 1973

Source- Wikipedia. Air pollution
Fig. 6.5 Before flue-gas desulfurization was installed, the emissions from this power plant in New
Mexico contained excessive amounts of sulfur dioxide.
Acid rains cause major alteration in the ecosystem and damage buildings by speeding up corrosion
of metals.
Acid rains due to sulphur dioxide reduce the pH of water bodies to levels unsustainable for aquatic
life. Acid rain leaches magnesium and calcium from soils and from damaged leaves. Eventually
aluminum, manganese and heavy metals such as iron and cadmium come into the solution and
may reach toxic concentrations causing damage to tree roots and the breakdown of mycorrhizas.
This decreases the capacity of the tree to take in water and nutrient. Sulphur dioxide reacting with
water to form sulphuric acid in the atmosphere aggravates bronchitis and other breathing
complaints.
Carbon dioxide
Carbon dioxide: Carbon dioxide is released from motor vehicles' exhaust and the burning of fossil
fuels in factories and power stations. Plants and animals release carbon dioxide into the
atmosphere through respiration.
Bacteria and fungi cause decay of dead bodies of plants and animals, and animals’ excretory matter
(their respiration) releases large quantities of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. Burning oil,
coal and gas are other sources of carbon dioxide. The gas is also given off in small amounts from
volcanoes and mineral springs.
Because of its role as a greenhouse gas, it has been described as "the leading pollutant" and "the
worst climate pollutant".

How does CO2 trap heat?--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

The three elements of CO2 are only loosely connected to each other. They vibrate vigorously when
radiant heat passes by. It captures the heat and prevents it from going into space. They act like the
glass roof on a greenhouse that traps the sun's heat.

Nature emits 230 gigatons of CO2 into the atmosphere each year. But it keeps it in balance by
reabsorbing that same amount through plant photosynthesis. Plants harness the sun’s energy to
make sugar. They combine carbon from CO2 with hydrogen from water. They emit oxygen as a
by-product. The ocean also absorbs CO2. This balance changed 10,000 years ago when humans
began burning wood. By 1850, the CO2 level had risen to 278 parts per million. The term 278 ppm
means there are 278 molecules of CO2 per million molecules of total air. The pace increased after
1850 when we began burning oil, kerosene, and gasoline.

These fossil fuels are the remains of prehistoric plants. The fuel contains all the carbon the plants
absorbed during photosynthesis. When they burn, the carbon combines with oxygen and enters the
atmosphere as CO2.

It would take 35,000 years for Nature to absorb the extra CO2 we have added. That’s if we stopped
emitting all CO2 immediately. We must remove these 2.3 trillion tons of "legacy CO2" to stop
further climate change. Otherwise, the CO2 will warm the planet to where it was during the
Pliocene.

In 2005, China became the world's largest emitter. It's been building coal and other power plants
to improve its residents' standard of living. As a result, it emits 30% of the total per year. The
United States is next, at 15%. India contributes 7%, Russia adds 5%, and Japan at 4%. All told,
the five largest emitters add 60% of the world's carbon. If these top polluters could stop
emissions and expand renewable technology, the other countries wouldn't really need to be
involved.

EFFECTS OF CARBON DIOXIDE IN THE ATMOSPHERE

In poorly ventilated areas, it may cause headaches and tiredness in humans. A rise in the
concentration of carbon dioxide may increase the rate of photosynthesis and hence increase plant
productivity. In recent times, there is increasing concentration of carbon dioxide in the
atmosphere, which is worrying because of its greenhouse effect. Carbon dioxide, while vital for
photosynthesis, is sometimes referred to as pollution, because raised levels of the gas in the
atmosphere are affecting the Earth's climate. Disruption of the environment can also highlight the
connection between areas of pollution that would normally be classified separately, such as those
of water and air. Recent studies have investigated the potential for long-term rising levels of
atmospheric carbon dioxide to cause slight but critical increases in the acidity of ocean waters,
and the possible effects of this on marine ecosystems.
Deforestation and bad farming practices are also contributing to the increasing level of carbon
dioxide in the atmosphere. Excess carbon dioxide in the atmosphere prevents heat released from
the surface of the earth from escaping into space and this warms the atmosphere; this is called
greenhouse effect which leads to global warming (note that carbon dioxide is transparent to
incoming short wave radiations from the sun but absorbs the long wave radiations which the earth
radiates into space strongly. This absorbed radiation consequently warms the earth, causing the
greenhouse. Carbon dioxide levels, together with other greenhouse gases like carbon monoxide,
methane and chlorofluorocarbons (CFC), are rapidly increasing which may lead to increasingly
warmer surface environment called enhanced house effect. This may in turn lead to increased
evaporation and greater atmospheric water vapour content, resulting in increased surface
temperatures.
By the time the increased temperatures would cause changes in the distribution pattern and
intensity of the major planetary weather system, this would affect human activities and the
distribution of organisms.

Control of carbon dioxide

In 2018, CO2 emissions increased by 2.7%. That's worse than the 1.6% rise in 2017. The increase
brings emissions to a record high of 37.1 billion tons. China increased by 4.7%. Trump's trade war
is slowing its economy. As a result, leaders are allowing coal plants to run more to boost
production.

Transportation emits 29%, electricity generation 28%, and manufacturing 22%. Businesses and
homes emit 11.6% for heating and handling waste. Farming emits 9% from cows and soil.
Managed forests absorb 11% of U.S. greenhouse gases.

Looking at the above statistics, the world must bring out a serious legislation on how to control
the emission of carbon dioxide and the use of other alternative energy.

Oxides of Nitrogen

Oxides of Nitrogen: Like sulphuric acid, this gas is produced from motor vehicles exhaust fumes,
burning fuel in power stations and factories, etc. They produce acid rains. In gaseous form some
are poisonous to plants and may also cause eye irritations.
Chlorofluoro carbons
Chlorofluoro carbons: These are groups of chemicals including carbon tetrachloride and
chloroform which are commonly used as solvent aerosol propellants and refrigerator coolants.
These chlorofluorocarbons are not easily broken down in the atmosphere. They diffuse high into
the stratosphere where they are broken down by sunlight into fluorine and chlorine. These react
with the ozone; thus decreasing the thickness of the ozone layer. The ozone layer high in the
atmosphere absorbs short wave radiations which are harmful to living organisms by damaging
their genetic materials. The reduced ozone layer also not absorb much of the ultra violet radiation
and over exposure to it may cause skin cancer and sunburn; reducing the layer could also alter
global weather pattern.

Ozone-layer Depletion
One of the major problems caused by air pollution is the depletion of the Ozone layer which has
given rise to global warming. Ozone is found in the stratosphere of the atmosphere. The ozone
layer protects the earth from the harmful radiations given out by the sun. It absorbs the radiations
from the sun thereby preventing it from entering the earth’s atmosphere. Ozone is a form of
oxygen, which is away from the earth’s surface at a height of about 20 to 30 km in the atmosphere.
It is scattered in the stratosphere in the form of a layer about three millimeter thick. This layer
works as a shield to protect the earth against the ultraviolet radiation that comes from the sun. Near
the earth’s surface, ozone is an increasingly troublesome pollutant but it is also as important to life
as oxygen itself. If this layer disappears or thins, all terrestrial life will be annihilated. The thinning
and depletion of the ozone layer has generated global concern during the last few years.
This is due to several chemical pollutants discharged by industries and produced through other
chemical reactions. The main cause of the ozone depletion is generally attributed to the
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) which are mostly produced by highly industrialized developed
countries. CFCs is a source of energy which is needed most in the modern life.
It is found in many household implements and products. When it is released into the air, it
accumulates in the upper atmosphere which destroys the ozone layer. The depletion of ozone layer
is linked to both ‘greenhouse effect’ and the phenomenon of ‘global warming’.
The phenomenon commonly known as ‘greenhouse effect’ occurs due to the emission of certain
gaseous pollutants (methane, CFCs, water vapour and carbon dioxide are known as greenhouse
gases) in the air which after the heating of the atmosphere causes the average global temperature
to rise. This is known as ‘global warming’.
Emission of CFCs alongside low temperatures is the major cause of ozone layer depletion.
Other factors responsible for this depletion are hydro-chloro–fluro-carbons (HCFCs) and volatile
organic compounds. These compounds maintain themselves as long as they’re in the lower
atmosphere but react and breakdown on exposure to UV rays in the stratosphere. All these factors
combined lead to ozone layer depletion.

Fig. 6. 6 Effects of Ozone Layer Depletion

Effect of ozone layer depletion
Ozone layer depletion has numerous effects on human health and the environment. Some of the
effects are;
Exposure to UV rays can lead to skin cancer and its several types, like Melanoma, cell carcinoma
and basal.
Direct exposure to UV rays can also lead to many eye-related issues such as Cataract problems,
snow blindness or even Photo keratitis.
One’s immune system can be deteriorated because of exposure to UV rays; since increased
temperatures weaken the immune system response.
Exposure to UV rays can also lead to ageing of the skin, making one look much older than he/she
actually is.
Exposure to UV rays can also cause respiratory diseases such as chest pain, difficulty in breathing
or even throat irritation.
Ozone layer depletion also affects other living beings such as animals. Because of increasing
temperature, other organisms are starting to become extinct.
Ozone layer depletion also affects the marine life as exposure to UV rays warms the water leading
to drying up of water bodies.
Volatile organic compounds (VOC) – VOCs are a well-known outdoor air pollutant. They are
categorized as either methane (CH4) or non-methane (NMVOCs). Methane is an extremely
efficient greenhouse gas which contributes to enhance global warming. Other hydrocarbon VOCs
are also significant greenhouse gases because of their role in creating ozone and prolonging the
life of methane in the atmosphere. This effect varies depending on local air quality.
Prevention of ozone layer depletion
The prevention of ozone layer depletion is not a local, regional or national problem but a global
problem and requires solution at the global level itself. It is only through the combined efforts of
the people of this planet that we can, if not fully solve, at least, minimize these environmental
problems.
The scientific and technological progress in many ways has improved the quality of human life
but at the same time it is also responsible for the depletion of resources, excessive use of fossil
fuels, deforestation and desertification, loss of fertility of soil, changes in atmospheric conditions
resulting into serious problems like greenhouse effect depletion of ozone layer and global
warming.
A limit or a banned placed on the production of CFCs.
As CFCs are mostly used by developed (industrialized) nations, it is their primary duty to check
the ozone depletion. Industrialized countries represent about 20 per cent of the humanity but they
utilize over 80 per cent of the world energy.
Smoke
It is one of the pollutants of air. It is produced from factory burnings, coal burning, burning of
bushes/forests etc. In certain conditions, smoke stays close to the ground where it combines with
fog to form smog. It is caused by a layer of warm air developing above a region of colder air. The
warm layer above prevents the colder air from rising or escaping creating temperature inversion.
Effects of smoke /smog
It can reduce visibility for both pedestrians and motorists. Dense smoke can reduce the amount of
sunlight reaching plants; thus reducing photosynthesis and consequently reducing plant yield,
especially citrus fruits. Tar in cigarette smoke causes lung cancer, bronchitis and heart diseases.
Methane

Methane is a chemical compound with the chemical formula CH4 (one atom of carbon and four
atoms of hydrogen). The relative abundance of methane on Earth makes it an attractive fuel,
although capturing and storing it poses challenges due to its gaseous state under normal conditions
for temperature and pressure. Methane traps heat 25 times greater than an equal amount of CO2.
But it dissipates after 10 to 12 years. CO2 lasts for 200 years.

Methane comes from three primary sources. The production and transport of coal, natural gas, and
oil make up 39%. Cow digestion contributes another 27%, while manure management adds 9%.
The decay of organic waste in municipal solid waste landfills kicks in 16%.

Solutions

Researchers found adding seaweed to the cows' diet reduce methane emissions. The seaweed diet,
if proven successful, would be an inexpensive solution. The Environmental Protection Agency has
launched the Landfill Methane Outreach Program to help reduce methane from landfills. The
program helps municipalities use the biogas as a renewable fuel.

Nitrous Oxide

Nitrous oxide (N2O), contributes 6% of greenhouse gas emissions. It remains in the atmosphere
for 114 years. It absorbs 300 times the heat of a similar amount of CO2.

It is produced by agricultural and industrial activities. It's also a byproduct of fossil fuel and solid
waste combustion. More than two-thirds results from its use in fertilizer. Farmers can reduce
nitrous oxide emissions by reducing nitrogen-based fertilizer use.

Fluorinated Gases

Fluorinated Gases are thousands of times more dangerous than an equal amount of CO2. Because
they are so potent, they are called High Global Warming Potential Gases. Hydro fluorocarbons
are used as refrigerants. They replaced chlorofluorocarbons that were depleting the protective
ozone layer in the atmosphere. Hydro fluorocarbons, though, are also being replaced
by hydrofluoroolefins. These have a shorter lifespan. Perfluorocarbons are emitted during
aluminum production and the manufacturing of semiconductors. They remain in the atmosphere
between 2,600 and 50,000 years. They are 7,390 to 12,200 times more potent than CO2. The EPA
is working with the aluminum and semiconductor industries to reduce the use of these gases.

