1 Introduction

1 Introduction
In combinational logic circuits, the output at any instant is exclusively determined by the current
input values, assuming propagation delay is negligible.

There is no memory of past inputs.

These circuits are called non-regenerative circuits because:

– There is no feedback from the output back to the input.

– The circuit cannot store or remember previous states.

In contrast, sequential logic circuits can remember past inputs. Here, the output depends on:

The present inputs, and

The history of past inputs (i.e., the circuit has memory).

Figure below conceptually shows a sequential circuit composed of a combinational logic block and a
memory element connected in a feedback loop.

Figure 1: Sequential circuit consisting of a combinational logic block and a memory block in the
feedback loop

The feedback in sequential circuits gives rise to regenerative behavior, allowing them to retain
state and thus act as memory elements.

1 Introduction

Types of Regenerative Circuits

Regenerative circuits can be classified into the following categories:
VLSI Design and Testing 2 Behavior of Bistable Elements
Table 1: Classification of Regenerative Circuits
Type Stable States Behavior Summary Example
Bistable Two Can remain in either of two stable Latches, flip-flops
states indefinitely under
appropriate conditions.
Monostable One Returns to the single stable state One-shot pulse
after a temporary state change generator
caused by an external trigger.
Astable None Continuously oscillates between Ring oscillator
states with no stable operating
point.

Figure 2: Classification of logic circuits based on their temporal behavior

Importance of Bistable Circuits

Among the three types, bistable circuits are the most widely used and significant in digital systems.
They form the foundation for:

Latches

Flip-flops

Registers

Memory elements

2 Behavior of Bistable Elements

A bistable circuit is a fundamental digital building block with two stable states.

It is widely used in memory elements such as latches, flip-flops, and registers.

VLSI Design and Testing 2 Behavior of Bistable Elements
The simplest bistable circuit can be constructed using two cross-coupled inverters.

2.1 Cross-Coupled Inverter

Two inverters are connected in a feedback loop as shown in figure below.

Figure 3: Cross-Coupled Inverter In

this configuration:
Output of Inverter 1 is connected to the input of Inverter 2

Output of Inverter 2 is connected to the input of Inverter 1

Thus, we have:
vO1 = vI2, vO2 = vI1

2.1.1 Voltage Transfer Characteristics (VTC)

Figure 4: (a) VTC of Cross - Coupled Inverter; (b) Potential energy landscape
The voltage transfer curves (VTC) of both inverters can be plotted on the same graph as sown in
above figure(a). The intersection points indicate possible operating points of the circuit.

There are three intersection points

Two of them are stable

One is unstable

Stability analysis:

At stable points: inverter gain < 1 ⇒ small disturbances decay.

At the unstable point: inverter gain > 1 ⇒ disturbances are amplified.

2.1.2 Energy Landscape Analogy

The bistable nature of a cross-coupled inverter circuit can be understood not only through voltage
transfer characteristics but also through a qualitative analysis of the total potential energy levels at
different operating points refer figure (b).

The circuit exhibits three possible operating points:

– Two stable operating points

– One unstable operating point

At the two stable points, the total potential energy is at a minimum. This occurs when the
voltage gains of both inverters are approximately zero.

At the intermediate operating point, the potential energy is at a maximum. Here, both
inverters exhibit maximum voltage gain, making the system highly sensitive to small
perturbations.

A small disturbance at the unstable point causes the system to transition into one of the two
stable states.

This bistable energy profile explains why the cross-coupled inverter configuration is widely
used in digital memory circuits such as SR latches and flip-flops, which rely on having two
stable states to store binary information.
2.2 CMOS Two-Inverter Bistable Element
Figure below shows the circuit diagram of a CMOS bistable element constructed using two
cascaded CMOS inverters.

Figure 5: Circuit diagram of a CMOS bistable element

These inverters are connected in a positive feedback loop — the output of the first inverter is
the input to the second, and vice versa.

This configuration creates a system with two stable states and one unstable state.

2.2.1 Unstable Operating Point

At the unstable operating point, both outputs are at an intermediate voltage level. At this
condition:

All four transistors (2 NMOS and 2 PMOS) are in saturation region.

This results in the maximum loop gain of the system.

The operating point is highly sensitive to even the smallest perturbation.

This point is referred to as a metastable state.

2.2.2 Behavior Under Perturbation

If the circuit is initialized exactly at the unstable point, any small voltage perturbation or noise will
move the system away from it. Due to the positive feedback:

The small disturbance gets amplified.