Sulfur hexafluoride is used in magnesium processing, semiconductor manufacturing, and as a

tracer gas for leak detection. It's also used in electricity transmission. It’s the most dangerous
greenhouse gas. It remains in the atmosphere for 3,200 years and is 22,800 times as potent as CO2.
The EPA is working with power companies to detect leaks and recycle the gas.
Nitrogen trifluoride remains in the atmosphere for 740 years. It is 17,200 times more potent than
CO2.

Control of global warming

The following are some measures to control global warming:

• Enjoy a plant-based diet with less beef. Monoculture crops to feed cows causes
deforestation. Those forests would have absorbed 39.3 gigatons of CO2. Beef production
creates 50% of global emissions.
• Reduce food wastage. The Drawdown Coalition estimated that 26.2 gigatons of CO2
emissions would be avoided if food wastage was reduced by 50%.
• Pressure corporations to disclose and act on their climate-related risks. Since 1988, 100
companies are responsible for more than 70% of greenhouse gas emissions. The worst are
ExxonMobil, Shell, BP, and Chevron. These four companies contribute 6.49% alone.
• Cut down fossil-fuel usage. Where available, use more mass transit, biking, and electric
vehicles. Or keep your car but maintain it. Keep the tires inflated, change the air filter, and
drive under 60 miles per hour.
• Avoid products using palm oil. Carbon-rich swamps and forests are cleared for its
plantations.
• Plant trees and other vegetation to halt deforestation.
• Become carbon neutral.
• Hold the government accountable. Each year, $2 trillion is invested in building new
energy infrastructure.
• The world must enact laws that can control the release of gases that lead to global
warming.

Controlling air pollution

• Carbon dioxide pollution can be reduced by planting more trees which will use carbon
dioxide for photosynthesis.
• People can be educated on the dangers of smoking cigarette and if possible there could be
a ban on public smoking.
• Exhaust control systems fitted to motor vehicles should be encouraged to reduce the
emission of oxides of nitrogen.
• The use of sulphur-free fuel like natural gas and also by providing filters and absorbers to
remove pollutants from the waste gases factories should be encouraged to reduce the
production of sulphur dioxides.
• There should be a parliamentary act to make it illegal to burn coal and other smoky fuels
in industrial areas, except it is in circumstances, to reduce the amount of smog.
• Pollution by lead can be reduced using lead free petrol and paint to reduce the release of
these compounds.
Activity
• Look at the image below and describe it and tell me how this can affect your life directly
or indirectly.
Fig. 6.7 Municipal solid waste (MSW) on a beach. Source-Encyclopedia Britannica

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
In two words, give a general name for the figure above. -------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
If your answer is land pollution, good job. If you didn’t get it, don’t worry, we shall discuss it into
detailed.
What then is land pollution?----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
LAND POLLUTION
Land pollution is the deposition of solid or liquid waste materials on land or underground in a
manner that can contaminate the soil and groundwater, threaten public health, and cause unsightly
conditions and nuisances. Land pollution can also be explained as the degradation or destruction
of the Earth’s surface and soil, directly or indirectly as a result of human activities.
Fig 6.8 land pollution. Source -Conserve energy future
Causes of land pollution
The growth of human population through the development of medical services has resulted in the
use of vast stretches of land and consequently its pollution. Mechanize farming and bad land
cultivation practices have contributed greatly to land pollution.
Sand mining and quarrying activities continue to destroy the landscape. Other pollutant of the
land include using chemicals, pesticides etc. Other pollutants include dumping of plastic on
vegetation of the land, glass and other refuse such as abandoned cars, empty milk tins broken
chairs etc. There are also bushfires and indiscriminate cutting down of tree, overgrazing by
animals, etc.
Growing the same crop year after year brings about disadvantages to the land with yearly
ploughing and repeated use of artificial fertilizer. It can spoil the texture of the soil making it fine
and dusty. As a result the soil may be blown about by the wind and this can lead to erosion.
Below is a summary of the causes of land pollution:

• Industrialization
• Construction activities
• Nuclear waste
• Deforestation
• Land conversion
• Agricultural activities
• Sewage treatment
• Mining activities
• Overloaded landfills
Industrialization

Due to an escalation in demand for food, shelter, factories and house, more goods are produced
and this lead to deforestation. The inappropriate disposal of waste from this industrialization can
lead to the destruction and contamination of our natural lands.

Construction activities

As a result of urbanization, a large number of construction activities are taking place which has
resulted in large waste articles like wood, metal, bricks, plastic that can be seen by naked eyes
outside any building or office which is under construction.

Nuclear waste

Nuclear plants can produce a huge amount of energy through nuclear fission and fusion. Nuclear
waste contains harmful and toxic chemicals that can affect human health. They are dumped
beneath the earth to avoid any casualty.

Deforestation

Deforestation carried out to create dry lands for construction purposes or industrialization. This is
one of the leading causes of land pollution and it causes for a major concern. Land that is once
converted into dry or barren land, can never be made fertile again, whatever the magnitude of
measures to redeem it is.

Land conversion

Land conversion, simply put is the alteration or modification of the original properties of the land
to make it use-worthy for a specific purpose. This in a way causes more harm than good and is
another major cause of land pollution. This hampers the land immeasurably.

Agricultural activities

As population grow around the world, the demand for food continue to increase and this result in
the usage of toxic fertilizers and pesticides by farmers to get rid of insects, fungi and bacteria from
their crops to meet this growing demand. However with the overuse of these chemicals, they result
in contamination and poisoning of soil.

Sewage treatment

A large amount of solid waste is leftover once the sewage has been treated. The leftover material
is sent to landfill site which end up in polluting the environment.
Mining activities
During extraction and mining activities, several land spaces are created beneath the surface. We
constant hear about land caving in; this is nothing but nature’s way of filling the spaces left out
after mining or extraction activity.
Overloaded landfills

You will bear with me that each and every house generate tonnes of refuse. The garbage can be
plastics, metals, paper, aluminium, wood, cloth, leftovers etc. Some of these items such as plastics,
metals, paper, aluminium etc. can be recycled and sent to the local recycling unit but others cannot.
Items that cannot be recycled become a part of the landfills that hampers the beauty of the city and
cause land pollution.

Land pollution
Effects of land pollution

1. Causes air pollution

2. Distraction for tourists
3. Soil pollution
4. Environmental impact
5. Effect on human health
6. Effect on wildlife
7. Change in climate patterns

Causes air pollution

The burning of overfilled landfills across the city leads to air pollution. This can bring about a
number of respiratory diseases to humans.

Distraction for tourists

The city loses its attraction as a tourist destination as landfills and beaches do not look good when
you move around the city. It leads to a loss of revenue for the government. Technological
development, which led to the constant use of chain saws, bulldozers and dynamite cause a lot of
damage to the soil. The use of sophisticated mining techniques have damaged the land and its
beautiful scenery and replaced with heaps of the waste material. Stone quarries disfigure the
landscape and create gorges in it, destroying the forest; hence destroying the habitat of game and
wildlife.
Soil pollution

Soil pollution / land pollution is the destruction of the upper layer of the soil This is caused by the
overuse of chemical fertilizers, soil erosion caused by running water and other pest control
measures; this leads to loss of fertile land for agriculture, forest cover, fodder patches for grazing,
etc.

Environmental impact

When deforestation is committed, the tree cover is compromised and as a result of this, there is a
steep imbalance in the rain cycle. Trees and plants help balance the atmosphere. Without them we
are subjected to various concerns like the greenhouse effect, irregular rainfall, Global warming
and flash floods among other imbalances. A disturbed rain cycle affects the green cover.

Effect on human health

Contaminated land as a result of toxic chemicals can lead to a number of health issues such as skin
cancer and the human respiratory system. The toxic chemicals can reach our body through foods
and vegetables that we eat as they are grown in polluted soil. The polluted land as a result of
overfilled landfill become home for rodents, mice, etc. and this in turn transmit diseases.

Effect on wildlife

The animal kingdom is the most affected when it comes to land pollution as they face a serious
threat with regards to the loss of habitat and natural environment. As humans constantly use the
land due to urbanization, it destroys the natural habitat of other species and force them to relocate
and adapt to new regions or die trying to adjust. Several species are pushed to the verge of
extinction, due to no homeland.

Change in climate patterns

The effects of land pollution are very hazardous and can lead to the loss of ecosystems. When land
is polluted, it directly or indirectly affects the climate patterns.

Controlling land pollution:

• Reduce the use of pesticides and fertilizers in agricultural activities.

• Avoid buying packages items as they will lead to garbage and end up in the landfill site.
• Household refuse collected in open lorries should be strictly covered with a net to prevent
it from scattering on the streets.
• The refuse should be separated into biodegradable and nonbiodegradable parts such that
the biodegradable should be dumped into pits and covered with sand to rot. The non-
biodegradable ones like plastics and polythene can be recycled.
• Buy biodegradable products.
• Do organic gardening and eat organic food that will be grown without the use of pesticides.
• Create dumping ground away from residential areas.
• Make people aware of the concept of Reduce, Recycle and Reuse
• Old quarries and pits should be filled and then covered with sand. Close incinerators
should be used to burn refuse; instead of at open places.
• Discarded motor cycles, and other discarded metals should be sent to the appropriate steel
works for recycling.
• The use of artificial fertilizers should be replaced by using organic- manure.
• Sewage should be properly disposed, regulations on the use of insecticides and pesticides
should be enforced.
• Laws must be set up to discourage large scale burning of vegetation

Noise Pollution
Noise is sound that is unpleasant, irritating and may he damaging to the ear. Noise can be measured
with a sound meter and expressed in decibel.
Causes of noise pollution include loud noise from industries, road traffic, loud sound systems,
sounds from blacksmiths' anvils, noise from air crafts taking off etc.
Effect of Noise
If loud noise falls consistently on the ear drum, it can damage or weaken It and can cause headache.
It can also damage the inner sensory cells; leading to deafness
Controlling Noise Pollution:
The use of ear-plugs should be encouraged in residential areas; and institutions learning should be
sited away from residential areas.
Water pollution

Fig. 6.9 water pollution

Look at the image in figure 6.9 and describe water pollution.--------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------Water pollution is a type of
pollution which occurs when harmful substances such as chemicals, microorganisms, untreated
sewage discharged, refuse, industrial waste like detergents dyes, mercury compounds, cyanide,
crude oil spills from oil tankers or an offshore oil rig etc. from domestic homes and industries as
a result of human activities contaminate a stream, river, lake, ocean, aquifer, or other body of
water, degrading water quality and rendering it toxic to humans or the natural environment.

Point source pollution at a shipyard in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. Source-Wekipedia

Types of water pollution
Surface water pollution
Surface water pollution includes pollution of rivers, lakes and oceans. A subset of surface water
pollution is marine pollution.
Marine pollution
This is when contaminants are released into the ocean.
Groundwater pollution
This is the release of contaminant into groundwater. Causes of groundwater pollution include:
naturally-occurring (geogenic), on-site sanitation systems, sewage, fertilizers and pesticide,
commercial and industrial leaks, hydraulic fracturing and landfill leachate.
2. Non-point source- refers to diffuse contamination that does not originate from a single discrete
source. This type of pollution is often the cumulative effect of small amounts of contaminants
gathered from a large area. A common example is the leaching out of nitrogen compounds from
fertilized agricultural lands. Nutrient runoff in storm water from "sheet flow" over an agricultural
field or a forest are also cited as examples of non-point source pollution

Causes of water pollution

The causes of water pollution include a wide range of chemicals and pathogens as well as physical
parameters. Contaminants may include organic and inorganic substances. Elevated temperatures
can also lead to polluted water. A common cause of thermal pollution is the use of water as a
coolant by power plants and industrial manufacturers. Elevated water temperatures decrease
oxygen levels, which can kill fish and alter food chain composition, reduce species biodiversity,
and foster invasion by new thermophilic species.
Effects of Water Pollution

Water pollution kills. Contaminated water can also make you ill. Even swimming can pose a risk.
People can contract health issues such as skin rashes, pinkeye, respiratory infections, and hepatitis
from sewage-laden coastal waters.

If untreated sewage is put into a river or lake, it is decomposed by bacteria which quickly multiply.
The bacteria use up so much oxygen that there is not enough for the fish and other animals which
suffocate and die. In the same way when a lot of fertilizer or farm wastes is drained into a river, it
provides a lot of nitrate for algae to feed on and hence multiply. The water thus turns green.
This great growth of algae is called eutrophication, a process in which bacteria multiply and use
up all the oxygen in the water.

Fig. 6.1. Harmful algal blooms

Untreated sewage if contaminated with pathogens will help to spread disease causing organisms.
Polluted water reduces the quality of water and introduced undesirable odour into the water. Oil
spilled into the sea from a tanker or offshore oil rig forms thick layers which floats on the surface
of the sea. The slick or thick layer may be carried by ocean currents into the coast which destroys
the beaches for holiday makers and can also kill fish and seabirds.
CONTROLLING WATER POLLUTION
In controlling water pollution the following measures must be considered;
• Raw sewage must be treated before it is allowed into rivers or the sea. The liquid which
remains at the end of treatment should be almost free organic matter and safe to be
discharged into rivers.
• Farmers must be encouraged to use more natural organic materials, such as manure to
reduce the amount of nitrates which drain into water bodies when rain falls due to
inorganic fertilizers.
• Biodegradable refuse or rubbish should be buried to be decomposed by bacteria and fungi.
This will reduce the incidence of being drained into water bodies.
• There must be laws and regulations to control the discharge of industrial waste into river.
• Fishermen must be educated to ensure maximum precaution to prevent oil spillage into
the high seas.
• Governments must establish waste disposal boards and the navy must be well equipped
to monitor our water regularly, especially to check oil spillage or the high seas.
• Manmade wells, bore holes, should be sited far away from latrines.
• The ground around the mouth of the well should be covered with water proof concrete to
a distance of about two meters to prevent drainage of surface water into the well.

Thermal Pollution
Thermal pollution is caused by hot water discharged into rivers and lakes in large quantities from
factories and power stations. It arises as a result of using the water as coolant in industrial
processes such as in electricity generating plants.
Effects of thermal pollution
Water from generating plants may be warmer than the river water; warm water has reduced
dissolved oxygen content which can adversely affect fishes at the point of entry. At the same time,
the increased warmth raises the metabolic rate of organisms in the water and this increases their
oxygen demand.
Desertification:
Desertification is defined as a process of land degradation in arid, semi-arid and sub-humid areas
due to various factors including climatic variations and human activities. Or, to put it in another
way, desertification results in persistent degradation of dryland and fragile ecosystems due to man-
made activities and variations in climate. There is no environmental problem in the world that
affects people, especially poor people, as extensively as land degradation or desertification.
UNCOD defines desertification as ‘the diminution or destructing of the biological potential of
land, which can ultimately led to the desert-like conditions’.
Fig 6.12 a desert
Causes of desertification
The major causes of desertification are overgrazing, deforestation, farming practices, urbanization
and other types of land development, climate change and stripping the land of resources.

Overgrazing: If there are too many animals that are overgrazing in certain spots, it makes it
difficult for the plants to grow back, which hurts the biome and makes it lose its former green
glory.

Deforestation: the construction of houses, industries etc. as a result of urbanization lead to

the destruction of even virgin forest in order to get a clear land for such activities. Without the
plants (especially the trees) around, the rest of the biome cannot thrive.

Farming Practices: most farmers during farming activities may essentially strip the land of
everything that it has before moving on to another plot of land. By doing so, the soil losses most
of its nutrients and desertification becomes more and more inevitable.

Urbanization and other types of land development. As mentioned above, development can
cause people to go through and kill the plant life. As areas become more urbanized, there are fewer
places for plants to grow, thus causing desertification.

Effect of desertification

Farming becomes next to impossible. If an area becomes a desert, then it’s almost impossible to
grow substantial crops there without special technologies. This can cost a lot of money to try and
do, so many farmers will have to sell their land and leave the desert areas.

Hunger: as a result of desertification, farmers cannot farm and produce food to be used by both
humans and animals. This will lead to food shortage and hunger is unavoidable.

Flooding: Without the plant life in an area, flooding is a lot more eminent. Not all deserts are dry;
those that are wet could experience a lot of flooding because there is nothing to stop the water
from gathering and going all over the place.
Poor Water Quality: the water quality in a desert is very low as a result of the absence of
plant life which plays a significant role in keeping the water clean and clear; without its presence,
it becomes a lot more difficult for you to be able to do that.

Overpopulation: the absence of plants live in an area causes humans and animal tomove to areas
where they can get food to eat. This movement causes crowding and overpopulation, which will
end up continuing the cycle of desertification.

Poverty: Without food and water, it becomes harder for people to thrive. Majority of the people
in developing world are farmers. Absence of quality land for farming means no jobs for the people
and then poverty is the end result.

Control of Desertification

Laws and regulations. Laws and regulations must be put in place to protect lands.

Education: people must be educated on sustainable practices to save the land from becoming a
desert.

Putting Together Rehabilitation Efforts. There are some ways that we can go back and
rehabilitate the land that we’ve already pushed into desertification; it just takes some investment
of time and money. By putting these together, we can prevent the issue from becoming even more
widespread in the areas that have already been affected.

Sustainable practices to prevent desertification from happening. A number of sustainable

practices can be applied to those acts that may be causing desertification. By adding these to what
we should be doing with land, we can ensure that we don’t turn the entire world into a desert.

Deforestation:

Fig. 6.13 Deforestation of Brazil's Atlantic Forest c.1820–1825

Look at figure 6. 13 and describe deforestation.------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Deforestation/ clearance/ clear-cutting is the removal of a forest or stand of trees from land
which is then converted to a non-forest use. Deforestation can involve conversion of forest land to
farms, ranches, or urban use. Deforestation can also be explain as the permanent removal of trees
to make room for something besides forest. This can include clearing the land for agriculture or
grazing, or using the timber for fuel, construction or manufacturing.

Fig. 6.14Experts estimate that a chunk of forest the size of a soccer field is lost every second to
deforestation.
(Image: © Shutterstock)

Deforestation is one of the important issues of environmental change and degradation of soil.
About 30 per cent of earth’s surface is covered by forests. South America, especially Brazil, West
Central Africa and South-East Asia, are home to regions of dense forests.
The human pressure on forests has significantly increased in recent decades. The need for
agricultural land, increased demand for fuel and commercial wood, more and more dam
construction, large-scale ranching and mining along with growing industrialization and
urbanization have ruthlessly exploited the forests and have in turn created chaotic conditions and
severe environmental imbalances.
Causes of deforestation
Some of the causes of deforestation are
• Agricultural activity/Farming
• Mining
• Increased demand for fuel and commercial wood
• Dam construction
• Large-scale ranching
• Drilling
• Growing industrialization and urbanization
• Wildfires
Effect of deforestation

The removal of trees without sufficient reforestation has resulted in the following

• Habitat damage
• Biodiversity loss
• Aridity
• Extinction of some species
• Changes in climatic conditions
• Desertification
• Displacement of populations

Loss of Biodiversity:
Today, the extinction of several species or loss of biodiversity is a much debated issue among the
environmentalists at international level. Many species are disappearing rapidly. According to an
estimate, 20 to 75 species are becoming extinct each day because of deforestation. This loss of
biodiversity is mainly due to the degeneration of life support system. It provides the basis for life
on earth. Biodiversity means the variety of life on earth.
Diversity is a condition for long-term sustainability of the environment. The maintenance of its
integrity is, therefore, recognized as being indispensable to sustain human life. Biological diversity
encompasses all species of plants, animals and micro-organisms and the ecosystem and ecological
processes of which they are a part.
Effect of loss of biodiversity
The increasing interest in biodiversity is a result of concern regarding species extinction, depletion
of genetic diversity and disruption to the atmosphere, water supplies, fisheries and forests. Some
bird species such as vultures and kites became almost extinct.
Many species of animals and plants are disappearing rapidly because of their high consumption or
destruction. All the species are the integral part of ecosystem and extinctions of some species
threatens the balance of ecosystem, and also diminishes the well-being of the remaining species,
including human beings. Our earth’s biodiversity provides varied sources of food and medicinal
plants and so extinction must be avoided.
The main causes identified for the loss of biological diversity are:
(i) Habitat loss, fragmentation and modification;
(ii) Overexploitation of resources;
(iii) Chemical fertilizers, pesticides and oil pollution.
Control of loss of biodiversity

Disposal of Wastes
The high energy consumption and high population densities of the urban societies give rise to large
quantities of waste water and sewage as well as household rubbish. Industrialization and
urbanization are the main causes of domestic, industrial and nuclear wastes.
The contaminated water supplies cause many diseases of epidemic nature. The industrial waste
consists of chemicals, detergents, metals and synthetic compounds besides the solid waste and
garbage. Thousands of tonnes of mercury, nitrogen, phosphorus, cadmium, lead, zinc and other
waste is dumped every day in the river and sea waters.
The increased nuclear fuel is becoming as one of the sources of non-conventional energy. The
nuclear waste contains radioactive isotopes which generate large quantities of heat. The domestic,
industrial and nuclear wastes are serious health hazards and may endanger the biosphere as well.
Industrial waste, pesticides and herbicides enter the waterways through dumping as well as runoff
from farms and homes. Inadequate system of solid waste disposal causes adverse impact on
health, infant mortality and the birth rate.
Control of deforestation

1. Plant a tree.
2. Go paperless.
3. Education
4. Enactment of laws
5. Encourage substitutes
6. Recycle and buy recycled products.
7. Look for Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) certification on wood and wood products.
8. Eat vegetarian meals as often as possible.
9. Policy, legislative and regulatory measures-enforcement and compliance

SUMMARY
Man is causing so much damage all around the world. The atmosphere, water, land and the various
elements of the environment and to the ecosystem itself are all in great danger as a results of man’s
activities.
Pollution is the release of substances or energy into the environment in such amounts that they
cause harm to people and other living organisms.
Construction of road and houses, resulting in the destruction of forests, creating earsplitting noise,
dust and smoke, by man is a major contributing factor to pollution.

Sources of pollutants can be grouped into primary and secondary.

An air pollutant is a material in the air that can have adverse effects on humans and the ecosystem.
The substance can be solid particles, liquid droplets, or gases. The substance can be solid particles,
liquid droplets, or gases.
Carbon dioxide is released from motor vehicles' exhaust and the burning of fossil fuels in factories
and power stations. Plants and animals release carbon dioxide into the atmosphere through
respiration.

The ozone layer high in the atmosphere absorbs short wave radiations which are harmful to living
organisms by damaging their genetic materials.

One of the major problems caused by air pollution is the depletion of the Ozone layer which has
given rise to global warming. Ozone is found in the stratosphere of the atmosphere. The ozone
layer protects the earth from the harmful radiations given out by the sun.

Land pollution is the deposition of solid or liquid waste materials on land or underground in a
manner that can contaminate the soil and groundwater, threaten public health, and cause unsightly
conditions and nuisances. Land pollution can also be explained as the degradation or destruction
of the Earth’s surface and soil, directly or indirectly as a result of human activities.
ACTIVITY
1. In one sentence, briefly explain the term pollutant.
2. List any four notable pollutants you know.
3. Sources of pollutants can be grouped into--------------------------------
4. Describe primary and secondary pollutants.
5. List any five causes of air pollution.
6. Carbon dioxide can been described as "the leading pollutant" and "the worst climate
pollutant". True/False
7. How does CO2 trap heat?-----------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------
8. Where can ozone be found in the atmosphere?
9. Which form of oxygen works as a shield to protect the earth against the ultraviolet radiation
that comes from the sun.
10. What is the main cause of ozone layer depletion?
11. Describe any three ways that you can use to control air pollution.
12. Write any three causes of land pollution.
Suggested answers to activities
1. Pollutants are the contaminants that get introduced into the natural environment, beyond
permitted limits, and cause deleterious effects to the inhabitants in a visible way.
2. Some notable pollutants are:
• Mercury (Hg)
• Persistent organic pollutants POPs)
• Environmental Persistent Pharmaceutical Pollutants (EPPP)
• Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons(PAHs)
• Volatile organic compounds (VOCs)
• Ozone (Ozone)
• Particulate matter (PM

3. 2
4. Primary pollutants are substances that are released into the atmosphere directly from the
polluting source and Secondary pollutants are the pollutants formed as a result of the
chemical or physical interactions between the primary pollutants themselves or between
the primary pollutants and other atmospheric components.
5. Causes of air pollution includes: sulphur dioxide, chlorofluorocarbon (cfc), carbon
dioxide, smoke, smog, radiation, dust, noise, lead etc.
6. True.
7. The three elements of CO2 are only loosely connected to each other. They vibrate
vigorously when radiant heat passes by. It captures the heat and prevents it from going into
space. They act like the glass roof on a greenhouse that traps the sun's heat.
8. Ozone is found in the stratosphere of the atmosphere.
9. Ozone
10. Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) is the main cause of ozone layer depletion.
11. Control of air pollution

• Carbon dioxide pollution can be reduced by planting more trees which will use carbon
dioxide for photosynthesis.
• People can be educated on the dangers of smoking cigarette and if possible there could be
a ban on public smoking.
• Exhaust control systems fitted to motor vehicles should be encouraged to reduce the
emission of oxides of nitrogen.
• The use of sulphur-free fuel like natural gas and also by providing filters and absorbers to
remove pollutants from the waste gases factories should be encouraged to reduce the
production of sulphur dioxides.
• There should be a parliamentary act to make it illegal to burn coal and other smoky fuels
in industrial areas, except it is in circumstances, to reduce the amount of smog.
• Pollution by lead can be reduced using lead free petrol and paint to reduce the release of
these compounds.
12. Causes of land pollution:
• Construction activities
• Deforestation
• Soil erosion
• Sewage treatment Agricultural activities
• Mining activities
• Nuclear waste
• Overcrowded landfills
• Industrialization
SELF-ASSESSMENT
1.

Describe the image above.

2. Which of the gases in the atmosphere can be described as a greenhouse gas?
3. Describe how C02 traps heat from the sun.
4. Describe how Chlorofluoro carbons affect the ozone layer.
5. Describe land pollution.
6. Describe how land pollution affect our land.
7. In one sentence, describe deforestation.
8. Write and explain any three causes of deforestation.