The outputs of the inverters diverge rapidly.

The system settles in one of two stable states (refer the figure shown below):

– One output reaches VOH (logic high).

 – The other output reaches VOL (logic low).

Figure 6: One possible time-domain response of the output voltages when the circuit is initially
biased at its unstable operating point.

2.2.3 Polarity of Divergence

The direction in which each output voltage diverges is determined by the initial perturbation
polarity. For example:

If the output of inverter 1 is slightly higher than that of inverter 2, it will rise further toward
VOH.

Consequently, the output of inverter 2 will fall toward VOL.

This positive feedback ensures that the circuit acts as a memory element.

2.2.4 Key Takeaways

The CMOS two-inverter bistable element is fundamental to binary state storage.

The metastable point is unstable and cannot retain a state in the presence of noise.

Positive feedback ensures rapid convergence to a stable logic level.

This circuit is the basis for SRAM cells, latches, and flip-flops.

3 The SR Latch Circuit

3.1 Introduction to Bistable Elements
A bistable element constructed using two cross-coupled inverters has two stable operating
states.
As long as a power supply is available, the circuit retains its current state, making it suitable for
memory storage.

However, the simple two-inverter setup does not allow external control to change its state.
3.2 Need for Triggering Inputs
To enable external control and allow a change of state, additional switching elements (inputs) must
be added. The resulting circuit is a CMOS SR Latch (see figure below), which includes:
S (Set) input

R (Reset) input
This circuit is often referred to as an SR flip-flop, as it can toggle between two stable states.

3.3 Circuit Structure

Figure 7: CMOS SR latch circuit based on NOR2 gates

The SR latch is implemented using two CMOS NOR gates:

Each NOR gate’s output is fed into one input of the other NOR gate (cross-coupling).

The second input of each NOR gate is connected to the external control input (S or R).
The gate-level schematic and its corresponding block diagram representation are illustrated in
figure below.

Figure 8: Gate-level schematic and block diagram of the NOR-based SR latch.

These figures clearly show how the SR latch structure supports both internal feedback and external
control via S and R inputs.
The circuit provides two outputs:

Q: Primary output

Q: Complement of Q

By definition:

Set state: Q = 1, Q = 0

Reset state: Q = 0, Q = 1

3.4 Operating Conditions

If S = 0 and R = 0: The latch holds its previous state (memory function).

If S = 1 and R = 0: The latch is set; Q = 1, Q = 0.

If S = 0 and R = 1: The latch is reset; Q = 0, Q = 1.

If S = 1 and R = 1: Both outputs go to 0, which violates the complementarity condition. This is a

forbidden or invalid state.

The truth table of the NOR-based SR latch is summarized in the following:

Table 2: Truth Table of NOR-Based SR Latch

S R Q n +1 Q n +1 Operation
0 0 Qn Qn Hold(NoChange)
1 0 1 0 Set
0 1 0 1 Reset
1 1 0 0 NotAllowed(Invalid)

3.5 Transistor-Level Operation of CMOS SR Latch

The operation of the CMOS SR latch circuit can be examined more closely by analyzing the behavior
of its four nMOS transistors: M1, M2, M3, and M4.

Case 1: S = VOH, R = VOL

Transistors M1 and M2 (connected in parallel) are turned ON.

This pulls node Q to logic-low level, i.e., VOL.

Transistors M3 and M4 are OFF, so node Q rises to logic-high level VOH.

The latch is in the Set state.

Case 2: S = VOL, R = VOH Transistors M1

and M2 are OFF.

Transistors M3 and M4 are turned ON.

Node Q is pulled to VOL and node Q rises to VOH.

The latch is in the Reset state.

Case 3: S = VOL, R = VOL

Both M1 and M4 (trigger transistors) are OFF.

Depending on the previous state:

– Either M2 is ON → Q = VOL, Q = VOH

– Or M3 is ON → Q = VOL, Q = VOH

The above analysis focuses only on the nMOS transistor network.

For simplicity, the operating states of the complementary pMOS transistors are not explicitly
listed.