9. List five effects of deforestation.

10. List five effects of deforestation.

11. List any five control of deforestation.

References
Abbey, T. K., Alhassan, M. B., Ameyibor, K., Essiah, J. W., Fometu, E., & Wiredu, M.B. (2008). Ghana
association of science teachers integrated science for senior high schools. Accra: Unimax
MacMillan.
Abbey, T. K., & Essiah, J.W. (1995). Ghana association of science teachers physics for senior high
schools. Accra: Unimax Macmillan.
Ameyibor, K., & Wiredu, M. B. (2006). Ghana association of science teachers’ chemistry for senior high
schools. Accra: Unimax MacMillan.
Asabere-Ameyaw, A., & Oppong, E. K. (2013). Integrated science for the basic school teacher I.
Winneba: IEDE.
Oddoye, E. O. K., Taale, K. D., Ngman-Wara, E., Samlafo, V.& Obeng-Ofori, D. (2011). SWL integrated
science for senior high schools: Students book. Accra, Ghana; Sam-Woode Ltd.
Angelsen, A. (1995). Shifting cultivation and deforestation: a study from Indonesia. World
Development 23: 1713-1729.
Angelsen, A. (1999). Agricultural expansion and deforestation: modeling the impact of
population, market forces and property rights. Journal of Development Economics 58:
185-218.
Retrieved from
[Link]
[Link]
3305738
[Link]
[Link]
[Link]
UNIT 4
SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
Introduction

Hello student teacher! You are warmly welcome to Unit 4. In this unit I shall look at a few
contributions of Science and Technology to our society. I am certain that you are already familiar
with most of the topics in this unit.

Specifically, I am going to discuss the meaning and relationship between science and technology,
as well as contributions of science and technology to transportation, food and nutrition, and
healthcare. I shall in addition, discuss the concept of industrialization. Let’s move quickly to
Section 1, which deals with meaning and relationship between science and technology.

On successful completion of this unit, student teachers will be able to;

Learning Outcomes learning indicators

4. Demonstrate significant ability to design 4.1 show models on electronic devices and
and engage in practical activities in science energy sources by diverse learners.
and technology and other alternative 4.2 Explain the meaning and state the
interactive assessment practices. (CPR) (NTS, relationship between science and
14, 19 & 23) technology
4.3 Outline at least three contributions of
science and technology to transportation
4.4 Discuss at least three contributions of
science and technology to food and
nutrition
4.5 Expatiate at least three contributions of
science and technology to healthcare
4.6 Discuss the concept of industrialization-
meaning, factors, advantages and
disadvantages.

This Unit ‘SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY’ has being divided into five sections which are as
follows:

SECTION 1 - THE MEANING AND RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SCIENCE AND

TECHNOLOGY
SECTION 2 - THE CONTRIBUTIONS OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY TO
TRANSPORTATION
SECTION 3 - THE CONTRIBUTIONS OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY TO FOOD
AND NUTRITION

SECTION 4 - THE CONTRIBUTIONS OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY TO

HEALTHCARE

SECTION 5 - THE CONCEPT OF INDUSTRIALIZATION

SECTION 6 - TYPES OF INDUSTRIALIZATION

SECTION 1: THE MEANING AND RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SCIENCE AND
TECHNOLOGY

Introduction
Hello student teacher, you are welcome to Section 1 of Unit 4 of this book. In this section, I shall
take a look at a few definitions of science and technology and contribution of science to food,
nutrition, health, transport and information: industries and science in inclusive multi-grade, and
developmentally appropriate classrooms as well as, on science and technology contribution to
industrializations- student teachers to present individual reports.

Objectives
By the end of this section, you should be able to:
• define the term, science and technology
• explain contributions of science and technology to transportation.

What is Science?
The impact of science may be defined from many points of view. There are those who sincerely
believe that science has than done better than harm in the development of the society. Do you
believe this? Can you identify one important implication of this belief? Write it in the space
provided below.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
At the other hand, there are those who believe that, science has contributed negatively in our
society. Do you see any problem with this belief? Write the problem in the space below.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
You can see that these two positions are true in their own way. We can’t say the contributions of
science are solely positive, there are certain negative contributions science has impacted in our
society. Even as humans, we have our good and bad times. Thus, it is difficult to subscribe totally
to either perspective.
Science is the pursuit and application of knowledge and understanding of the natural and social
world following a systematic methodology based on evidence.
Activity 1.1
a. Identify four importance of science in our daily lives as student.
a. ………………………………………………………………………………………………
b. ………………………………………………………………………………………………
c. ………………………………………………………………………………………………
d. ……………………………………………………………………………………………
b. What do you say science is? Write your own concise definition.
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………

Compare your definition with any one of the following definitions.

According to the Webster’s New Collegiate Dictionary, science is knowledge covering general
truths of the operation of general laws, especially as obtained and tested through scientific
method and concerned with physical world. This definition simply means knowledge attained
through study or practice.

How is this definition different from or similar to yours?

Another definition says, science refers to a system of acquiring knowledge. This system us
observation and experimentation to describe and explain natural phenomena

From these two definitions can you identify the two most important keywords involved in the
definition of science?

Yes, you are right. Knowledge and study/system/process.

Activity 1.2
Explain technology in your own words.
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
Now compare your answers to the following definitions.

Meaning of technology
Technology is science or knowledge put into practical use to solve problems or invent use tools.
Technology is the skills, methods, and processes used to achieve goals. Again, it is the branch of
knowledge that deals with the creation and use of technical means and their interrelation with life,
society, and the environment, drawing upon such subjects as industrial arts, engineering, applied
science, and pure science.

Activity 1.3
Can you think of the relationship between science and technology?
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………

HOW SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY ARE INTERRELATED

People often confuse science and technology. Briefly, scientists (science) discover new aspects of
Nature. Engineers and inventors (technology) use scientific discoveries to design and build new
things.

So, is technology dependent on science? Yes - without new scientific discoveries, the river of new,
amazing products would soon dry up. But science is also dependent on technology - without new
instruments and devices, the tide of new scientific discovery would soon disappear. Science and
technology are interdependent.
People, particularly politicians looking for media attention it seems (editorial...), often wonder why
scientists don't work on more useful topics - things that would be more immediately useful to
society. An answer is that curiosity is the nature of a scientist - scientists have a drive to understand
what is going on. It is not the job of science to build useful devices, that is the job of technology.
Historically, the bit of science that triggers some amazing technological advance has often come
from an apparently unrelated discovery.

Again, scientific knowledge and methodologies themselves provide a major source of input into
the development of technological practices and outcomes. They are also key tools in the
establishment of explanations of why technological interventions were, or were not, successful. In
short, science can provide powerful explanations for the why and why not behind technological
intervention. However, as these interventions rely on more than an understanding of the ‘natural’
world, they can only provide partial justification for technological practices and outcomes.

Technological practices, knowledge and outcomes can provide mechanisms for science to gain a
better view of its defined world, and in fact can provide serious challenges to the defining of that
world. For example, the development of the technological artefacts that extend the observation
capabilities of humans (such as the telescope and microscope), made ‘visible’ and available ‘new
worlds’ for science to interrogate and explain.

Activity 1.4

Write down three differences between science and technology.

Science Technology
1. 1.
2. 2.
3. 3.
Summary
Exploration of the nature of both science and technology can provide fertile grounds for
developing deeper understandings of both through reflecting on the differences between these key
areas of human beings.
SECTION 2 - THE CONTRIBUTIONS OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY TO
TRANSPORTATION

You are welcome to Section 2 of the fourth unit of this course. How did you find the previous
section? I hope you found it quite interesting. Section 2 promises to be more interesting. This is
because most of the things discussed in this section are familiar to you. This section in a way
revises the contributions of science and technology in transportation.

By the end of this section you should be able to

• discuss some contributions of science and technology in transportation.

Contributions of science and technology in transportation

Gone were days where people have to trek several miles, days and even months to get access to
their basic needs on foot, but in the wake science and technology in transportation has made our
lives made our lives much easier and safer. So, in this section were coming to discuss how science
and technology has contributed in the aspect of transportation.
Transportation technology is in the midst of a revolution. New technologies are improving
the efficiency of existing transportation methods, while new inventions are poised to entirely
reshape the way we move. Some contributions of science and technology in transportation are as
follows:

➢ The Internet of Things

The Internet of Things assumes that all people influence many aspects of our daily driving:

• Route Planning — Sensors in the vehicle communicate with GPS services to determine the best
route, which is then displayed on a head-up display that physically directs the driver along route.
• Accident Prevention — Sensors alert drivers to the position of other vehicles on the road and
prevent collisions. The cars can even override driver controls to avoid an accident.
• Safety — A series of sensors in the seat belt can track the driver’s physiological indicators and
determine whether the driver is fatigued or intoxicated. If the driver fails any of the tests performed
by the sensors, the vehicle becomes inoperable.

➢ Autonomous Cars
The advent of self-driving driving cars such as the Google car and Telsa are making the idea of
autonomous cars a reality. Several, states across the world have begun passing laws to regulate the
technology and encourage its development. However, the safety and public acceptance of these
autonomous vehicles have been a question of public interest and concern. With continued research
and development, autonomous car technology will likely become a safer alternative to human
drivers, with additional economic and environmental benefits. Removing human control from the
vehicle will potentially help cars reach their designed fuel economy, leading to less gas
consumption and reduced cost of vehicle ownership.

➢ Lightweight Vehicle Materials

Automobile manufacturers are under increasing pressure to deliver vehicles with high performance
and excellent efficiency. Studies have shown that reducing the weight of the vehicle by as little as
10% can improve fuel economy by 6% or more. The focus of lightweight materials research is to
move away from cast iron and steel. The leading candidates to replace these metals in the near
future are magnesium-aluminum alloys and carbon fiber construction. However, questions still
exist about whether the materials can hold up under the forces of highway accidents, and whether
manufacturers will be able to produce lightweight materials at a low enough cost for automakers.

➢ On-Demand Ride Services

Less than two years ago, Uber and Lyft dramatically changed the way people in large cities find
transportation. With an app, riders can summon a vehicle to their location, any time they want it.
The services have already eroded the profits of cab companies and decreased DUI rates in many
cities. While on-demand ride services are a hit with riders, there are serious legal and ethical
questions that are causing governments to re-evaluate authorization for Uber and Lyft to work in
their jurisdictions. The primary concern is that Uber and Lyft drivers are considered contract
earners and not employees, leaving them with the burden of income tax but few benefits. On the
other hand, safer roads and greater flexibility are attractive for riders.

➢ Hyperloop

The most ambitious of all of the technologies changing transportation is SpaceX’s Hyperloop. The
concept is a pneumatic tube that uses a series of linear induction motors and compressors to propel
vehicles at super-fast speeds. The first proposed Hyperloop would connect Los Angeles and San
Francisco and allow passengers to complete the 350-mile trip in just more than half an hour. New
technologies have caused a fundamental shift in the way people see transportation. Minor changes
to existing methods of transportation could have a considerable impact in the near future, while
the introduction of completely new technology, like the Hyperloop, might usher in a new
transportation revolution.

Activity 2.1
Write down five other contributions of science and technology in transportation.
f. ……………………………………………………………………………………………..
g. ……………………………………………………………………………………………..
h. ……………………………………………………………………………………………..
i. ………………………………………………………………………………………………
j. ………………………………………………………………………………………………

Summary
In this section, I have discussed some of the contributions of science and technology to
transportation. I identified some of these contributions as:
• Invention of automated cars
• Invention of hyperloop vehicles
• On demand ride services.
SECTION 3 - THE CONTRIBUTIONS OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY TO FOOD
AND NUTRITION
You are welcome to the third section of the fourth unit of this course. I believe you will find this
section also interesting, as it is closely linked to the previous section. In this section we are going
to look at some contributions of science and technology to food and nutrition.

After completing this section, you should be able to

• explain some contributions of science and technology towards food and nutrition.

CONTRIBUTIONS OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY TO FOOD AND NUTRITION

Have you ever imagined how hard it was for people to live as hunters and gatherers in the primitive
era? There were no farm tools to farm, and no weapons to hunt for game. They were compelled
to do all this using their manpower which made lives really difficult for them. Can you imagine
weeding about 3 acres of land with only a machete all by yourself? what are the possible dangers
you are expected to encounter? Write it in the spaces provided below.

………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………

Now, throughout history, scientific and technological advances have greatly impacted the
agriculture industry. Early farmers improved their crop production by inventing the first hoes.
Today, farmers improve crop production through the use of global positioning systems (GPS).
How did these changes happen? How did people learn about new ideas? How have these ideas
changed farming methods?

Early advances were shared by word of mouth. As new ideas were tried and applied to growing
crops and livestock, they were shared and passed to the next generation as parents taught their
children. Neighboring tribes exchanged ideas with one another and with new settlers. In more
recent times, scientists studying at universities devote their lives to research and development of
farming products and practices. Farmers and agricultural scientists have benefited and contributed
to the ever-evolving science of agriculture.
Activity 3.1
b. Mention five farming technological tools you know
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
c. State the uses of each of your answer in (a.)
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
Here are some of the contributions of science and technology to food and nutrition.
New Ideas and Inventions
One milestone in the evolution of technology in occurred with the completion of rail lines across
the state. By 1870, transportation had been greatly expanded which made it easier for farmers to
market their products outside the Midwest. Transportation advances greatly impacted the life of a
farmer. Another event that affected farm life was the commercial production of barbed wire. As
the land became more settled and there were fewer and fewer acres of open prairie, farmers needed
a way to keep their own cattle at home. Barbed wire was the answer. Instead of grazing on open
prairie, cattle were fenced in the farmer's own field and fed with corn. This allowed farmers to
transition from cattle grazing to cattle raising.
New Ways of Farming
By the latter part of the 19th century farmers had learned to diversify their crop production and to
raise livestock for profit. Farmers, had learned the value in planting corn and feeding it to fatten
their livestock.
Advances in farm machinery production changed the way farmers worked. They were able to cover
more land at a faster pace; and as manufacturers added seats to farm machinery, farmers found
some relief from their backbreaking labors.
The development of better corn seed is one of the biggest improvements in the past 100 years.
Farmers once shelled the kernels from the longest and best-looking ears from the harvest and
planted those kernels the next spring. However, plant scientists like Henry A. Wallace began
experimenting with ways to produce even better seed. They learned how to use the pollen from
one variety of corn to fertilize another variety to produce a hybrid. The new variety grew ears that
were better than either of its "parents." In the 1930s many farmers began buying hybrid corn seed.
Today nearly all corn planted in the United States and much of the rest of the world is some hybrid
variety.
Spreading New Ideas
Early in Ghanaian's settlement by European farmers, a number of institutions were established to
encourage agricultural advances. State and county fairs were held and became show places for the
best in all areas of agriculture. They helped spread the news about new ideas and methods. And
they encouraged farmers to develop new products and new ways of doing their work.
Interests in agricultural advancement also was reflected in the early provision for a state
agricultural college and model farm to promote better farming techniques. The formal program of
instruction began at Ames in 1869, and the college eventually developed into a nationally
recognized leader in scientific agricultural advancement. The college developed extension
services, education for people who are not enrolled as students, to provide up-to-date assistance
for women and men on Ghanaian farms. They learned about soil conservation, corn seed selection
and cultivation, crop rotation and manure management.
The invention of radio and television made it possible for farm families to learn about new ideas.
They learned about new kinds of technologies such as food-freezing processes that revolutionized
food storage. They also learned about hybrid seed that boosted crop production, and soybeans that
became a major crop addition. New ways of spreading information allowed farm families to hear
about soil conservation programs also. They learned about cattle and hog breeding which in turn
improved the livestock industry.
Conserving Resources
Over the years, farmers have become more aware of conservation methods to prevent erosion and
to protect the water. Some farmers have planted buffer strips wide strips of grass along waterways.
These grassy strips trap soil and chemicals before they reach the water. Many farmers have
changed plowing practices, plowing their fields less often and not as deep. This helps to keep soil
from blowing away.
All these advances in the area of science and technology have resulted in fewer farmers working
bigger farms. They have also meant Ghanaian farm families are producing more than in the past.
Some of the changes that have occurred as a result of scientific advances have been good for
however, some have caused problems for Ghanaians. Many farmers use global positioning systems
and agree that it is a new form of technology that benefits farmers. But advances in biotechnology
and crop production has caused controversy. Ghanaian's farmers continue to adapt to the changing
technologies. And they continue to contribute to the science of agriculture.
Biotechnology and Genetically Modified Food
An important modern agricultural technology that has gained prominence and much attention is
biotechnology. Biotechnology is a technology based on genetic engineering or modification of
crops. It allows the routine development of genetically modified (GM) plants in which
Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA) from any source can be transferred to specific crops. Contemporary
agriculture using biotechnology gives massive monetary benefits to consumers by improving living
standards as food prices drop. Additionally, it increases incomes because it allows better
purchasing power for other consumer goods, education, health care, etc. It is globally known that
the growth of modern food system has been vital to the improvement of living standard in today’s
world.

Activity 3.2

Write down 4 contributions of science and technology to food and nutrition.

a. ……………………………………………………………………………………………

b. ……………………………………………………………………………………………

c. ……………………………………………………………………………………………

d. ……………………………………………………………………………………………

Summary
You have learned in this section, some contributions of science and technology to food and
nutrition. Some are as follows;
• The introduction biotechnical and genetically modified foods
• Conversion of resources
SECTION 4 - THE CONTRIBUTIONS OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY TO
HEALTHCARE
Dear learner, welcome to Section 4 of this unit. As you can see, this section deals with
contributions of science and technology to health. The previous section dealt with contributions of
science and technology to food and nutrition. I hope that you found that section interesting and
informative.
I hope too that you explain some contributions science and technology to food and nutrition.
After reading through this section, you will be able to:
• Outline some contributions of science and technology to health
CONTRIBUTIONS OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY TO HEALTH
In today’s world, technology plays an important role in every industry as well as in our personal
lives. Out of all of the industries that technology plays a crucial role in, healthcare is definitely one
of the most important. This merger is responsible for improving and saving countless lives all
around the world. Do you believe this? Can you identify one reason you believe this is true?
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
Medical technology is a broad field where innovation plays a crucial role in sustaining health.
Areas like biotechnology, pharmaceuticals, information technology, the development of medical
devices and equipment, and more have all made significant contributions to improving the health
of people all around the world. From “small” innovations like adhesive bandages and ankle braces,
to larger, more complex technologies like MRI machines, artificial organs, and robotic prosthetic
limbs, technology has undoubtedly made an incredible impact on medicine.
Activity 4.1
Cast your back to your primary schools’ days.
a. Write down the names of five sicknesses or any health conditions that doctors found it very
difficult to treat but now can be treated with ease.
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………….
b. For each of sickness or health condition mentioned in (a.) state the treatment for it.
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
Below are some contributions of science and technology to health:
Information Technology and Medicine
Information technology has made significant contributions to our world, namely in the medical
industry. With the increased use of electronic medical records (EMR), telehealth services, and
mobile technologies like tablets and smart phones, physicians and patients are both seeing the
benefits that these new medical technologies are bringing.
Medical technology has evolved from introducing doctors to new equipment to use inside private
practices and hospitals to connecting patients and doctors thousands of miles away through
telecommunications. It is not uncommon in today’s world for patients to hold video conferences
with physicians to save time and money normally spent on traveling to another geographic location
or send health information instantaneously to any specialist or doctor in the world.
With more and more hospitals and practices using medical technology like mobile devices on the
job, physicians can now have access to any type of information they need – from drug information,
research and studies, patient history or records, and more – within mere seconds. And, with the
ability to effortlessly carry these mobile devices around with them throughout the day, they are
never far from the information they need. Applications that aid in identifying potential health
threats and examining digital information like x-rays and CT scans also contribute to the benefits
that information technology brings to medicine.
Medical Equipment Technology
Improving quality of life is one of the main benefits of integrating new innovations into medicine.
Medical technologies like minimally-invasive surgeries, better monitoring systems, and more
comfortable scanning equipment are allowing patients to spend less time in recovery and more
time enjoying a healthy life.
The integration of medical equipment technology and telehealth has also created robotic surgeries,
where in some cases, physicians do not even need to be in the operating room with a patient when
the surgery is performed. Instead, surgeons can operate out of their “home base”, and patients can
have the procedure done in a hospital or clinic close their own hometown, eliminating the hassles
and stress of health-related travel. With other robotic surgeries, the surgeon is still in the room,
operating the robotic devices, but the technology allows for a minimally-invasive procedure that
leaves patients with less scarring and significantly less recovery time.
Technology and Medical Research
Medical scientists and physicians are constantly conducting research and testing new procedures
to help prevent, diagnose, and cure diseases as well as developing new drugs and medicines that
can lessen symptoms or treat ailments.
Through the use of technology in medical research, scientists have been able to examine diseases
on a cellular level and produce antibodies against them. These vaccines against life-threatening
diseases like malaria, polio, MMR, and more prevent the spread of disease and save thousands of
lives all around the globe. In fact, the World Health Organization estimates that vaccines save
about 3 million lives per year, and prevent millions of others from contracting deadly viruses and
diseases.
Medical Technology and The Law
As technology in the world of healthcare continues to evolve, rules and regulations concerning its
use must be established and adjusted to adapt to the new methods of administering care.
Regulations like HIPAA and its Privacy and Security Act target the concerns about the
confidentiality of patient information and the steps that must be taken to maintain privacy in our
digital world. Medical providers and healthcare administration must be careful when choosing to
implement new products and technologies into their services, and should ensure that all
technologies are “HIPAA compliant” before investing in their implementation. Other initiatives,
like the 2010 Health Care Reform bill, state the steps that must be taken by hospitals and other
care providers to integrate medical technology into their practices.
Technological innovations in the healthcare industry continue to provide physicians with new
ways to improve the quality of care delivered to their patients and improve the state of global
healthcare. Through technology’s integration with areas like disease prevention, surgical
procedures, better access to information, and medical telecommunications, the medical industry
and patients around the world continue to benefit. Electronic Health Records (EHRs)
As any student of health informatics knows, the movement toward electronic health records is a
huge evolution in the medical field, and one that can facilitate countless advances in medical
diagnostics and treatment.
In the past, hospitals had disparate information systems that were clumsy in their ability to share
and transfer patient records. With the advent of EHRs, many systems have been connected,
allowing for faster information transfers and more integrated and efficient care.
Telemedicine / Telehealth
Telemedicine refers to methods of advancing healthcare based on telecommunications
technologies. There are several reasons telehealth is becoming more popular and successful. First,
in rural areas where access to hospitals and other health related services are lacking, patients can
use their computer to meet virtually with a doctor. Secondly, the cost benefits associated with
telehealth are substantial.
Remote Monitoring Tools
When patients monitor their health at home, they can save money and reduce unnecessary visits
to the doctor’s office. At the end of 2012, almost 3 million patients worldwide were using home
health monitoring systems.
Pacemakers for patients with heart disease can automatically send data to remote health centers.
Great for patients with chronic illnesses, these tools can allow systems to monitor a patient’s health
from a distance.
Wearable Technology
The wearable medical device market is growing quickly. These devices collect data, which helps
doctors and patients alike monitor and assess the health of the wearer. In addition to devices that
alert authorities about serious medical issues, there are very popular wearables like wristbands and
watches that are allowing users to take an active role in their health.
Genome Sequencing
Some have called personal genomics the future of healthcare. Personal genomics refers to the
sequencing and analysis of one person’s genome and then giving that person his or her genomic
information. Sequencing the human genome has been one of the greatest advancements in medical
technology of the last 40 years.”
The technological advances in the medical field have allowed for many lifesaving procedures to
become commonplace. Just the thought of virtually visiting a doctor from hundreds or thousands
of miles away would have been difficult to believe only a few decades ago. From remote
monitoring tools and wearable medical technology to the sequencing of genomes, technology is
improving health at a rapid pace. To become a part of the convergence of medicine and technology,
consider getting a Master of Science in Health Informatics from UIC.
Activity 4.2
Give 4 other contributions of science and technology to health.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
Summary
In the healthcare industry, the dependence on medical technology cannot be overstated, and as a
result of the development of these brilliant innovations, healthcare practitioners can continue to
find ways to improve their practice, from better diagnosis, surgical procedures, and improved
patient care.
SECTION 5 - THE CONCEPT OF INDUSTRIALIZATION

Hello! You are welcome to Section 5 of this unit. How did you find the previous sections which
dealt with the contributions of science and technology to transport, food and nutrition, and health
care? Very interesting right? This section promises to be more interesting than the previous
sections. This section deals with industrialization- meaning, characteristics as well as factors that
influence it.
At the end f this section, you will be able to:
• explain the term industrialization
• list at least two characteristics of industrialization
• outline at least four factors that influence industrialization

Meaning of industrialization
Industrialization is the process by which an economy is transformed from primarily
agricultural to one based on the manufacturing of goods. Individual manual labor is often
replaced by mechanized mass production, and craftsmen are replaced by assembly lines.
Activity 6.1
In not more three sentences, explain industrialization in your own words.
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
Now let’s look at some characteristics of industrialization.
Characteristics of industrialization include:
1. Economic growth
2. More efficient division of labor
3. The use of technological innovation to solve problems as opposed to dependency
on conditions outside human control.
KEY TAKEAWAYS

• Industrialization is a transformation away from an agricultural- or resource-based

economy, toward an economy based on mass manufacturing.
• Industrialization is usually associated with increases in total income and living standards
in a society.
• Early industrialization occurred in Europe and North America during the 18th and 19th
centuries, and later in other parts of the world.
• Numerous strategies for industrialization have been pursued in different countries over
time, with varying levels of success.

Activity 6.2

Can you identify 4 factors that influence industrialization? List them below.

……………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………

Compare your answers to the following to see if you are on the right track.

Factors that influence industrialization

There are several factors that led to industrialization.

1. Availability of natural resources. Natural resources are needed to help make the products
produced in the factories.

2. A stable political environment. With a stable political environment, business owners can
be more confident that they can invest in the economy and know that investments will be
secure. A stable political environment tends to lead to stable markets that help businesses
and the economy grow.

3. Growing population. Workers are needed to work in the factories. As businesses expand,
more workers are needed. The growing population also provided an opportunity for
businesses to sell their products to more people.

4. New inventions and improved transportation helped bring about industrialization. New
inventions made it easier to make products. Also, there needed to be a good transportation
system to be able to get the products to the consumers. Roads, canals, railroads, and ships
are various ways to transport products. New inventions in transportation, such as the steam
engine, helped make it easier to get products from the factories to the people.

5. Land refers not just to surface (acreage) for farms, factories, and transport. What is on and
under the land, especially minerals, is important. Large deposits of raw materials helped
American industry develop. The early railroads and canals brought iron, coal, copper, and
steel to the developing industrial cities like Tema, Takoradi, Kumasi and Accra.
6. Labor is the human element of industrialization. Many hands were needed in the early
factories. Mechanizing farms in the early mid-19th century freed up some labor to go into
the factories, but foreign shores were the chief source of labor. Immigrants provided he
muscle for the factories. The human factor also included the entrepreneurs, or people, who
arranged financing, organized workers and material, operated, and assumed the rich for
business firms. Most were honest and energetic, some were ruthless, and a few were
dishonest. The entrepreneurs of this age, however, had vision and talent. They thought and
acted on a large scale, and drew together the forces that made the United States and
industrial giant by the beginning of the 20th century.
7. Capital is the money, productive machinery, and the factories themselves. Capital is the
means that allows labor to process materials into products. Before the Civil War, small
American factories could not produce enough excess profits to finance large expansion.
Most of the funding for early railroads and canals came from European investors. During
the Civil War, demand for arms and supplies by the government provided capital for
expansion. Banks risked money to finance new companies. More important, thousands of
investors bought small shares (stocks) in new corporations and received dividends for their
effort. Once the new factories were built and connected to markets, corporations began
producing on a large scale. Profits were made and reinvested.
8. Connections are key elements in industrial development. Transportation links raw
materials, producers, and consumers. Communication includes the postal system and
telegraphs that carry messages among suppliers of raw materials, producers, and
consumers. Economists call the combined network of transportation and communication
infrastructure. It is the foundation and framework of economic growth. The waterways,
roads, canals, bridges, and railroads that developed in the early and middle 19th century
provided the vita links for industrialization. Civil War demand stimulated organization of
the different types of transportation into a functional system, especially for the North. The
first telephone system in the 1870’s connected Salem and Boston in Massachusetts,
Chicago and Milwaukee. By 1880, there were 148 new telephone companies. In the 1890’s
long distance lines connected New York and Chicago. A call could be made across the
country by 1915.
9. (Technology) technology is the application of science to industrial or commercial uses. In
the 19th century America moved from simple water and steam power for machinery toward
turbines, internal combustion engines, and electricity. Thousands of inventions in the 19th
century helped to mechanize and refine manufacturing processes, making them more
efficient and raising productivity.

Activity 6.3

With their locations attached to it, mention 5 industries in Ghana.

………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………

Summary

Industrialization is a transformation away from an agricultural- or resource-based

economy, toward an economy based on mass manufacturing. Industrialization is usually
associated with increases in total income and living standards in a society.
SECTION 6 - TYPES OF INDUSTRIALIZATION

Hi! You are welcome to the last section of this unit. In Section 6, I discussed the meaning,
characteristics and factors that influence industrialization.
In this section I shall throw searchlight on types, advantages and disadvantages of industrialization.
After going through this section, you should be able to:
• state the types of industrialization
• enumerate at least 4 advantages of industrialization
• discuss at least 3 disadvantages of industrialization

TYPES OF INDUSTRIALIZATION

Most needs are satisfied by industries with increasing efficiency, thanks to technological
advancements. As old needs are satisfied, various new industries spring up to meet other needs.
Economic growth leads to an overall trend of increasing specialization, as machines take over the
more simplistic work. This process powers the economic engine of the entire society.

Activity 7.1

Explain two types of industrialization you know

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………

Compare your answers with any of the following types.

Industrialization is usually divided into one of five categories:

• PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT

The most undeveloped economies have the majority of their workers in the physical
environment sector; most of the economy engages in farming, hunting and fishing. This
industry provides society with food products and non-food products such as fibers and lumber.
The physical environment sector has a lower barrier to entry. For example, farming requires
farming equipment, such as seeds and fertilizer. Such equipment is much more affordable
than a lathe. More advanced countries use industrial equipment, such as tractors and
automated irrigation systems, allowing for greater production levels with fewer workers. With
fewer workers required, leftover workers usually move to other industries

• RAW MATERIALS

The raw material industries process materials such as iron ore so that the raw materials can
be fabricated into useful products. Some workers mine the actual resources, such as iron ore.
Other workers process the raw resources and fabricate them into products. A steel mill turns
iron ore into steel. Other industries take materials like smelted steel and build products like
automobiles on assembly lines. Assembly lines let workers focus on specific tasks, allowing
them to master these tasks. Machines remove much of the work previously delivered through
manual labor, increasing efficiency and reducing the number of workers needed. Leftover
workers must enter into the knowledge or service sector.

• SERVICES

The service industry is very diverse. Those in the service industry take sales orders, care for
animals, handle airport baggage, give advice, help children cross the street, provide product
information, perform massages, embalm the deceased, maintain buildings and perform
various other services. Some services require little training, while other services can require
a college degree. Those in the service industry have mostly benefited from information
technology and productivity software. Information technology lets those in the service
industry perform tasks for others over the Internet, such as designing a webpage, expanding
their opportunities. Productivity software lets specialists such as accountants perform their
jobs faster.

• APPLICATION OF INFORMATION AND KNOWLEDGE SECTOR

The application of information sector and the knowledge sector include those in management
and in advanced positions in the production cycle, such as engineering. These professionals
are often creative, producing cutting-edge products and developing new services for customers.
They also create the innovations that transform the other sectors and drive industrialization,
such as inventing new ways to safely slice a bagel.

Man must learn to accept industry not as an end in itself but as a means to the end of social,
economic and spiritual well-being and up-liftment.

However, Industrialization has both advantages and disadvantages. We have discussed them
below:

ADVANTAGES OF INDUSTRIALIZATION
Let’s outline the advantages of industrialization

1. The growth of industries has resulted in large scale production of goods which are available
to the consumer at much cheaper rates.
2. There is saving of time and labor.
3. Industrialization has resulted in a considerable rise in the standard of living of the people.
4. A number of substitutes in consumer goods are available. The customer gets wide variety
of choices.
5. There are means to control and check the colossal wastage of human energy that can be
used otherwise.
6. Industrialization creates new job opportunities, leading to the removal of poverty to a great
extent.
7. Industrialization has also resulted in the development of new modes of transport making
quick export and import possible. The world has become a small place.

Disadvantages of Industrialization
You have been able to identify a number of advantages of industrialization. Can you think of some
disadvantages?

Activity 7.2

State two disadvantages of industrialization

a. ………………………………………………………………………………………………
b. ………………………………………………………………………………………………

Now compare your answer with the following. Which ones did youlist?

1. The immediate result is in the gradual disappearance of many natural resources, the
pollution of land, water and air.
2. The increase in vehicular traffic, launching of space ships and rockets by competing
nations, the incessant working of machines in factories have brought in noise-pollution and
dust and smoke.
3. The general dirty and unhealthy conditions in and around the industrial sites have affected
human health and happiness. Diseases, unheard of before, are spreading far and wide.
4. There have been instances of child labor in factories.
5. The exploitation of the poor by the rich has increases the crime-rate, isolation and sense
of loneliness.
6. The gradual displacement of manpower in industries is ultimately leading to
unemployment.
7. There has been a steady decline in spiritual values and well-being of man consequent upon
the growth of an artificial, mechanical and materialistic civilization brought about by
industrialization.
8. Capitalistic ethics with a craving for more and more money seem to dominate and influence
millions of people. The grave uncertainties in the money-market sometimes bring
misfortunes for the common people.
9. Inflation sets in, the value of money goes down and the poor working class becomes poorer.
Class conflicts, strike, dharnas, gheraos and bandhs and then lockouts cause hardship and
unrest. Society faces their impact in various ways.
10. Large scale heavy industries lead to a sharp fall in the number of cottage industries and
their gradual disappearance. Regional and local artisans and workers of various trades and
professions suffer a great deal.

Activity 7.3

In not less than 40 words discuss ‘the onset of industrialization has more harm than good in the
society’. Back your argument with facts.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………

Summary

It is time that emphasis is put on a planned and balanced industrialization keeping in view the
preservation of environment. Man should be less dependent on the machine, which once a slave,
tends to become the master. Excessive dependence on the machine makes man unfit for many
things and renders him a helpless creature. Heavy industries and cottage industries must be
complementary to each other, so that sustained development would be possible. It would be a move
in the right direction. It will employ local and regional manpower and utilize the local and regional
resources.
UNIT 5
WRITING PORTFOLIO FOR STUDENTS REFLECTIVE JOURNAL.
INTRODUCTION
Hello my dear student teacher,
You are warmly welcome to Unit 5. It is almost time to wrap up the discussion on Introduction
to Integrated Science II. You cannot do it on a better note than a discussion writing portfolios for
students’ reflective journal. I am certain that you will like most of the topics in this unit.
On successful completion of this unit, student teachers will be able to;

Learning Outcomes learning indicators

5. Demonstrate basic ability to work as a 5.1 Provide a checklist to identify the values
professional science teacher in school and to of patience, critical thinking, precision and
identify their own professional needs in terms accuracy in a peer review exercise.
5.2 Prepare a list of some examples of
of science professional practice, knowledge,
professional needs and some
values and attitudes - through this experience
characteristics of professional teachers.
student teacher will be working towards
5.3 Explain the meaning of reflective writing,
meeting the NTS. (NTS 1b p14& 18, 14).
purpose of reflective writing and how to
write reflectively
5.4 Explain the meaning of reflective journal,
reasons to write a reflective journal and
the reflective journal thought process.
5.5 Write down the tips to write your
reflective journal, ways you can
encourage journal writing among students,
the importance of reflective journal to the
teacher and the classroom.
5.6 Explain the meaning of reflective
portfolio, how reflective is different from
other types of assessment, components of
reflective portfolio
5.7 Demonstrate how reflective portfolio is
useful to students, how to write a good
reflective portfolio and mistakes you must
avoid when writing a reflective portfolio.
This Unit ‘Writing Portfolio for Students Reflective Journal’ has being divided into six
sections which are as follows:
SECTION 1 - MEANING OF REFLECTIVE WRITING, PURPOSE OF REFLECTIVE
WRITING AND HOW TO WRITE REFLECTIVELY
SECTION 2 - MEANING OF REFLECTIVE JOURNAL, REASONS TO WRITE A
REFLECTIVE JOURNAL AND THE REFLECTIVE JOURNAL THOUGHT
PROCESS.
SECTION 3 - TIPS TO WRITE YOUR REFLECTIVE JOURNAL, WAYS YOU CAN
ENCOURAGE JOURNAL WRITING AMONG STUDENTS, THE
IMPORTANCE OF REFLECTIVE JOURNAL TO THE TEACHER AND THE
CLASSROOM.
SECTION 4-MEANING OF REFLECTIVE PORTFOLIO, HOW REFLECTIVE IS
DIFFERENT FROM OTHER TYPES OF ASSESSMENT, COMPONENTS OF
REFLECTIVE PORTFOLIO.
SECTION 5- HOW REFLECTIVE PORTFOLIO IS USEFUL TO STUDENTS, HOW TO
WRITE A GOOD REFLECTIVE PORTFOLIO, MISTAKES YOU MUST AVOID
WHEN WRITING A REFLECTIVE PORTFOLIO.
SECTION 1 - MEANING OF REFLECTIVE WRITING, PURPOSE OF REFLECTIVE
WRITING AND HOW TO WRITE REFLECTIVELY
Introduction
Hi! You are welcome to section 1 of the fifth unit of this book. In this section, I shall look at the
meaning of reflective writing, purpose of reflective writing and how to write reflectively because
we can’t look at reflective journals and reflective portfolios without knowing what reflection or
reflective writing. I am certain that you will enjoy the discussion.

Objectives

After the end of this discussion, you will be able to

• Explain what reflective writing/ reflection is
• Enumerate at least two purpose of reflective writing
• Discuss how to write reflectively

Background

According to Wilson (2007), ‘A common ingredient sometimes a compulsory one of a portfolio

is a learning journal. If you are going to use this, remember to start it soon enough as soon as
you know that a portfolio will be demanded of you. If you keep a “Learning Log”, “Learning
Journal” or “Learning Diary”, you will in fact be reflecting on or thinking about what you are
learning. You will be learning by internalizing your experiences by making them more fully
your own. The portfolio at its best can help to bring together your whole learning process. It
adds to even while it helps you to reflect on your personal growth, learning and development.’
Meaning of Reflective Writing
A great deal of your time at university will be spent thinking; thinking about what people have
said, what you have read, what you yourself are thinking and how your thinking has changed.
It is generally believed that the thinking process involves two aspects: reflective thinking and
critical thinking. They are not separate processes; rather, they are closely connected
(Brookfield 1987).
Figure 1: The Thinking Process (adapted from Mezirow 1990, Schon 1987, Brookfield 1987)

Activity 1.1

From the diagram above, cast your definition or meaning of reflective writing/reflection

…………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………..

Now compare your answers to the following definitions to check if you are on the right track.

Reflective thinking

Reflection is:

• a form of personal response to experiences, situations, events or new information.

• a 'processing' phase where thinking and learning take place.

There is neither a right nor a wrong way of reflective thinking, there are just questions to
explore.

Figure 1 shows that the reflective thinking process starts with you. Before you can begin to
assess the words and ideas of others, you need to pause and identify and examine your own
thoughts.

Doing this involves revisiting your prior experience and knowledge of the topic you are
exploring. It also involves considering how and why you think the way you do. The
examination of your beliefs, values, attitudes and assumptions forms the foundation of your
understanding.

Reflective thinking demands that you recognize that you bring valuable knowledge to every
experience. It helps you therefore to recognize and clarify the important connections between
what you already know and what you are learning. It is a way of helping you to become an
active, aware and critical learner.

Activity 1.2

Discuss at least two reasons there is the need for reflective writing or reflection

…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………

Now let’s take a look at some purposes of reflection or reflective writing

Purpose of reflective writing

The purpose of reflective writing is to help you learn from a particular practical experience. It
will help you to make connections between what you are taught in theory and what you need to
do in practice. You reflect so that you can learn.

In reflective writing, you are trying to write down some of the thinking that you have been
through while carrying out a particular practical activity, such as writing an essay, teaching a
class or selling a product. Through reflection, you should be able to make sense of what you
did and why and perhaps help yourself to do it better next time.

You might reflect for many reasons in many ways, for example, in a diary or personal log. But
here we are interested in the kind of writing that you do for assessment. You are often asked
to provide a record of what you did plus a reflection of how you did it and how you are using
what you are taught in your classes and any practical experience you are gaining to do this.

Reflective writing gives you the chance think about what you are doing more deeply and to
learn from your experience. You have the opportunity to discover how what you are taught in
class helps you with your real-world or academic tasks. Writing your thoughts down makes it
easier for you to think about them and make connections between what you are thinking, what
you are being taught and what you are doing. Your written reflection will also serve as a source
of reference and evidence in the future.
Note

It is not sufficient simply to have an experience in order to learn. Without reflecting upon this
experience, it may quickly be forgotten, or its learning potential lost. It is from the feelings and
thoughts emerging from this reflection that generalizations or concepts can be generated. And
it is generalizations that allow new situations to be tackled effectively. (Gibbs, 1988, p. 9)

Activity 1.3

Mention 5 questions you are likely to be asked to reflect on as student of U.E.W.

a. …………………………………………………………………………………………….
b. ………………………………………………………………………………………………
c. ………………………………………………………………………………………………
d. ………………………………………………………………………………………………
e. ………………………………………………………………………………………………

Reflective writing often involves an action plan in which you should write about:

• what you are going to do differently in this type of situation next time
• what steps you are going to take on the basis of what you have learned.

Kolb's (1984) experiential learning cycle is useful here:

In this case Concrete Experience is the activity - what you did. Reflective Observation is
thinking about how you did it, how you felt and how you might have done it differently.
Abstract Conceptualization is thinking about what you were taught in class, what you have
read about how to do this stage and why. Active Experimentation is thinking about what you
learned from your reflection and conceptualization and planning how you might do it
differently next time.

Assume that you are reflecting on something that you have done in class.

You will probably start by describing what you did. You might then want to write about how
you did the activity, what methods you used. You might then want to evaluate your
performance. How well did you do? In order to do this, you need to consider what you have
been taught. You might want to describe what the experts say. You may then to consider your
reactions. How did you/do you feel? You might finish by considering how you would do it
next time.

Activity 1.4

In reflective writing it is common to use the first person – ‘I’ - when necessary. Is the statement
true? If yes why? If no state the reason.

…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………

Let’s take a look at the types of reflection.

According to Schön, there are two types of reflection, one during and one after an activity or
event.
Reflection In-Action
When you are thinking about or reflecting while you are in an activity, you are using reflection
in-action. Some reflection includes:

• Experiencing
• Thinking on your feet
• Thinking about what to do next
• Acting straight away

Reflection On-Action
You can do reflect-on-action once the activity has finished based on what you can remember
about it. Step back into the experience, explore your memory and retrieve what you can recall.
Reflect and understand what has happened and draw lessons from the experience.
• Thinking about something that has happened
• Thinking what you would do differently next time
• Taking your time

Examples to Reflect Effectively

Before the Experience

• Think about the things that might happen.

• What are the things that you feel might be a challenge?
• The things that you can do to prepare for these experiences.

During the Experience

• Observe what is happening at the moment, as you make a particular decision.

• Is it working out as expected? Are you dealing with the challenges well?
• Is there anything you should do, say or think to make the experience successful?

After the Experience

• Describe your thoughts immediately after, and/or later when you have more emotional
distance from the event.
• Is there anything you would do differently before or during a similar event?
• What are the takeaways from this experience/lesson?

How Do I Write Reflectively?

Writing Style

Because it concerns your thoughts, reflective writing is mostly subjective. Therefore, in addition
to being reflective and logical, you can be personal, hypothetical, critical and creative. You can
comment about your experiences, rather than solely drawing on academic evidence.

Reflective writing is an activity that includes description (what, when, who) and analysis (how,
why, what if). It is an explorative tool often resulting in more questions than answers.

A reflective task may allow you to use different modes of writing and language:
Use full sentences and complete paragraphs for your reflections. Reflective writing is often
less formal, you can usually use personal pronouns like 'I', 'my' or 'we' - but keep colloquial
language to a minimum, e.g. terms like kid, bloke, stuff.

It's also helpful to make comparisons and connections between what you are learning and your
prior knowledge and experience and your prior assumptions

Steps to follow during a reflective writing

• Be clear about your task

Reflective writing assignments can take many forms, so check the guidelines in your course
outline before you begin. Clarify any questions or uncertainties with your lecturer or tutor.

• Clarify the practical aspects

Find out what form your task should take. You may need to submit a book or folder or complete
an online component. In addition to writing, you may be able to include pictures, diagrams,
media clippings etc.

• Gather your ideas

Before you write, you need to think and reflect. Start by drawing a mind map.
Now grab some Tips to help you in your reflective writing process. I hope you will
like it!

• Think of an interaction, event or episode you experienced that can be connected to the
topic.
• Describe what happened.
• What was your role?
• What feelings and perceptions surrounded the experience?
• How would you explain the situation to someone else?
• What might this experience mean in the context of your course?
• What other perspectives, theories or concepts could be applied to the situation?

Activity 1.5

Identify 4 benefits and possible problems each you are likely to encounter during a reflective
writing.

Benefits Problems
1. 1.
2. 2.
3. 3.
4. 4.

Summary
It is not sufficient simply to have an experience in order to learn. Without reflecting upon this
experience, it may quickly be forgotten, or its learning potential lost. It is from the feelings and
thoughts emerging from this reflection that generalizations or concepts can be generated. And
it is generalizations that allow new situations to be tackled effectively.
SECTION 2 - MEANING OF REFLECTIVE JOURNAL, REASONS TO WRITE A
REFLECTIVE JOURNAL AND THE REFLECTIVE JOURNAL THOUGHT
PROCESS.
Introduction

Hello student teacher! You are welcome again to the second section of this unit. In the previous
section we looked at the meaning of reflection, purpose of reflection, types of reflection and finally,
how to write reflectively.

In this section we are going to look at what a reflective journal is, reasons to write a reflective
journal and the reflective journal thought process.

Objectives
On completion of this discussion, you should be able:
• Explain a reflective journal
• State at least four reasons to write a reflective journal
• Discuss the reflective journal thought process

Meaning of reflective journal

I suppose growing up as a student you owned a diary where you wrote the important events and
experiences in life in them. Your diary or jotter could serve as a journal. Well, one of the most
commonly used and therapeutic ways to utilize your journal is to reflect upon experiences you
deem profound or that had an impact on your life. Getting it all down on paper can really give
you a completely different perspective on things. Writing in your journal can be an incredibly
useful tool to help you better understand yourself and the world you operate in. Reflective learning
journals are also a great way to find creative solutions to difficult problems.

So, what exactly is a Reflective Journal?

A reflective journal (reflective diary) is the perfect place to jot down some of life's biggest
thoughts. In a reflective journal, you can write about a positive or negative event that you
experience, what it means or meant to you and what you may have learned from that experience.
Another definition says, a reflective journal is a place to write down your daily reflection entries.
It can be something good or bad that happened to you that you can self-reflect and learn from the
past experience.
A well-written journal can be an important tool. As with any tool, to get the most benefits, you
need practice. This could mean forcing yourself to write, at first, but after a while, it will become
like second nature. Write down your entry as soon as possible after the event. This way, the details
will still be fresh in your mind, which will help later in your analysis.
Activity 2.1 `

Cast your own definition of reflective journal based on what you have heard so far.

Reasons to Write a Reflective Journal

Reflective journals are most often used to record detailed descriptions of certain aspects of an
event or thought. For example, who was there, what was the purpose of the event, what do you
think about it, how does it make you feel, etc. Write down everything, even if you don't have a
clear idea of how this information will be helpful.

Here are some of the most common reasons why people find reflective journals so useful:

1. To make sense of things that happened. What you write should sound as if you are describing
the details to someone who wasn't there. Be as descriptive as possible. Just the act of writing down
the details of what happened may give your perspective that you may not have otherwise
considered had you just continued to think about it.

2. To speculate as to why something is the way it is. Your views can come from your own common
sense, or from something you have heard at a lecture or read in a book. Either way, speculating
why something is the way it is can be a very useful exercise in reasoning.

3. To align future actions with your reflected values and experiences. After positing your
interpretation, continue to observe the subject of your speculation to decide whether you want to
stick to your original views, or make changes. That is one of the great things about an online
journal--you can make changes to your entries at any time.

4. To get thoughts and ideas out of your head. Writing down your thoughts can help relieve
pressure or help resolve problems. It will also help you focus the task at hand.
5. To share your thoughts and ideas with others. Getting opinions from others about what you
wrote can help you clarify your feelings for a deeper understanding of yourself.
6. It allows students to advance from passive learners to active learners. Through the process
of journaling, students begin to problem-solve on their own. From this, self-esteem begins to
blossom.
7. Journaling also provides a place for dreams and ideas to grow. A proper learning environment
allows students to feel safe, free from judgment, and encouraged. Whether students are journaling
about academic goals or personal goals, a journal is a perfect place to watch these seeds grow.
8. Reflective journaling, with its lack of strict rules, motivates students to write. Some students
feel they don't have a knack for writing. Journaling breaks down some of those walls. Teachers
can provide prompts for students to choose from or allow them to reflect on a certain quote.
9. Reflective journals foster a greater understanding of new ideas. Students can use this
opportunity to think deeper about new discoveries, recording personal observations and added
research on the topic.
10. Reflective journaling allows students to acquire knowledge more authentically. Due to the
critical thinking skills that are a natural outcome of journaling, knowledge isn't acquired simply
because students were told something was true. Through journaling, knowledge is acquired and
maintained because students spent some time contemplating new ideas.

Activity 2.2
a. Enumerate 5 things you will to write in your journal.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
b. State three reasons why you write those (a) in your journal.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………

The Reflective Journal Thought Process

When writing a reflective journal, you are simply documenting something that has happened in your
life that requires you to make a change or consider the impact of your decision. Your journal, in
many ways, is a dialogue that you are having with yourself. You are forcing your brain to think
critically about something and to produce written words accordingly.

The worst thing you can do to a creative flow is to start inputting criticism before your thought is
complete. Allow yourself the time to make a mistake and keep going. Who cares if you didn't phrase
that exactly how you should have or you didn't spell that word right? Those things just aren't
important here. Find whatever works for you.
Summary

A reflective journal can help you to identify important learning events that had happened in your
life. The events include your relationship, career and personal life. By writing a reflective diary,
you can find the source of your inspiration that defines you today. A reflective journal also provides
a better understanding of your thought process.
SECTION 3
TIPS TO WRITE YOUR REFLECTIVE JOURNAL, WAYS YOU CAN ENCOURAGE
JOURNAL WRITING AMONG STUDENTS, THE IMPORTANCE OF REFLECTIVE
JOURNAL TO THE TEACHER AND THE CLASSROOM.

INTRODUCTION

Hello student teacher, you are welcome to the third section of unit 5. I believe you will find this
section interesting, as it linked to the previous section.
In the previous section, you learned a few definitions of a reflective journal. You also learned some
reasons to write a reflective journal. In this section you will look at some tips to write your reflective
journal, ways you can encourage journal writing among students. Finally, the importance of reflective
journal to the teacher and the student.

Objectives

When you have finished reading through this section, you will be able to:

• Identify some tips to write your reflective journal.

• State at least three ways to encourage journal writing among students.

• Explain how reflective journal is important to the teacher and the student.

Tips to Get Your Reflective Journaling Started

Writing a reflective journal requires not only that you describe a learning experience, but also that
you analyze the topics covered and articulate your feelings and opinions about the subject matter.
There is no set structure for writing a reflective journal, as the diary is meant for your own use.
The writing process is entirely free-form. However, there are certain guidelines to follow that will
make you more successful at this. Here are some basic tips at how to write a reflective journal.

1. ALWAYS KEEP THE JOURNAL NEARBY

The first step in learning how to write a reflective journal is as simple as being prepared to jot
down your thoughts and opinions on something you are learning anytime the mood strikes. For
example, if you have an insightful observation about a book you're reading while on the bus, it
pays to have your journal with you.
2. MAKE REGULAR ENTRIES

While you can write in whatever form and style you please, it's important to write regular
entries, even if a moment of inspiration doesn't arise. This ensures you are reviewing content
and actively thinking about what you have learned. This will develop your writing and critical
thinking skills while keeping you organized. In the end, this should enable you to
better understand specific topics you are studying.

3. PARTICIPATE, OBSERVE, SUMMARIZE AND CONTEMPLATE

While reflecting is the main part of keeping a reflective diary, it's also vital that you first
participate in a learning activity, make observations and summarize facts and experiences.
For example, if you are writing a lab for science class, be sure to first cover what you did and
what the goal and outcome of the experiment was prior to elaborating on your ideas and
opinions of what was discovered. Reflective journaling is first about participating and
observing before writing.

4. REVIEW REGULARLY

Take time to read over previous journal entries and see how new experiences, additional
knowledge and time have altered how you think and feel about the material you've been
analyzing and contemplating. This will make the journal more valuable to you personally, as
it will shed light on how you've grown.

Activity 3.1

Discuss 2 tips to write a reflective journal

…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………

Ways to Encourage Journal Writing

For students who doubt their ability to write - or consider it a chore - there are many ways to
encourage them to embrace journaling. Here are five to get you started.
1. Utilize the "pick a topic" strategy. Encourage students to write about anything, in relation
to a theme. Creating prompts provides students with direction to get them started.

2. Don't use this as a time to nit-pick on grammar and usage. Allow students to write freely,
even in poor grammar. Students who journal regularly will naturally improve their
grammar skills over time.

3. Use the "stream of questioning" technique to foster new ideas. If you'd like students to
journal about recent reading, pose a series of questions, i.e. what characters did you relate
to and why? What would you do if you were in their situation?

4. Write a quote on the board and ask students to reflect on it. What do they think it means?
Do they believe it's true?

5. Create consistency. Make it understood that this is the way the first five minutes of every
class will begin. Consistency will foster the habits we've discussed i.e. critical thinking and
creativity.

Your aim should be to get students to draw connections between school and their life outside the
classroom. This helps students draw a personal connection to their work. Furthermore, it helps
students better understand events taking place in their everyday lives.

List the things that you want to achieve this week. When teachers introduce the idea of journaling
into their classroom, they're often searching for reflective journal writing tips for students. These
are the ideas that will help students become motivated to formulate opinions, express themselves
openly, and write reflectively.
Students - middle and high school students especially - can really benefit from journal writing and
it's not a difficult or expensive technique to introduce into a lesson plan. In fact, it's often an
effective way to begin class. This practice creates routine and reliability.

Students of all ages can learn a lot from keeping a regular journal. In fact, teachers can, too.
Learning from experience is an important part of the teaching career track and many teachers like
to reflect on what's working and what's not within their classrooms. Students themselves often
enjoy writing in journals. These small notebooks allow them to create a safe space to write, express
themselves, and document their progress.
Importance of reflective journal to the teacher

1. If you plan on collecting and grading students' journals, this will create a wonderful
opportunity for you to better understand them.

2. You'll discover which areas they're struggling in, academically, enabling you to address
their needs.

3. You may even discover their personal worlds and understand how to help them develop
relationships in the classroom.

NOTE
The intentionally relaxed nature of journaling makes grading a bit different than other
assignments. The goal here is to place the emphasis on content, not technicality. It would be best,
for both teacher and student, to develop a simple rubric. Perhaps you'll outline three areas:

1. Content Reflection: Did the student answer all questions?

2. Personal Growth: Was self-reflection expressed in the writing?
3. Advancement: Were new discoveries made throughout the process of journal writing?

Keep the rubric basic, since the primary goal of reflective journaling is self-discovery and self-
confidence. It's possible to develop a framework that ensures students took the assignment
seriously, without overburdening them with strict "rules" in what should otherwise be a freeing
exercise.

Importance of reflective journal in the classroom

1. Reflective journaling will serve as a powerful tool to aid everyone's understanding.

2. Students will come to know themselves, their thoughts, and even their dreams better.

3. Teachers will come to understand their students better and be able to reach out to them on
both an academic and a personal level.

4. Starting off the day with a calm moment for careful reflection is just the ticket to a successful
and enjoyable day of learning.
5. When teachers introduce the idea of journaling into their classroom, they're often searching
for reflective journal writing tips for students. These are the ideas that will help students
become motivated to formulate opinions, express themselves openly, and write reflectively.

6. Students - middle and high school students especially - can really benefit from journal
writing and it's not a difficult or expensive technique to introduce into a lesson plan. In fact,
it's often an effective way to begin class. This practice creates routine and reliability.

7. Students of all ages can learn a lot from keeping a regular journal. In fact, teachers can, too.
Learning from experience is an important part of the teaching career track and many
teachers like to reflect on what's working and what's not within their classrooms. Students
themselves often enjoy writing in journals. These small notebooks allow them to create a
safe space to write, express themselves, and document their progress.

Activity 3.2

a. Write your experience as fresh student in Introduction to Integrated Science II class.

b. List four ways reflective journal can be used in a science lesson.

a. ……………………………………………………………………………………

b. ……………………………………………………………………………………

c. ……………………………………………………………………………………

d. …………………………………………………………………………………..

Summary

Everyone can learn something about themselves and their habits when forced to write about
them. That's why journal writing is a critical activity when seeking personal development.
SECTION 4-MEANING OF REFLECTIVE PORTFOLIO, HOW REFLECTIVE IS
DIFFERENT FROM OTHER TYPES OF ASSESSMENT, COMPONENTS OF
REFLECTIVE PORTFOLIO.
INTRODUCTION

Hello student teacher! You are welcome to Section 4. You are gradually getting to the end of this
course. You therefore need to pluck courage and sustain tempo. In the last section, I discussed
some tips to start a reflective journal, ways to encourage reflective journal writing. Again, we
discussed some importance of reflective journal to the student and the classroom.

In this section, we are going to discuss the meaning of reflective portfolio, how reflective is
different from other types of assessment and components of reflective a portfolio.

Objectives

After reading through this section, you will be able to:

• Define reflective portfolio

• Identify the difference between reflective portfolio and other types of assessment
• State the components of a reflective portfolio

What Is a Reflective Portfolio?

Reflective Portfolios are becoming a common part of assessments, especially in practical

subjects like Education, Medicine, Business, and the Arts. Students are often confused about
the requirements and expectations for Reflective Portfolios, but this discussion will help you
understand what’s involved.

Simply put, Reflective Portfolio is a set of writings that summarize the insights and
experiences a student has gained from practical assignments. It is used to assess the
student’s engagement with their fieldwork, and their ability to use theoretical knowledge in
an applied setting. The portfolio itself can take many forms, including an extended written
piece, a notebook or binder of short writings and documentary evidence, or an online archive
of such pieces.

Activity 4.1

From the previous section, identify 3 differences between a reflective journal and a reflective
portfolio.

a. …………………………………………………………………………………………….
b. …………………………………………………………………………………………….
c. …………………………………………………………………………………………….
Now let’s take a look at some differences between other types of academic assignment.

How Is a Reflective Portfolio Different from Other Types of Academic Assignment?

The reflective portfolio is very different from traditional assignments because it allows
students to explore their own learning process. Whereas traditional academic projects expect
students to be objective and impersonal, a Reflective Portfolio asks students to highlight their
own personal perspectives, opinions and feelings. It provides an honest summary of the work
undertaken and the skill sets that were developed. The key to success is demonstrating genuine
engagement with the course of study rather than a simple ability to score highly on an exam or
essay.

Activity 4.2

Based on the definitions and characteristics of a reflective portfolio. Identify two components
of reflective portfolio.

a. ……………………………………………………………………………………………..
b. ……………………………………………………………………………………………..

Let’s cross check from the answers below

What Does a Reflective Portfolio Normally Contain?

The contents of a Reflective Portfolio will vary according to the discipline, but in general it
contains short written pieces that summarize and reflect on the experiences of practical work
placements. It can include the following:

• Samples of your Work – This will vary according to your field of study. For example, Art
students might be asked to provide photographs or scans of some of their work, while trainee
Teachers might be required to include sample lesson plans. The important thing is to include
samples that reflect your best practice, and that demonstrate depth and diversity as a practitioner.

• Journal Entries – Students are often asked to keep an informal journal during their practical work.
This should contain a brief summary of the tasks you’ve completed, as well as critical reflection
on the skills they helped you to develop. You should also make note of any situations that you
found difficult or challenging, and any moments of professional insight.

• Critical Incidents Reports – These are typically short summaries of moments that significantly
enhanced student learning. Critical Incidents can be either positive or negative experiences which
provided strong opportunities for professional development. When writing about such incidents,
students should reflect on the ways that they prompted new skill development, or provided
enhanced understanding of course material.
• Evidence of Achievement – This part of a Reflective Portfolio provides written evidence of
student achievement. For example, students can show how they met course objectives through
work placement time sheets, mentor/employer feedback, client ratings, and more. This section can
also be referred to in your other portfolio writings to support your reflective statements.

• Personal Statement – The Personal Statement provides an opportunity for students to summarize
their newly developed skills and professional philosophies. Based on the experiences you’ve
gained; how would you describe yourself professionally? Has your practical learning led you to
embrace a particular philosophy related to your profession, or subscribe to a certain body of
methods? In other words, what kind of practitioner will you be, and how has this been shaped by
your practical fieldwork?

Activity 4.3

Identify 4 subjects taught at the basic school that reflective portfolio can be used as a mode
assessment.

a. …………………………………………………………………………………………
b. …………………………………………………………………………………………
c. …………………………………………………………………………………………
d. …………………………………………………………………………………………

Summary

In this section, I discussed that reflective portfolio is a collection of evidence or proof of the
student’s learning and abilities. I also discussed some components of a reflective portfolio
which are reflective journal, personal statement, evidence of achievement etc.
SECTION 5- HOW REFLECTIVE PORTFOLIO IS USEFUL TO STUDENTS, HOW TO
WRITE A GOOD REFLECTIVE PORTFOLIO, MISTAKES YOU MUST AVOID WHEN
WRITING A REFLECTIVE PORTFOLIO.

INTRODUCTION

Hello student teacher! All too soon you have come to the last section of this course. This last
section, is a continuation of the previous section. It deals with how reflective portfolio is useful to
students. I will as well suggest ways you in which you can use to write a good reflective portfolio.
Finally, I will discuss some mistakes you must avoid when writing a reflective portfolio. Pick up
all your writing materials and find a comfortable place to sit and enjoy this last section.

OBJECTIVES

After reading this section, you should be able to:

• Identify at least three uses of reflective portfolios to students.

• Explain how to write a good reflective portfolio
• State at least three mistakes to avoid when writing a reflective portfolio.

What Use Are Reflective Portfolios to Students?

Many students feel that Reflective Portfolios are far more helpful to their academic
development than traditional assignments. Do you believe it or not? State your reason below.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………

Well, I agree it is true, this is because it allows them to develop a critical awareness of their
own skill development, which helps them identify their own strengths and weaknesses. The
Reflective Portfolio also instils confidence in the student as they learn to apply their theoretical
knowledge to practical situations. Through a Portfolio, students reflect back on the thoughts,
feelings and insights that they developed over the course of their degree program, and this
creates a more holistic educational experience than many other types of assignment.

How to Write a Good Reflective Portfolio

In order to write a good and creative reflective portfolio there are some tips you must munch
like a piece of cake. The tips are outlined are listed below:

Be critical. Although the content of a portfolio will be more personalized than other
assignments, you should use the same level of critical analysis as you do for any essay or exam.

Be comprehensive. Make sure that you include a good range of experiences that exemplify
your work throughout the duration of your practical assignment. You might choose to highlight
one or two periods of your work, but these should be contextualized within your overall
experience.

Don’t be afraid to reveal your weaknesses. Writing about your professional insecurities and
weaknesses shows examiners how much you’ve developed throughout your course. It also
enables you to reflect on theories and methods that might benefit you in future.

Devise a plan for development. Your Reflective Portfolio should testify to your development
as a practitioner throughout the duration of your course. However, to write a really strong
portfolio you should also demonstrate an action plan for future development. Think about what
knowledge and skills might address the professional weaknesses that your reflections reveal,
and indicate how you intend to develop these.

Mistakes to Avoid in Writing Reflective Portfolios

You know as humans were bound to mistakes, but some mistakes can be avoided. In this
discussion, I am going to outline some mistakes that to be avoided in writing reflective
portfolio.

The most common mistake in Reflective Writing is to be either too objective and scholarly, or
too emotional and non-critical. Either mistake is equally wrong. Students should aim for a
middle ground in their writing, in which they highlight their own personal feelings and
reflections but analyze these with reference to the theoretical course material.

Another common mistake is not providing enough relevant evidence to support your
reflections. Be sure to include documents from your practical experience, including summaries
of assignments, mentor/employer feedback, client ratings and so forth.

Finally, be sure to keep your portfolio well organized and professional-looking. It is true that
Reflective Portfolios entail a less formal style of writing, but students sometimes believe that
this allows for disorganized presentations with jumbled notes, illegible handwriting and poor
grammar. Remember that this is still an academic assignment, and all the normal standards of
achievement apply!

Activity 6.1

Prepare a 6 six weeks reflective portfolio on, an introduction to Integrated science lesson.

Summary

In this unit, you have learned about some tips to write reflectively being it journal or portfolio.
You have also learnt some benefit of writing reflectively as a student teacher, and as student.
I will end this unit with a poem by Rudyard Kipling
It says,

I keep six honest serving-men,

They taught me all I knew,

Their names are What and Why and When

And How and Where and Who.

With that summary, you’ve come to the end of this unit and the whole course on
Introduction to Integrated Science II.

Well done.

Common questions