The static operation modes and voltage levels of the NOR-based CMOS SR latch circuit are
summarized in the following table:
 Table 3: Operation modes of the transistors in the NOR-based CMOS SR latch circuit

S R Qn+1 Qn+1 nMOS Transistor Operation

VOH VOL VOH VOL M1, M2 ON; M3, M4 OFF VOL VOH
VOL VOH M1, M2 OFF; M3, M4 ON
VOL VOL VOH VOL M1, M4 OFF; M2 ON
VOL VOL VOL VOH M1, M4 OFF; M3 ON

3.6 Transient Analysis of CMOS SR Latch

To study dynamic behavior, we consider a switching event where the latch changes state. For
instance:

Reset → Set: Applying S = 1, R = 0

Set → Reset: Applying S = 0, R = 1

In both cases, the outputs undergo opposite transitions:

One output rises from logic 0 to logic 1

The other falls from logic 1 to logic 0

3.6.1 Coupled Behavior and Simplification

Ideally, simultaneous switching requires solving two coupled differential equations, which is
complex. Instead, we simplify by assuming:

The rise and fall occur sequentially, not simultaneously.

This approximation results in a slight overestimation of switching time but provides useful first-
order analysis.

3.6.2 Capacitance at Output Nodes

The total parasitic capacitance at nodes Q and Q can be approximated as:

The circuit diagram of the SR latch is shown in figure below together with the lumped load

capacitances at the nodes Q and Q

Figure 9: CMOS SR latch showing the lumped load capacitances at both output nodes
Assuming a transition from reset to set:

τrise,Q(SR−latch) = τrise, Q (NOR2) + τfall, Q (NOR2) Assumptions:

M1 turns ON ⇒ Q falls

M3 turns OFF ⇒ Q rises

M2 and M4 are OFF (although M2 might turn ON during transition, helping Q fall faster)
This method avoids simultaneous differential equations and gives a simplified delay estimate.

3.7 Depletion-Load nMOS NOR-Based SR Latch

The NOR-based SR latch can also be implemented using two cross-coupled depletion-load nMOS
NOR2 gates, as shown in figure below.

Figure 10: Depletion-load nMOS SR latch circuit based on NOR2 gates

3.7.1 Depletion-Load nMOS vs. CMOS SR Latch

Logic Functionality:
 The logical behavior of the depletion-load nMOS NOR-based SR latch is identical to that of the
CMOS-based implementation.

Implementation Comparison:
CMOS Implementation:

– Offers better power efficiency.

– No static power dissipation while holding a state.
– Provides full output voltage swing between 0 and VDD. nMOS Depletion-Load

Implementation:

– Logic works the same, but suffers from static power dissipation.
– Output levels may not reach full rail voltages.

3.8 NAND-Based SR Latch

3.8.1 Circuit Structure
The CMOS NAND - based SR latch is shown in figure below.

Figure 11: CMOS SR latch circuit based on NAND2 gates

It uses two NAND2 gates with cross-coupled feedback

Inputs: S, R (active-low)

Outputs: Q, Q

3.8.2 NAND SR Latch Behavior

1. Set State:
 S = 0, R = 1

⇒ Q = 1, Q = 0

2. Reset State:

3. Hold State:

S = 1, R = 1
⇒ Previous state is held

4. Invalid State:

S = 0, R = 0

⇒ Q = Q = 1 (invalid)

The truth table is shown below:

Table4:TruthtableofNAND-basedSRlatch

S R Q n +1 Q n +1 Operation
1 1 Qn Qn Hold(nochange)
0 1 1 0 Set
1 0 0 1 Reset
0 0 1 1 NotAllowed

The gate-level schematic and the corresponding block diagram representation of the NAND-based
SR latch circuit are shown in figure below:

Figure 12: Gate-level schematic and block diagram of the NAND-based SR latch

3.8.3 Comparison with NOR SR Latch

NAND latch is active-low triggered

NOR latch is active-high triggered

CMOS NAND latch dissipates negligible static power

NAND latch with depletion-load NMOS gates is possible, but CMOS offers better noise margins
and full output swing
The NAND-based SR latch can also be implemented by using two cross-coupled depletion-load
NAND2 gates, as shown in figure below:

Figure 13: Depletion-load nMOS NAND-based SR latch circuit

4 Clocked Latch and Flip-Flop Circuits

4.1 Clocked SR Latch
4.1.1 Introduction
In the previous section, we examined the behavior of the basic SR latch, which is an
asynchronous sequential circuit.

These circuits respond to changes in their inputs at a time determined by internal circuit
delays.

However, many digital systems require synchronous operation, where outputs change only in
response to a clock signal.

4.1.2 Need for Clocked Latch

To ensure that the SR latch responds to inputs in a synchronized fashion, we introduce a gating
clock signal (CK).

This clock restricts changes in the output to specific periods (when the clock is active),
enabling predictable and stable circuit behavior.

The clock (CK) is typically a periodic square waveform.

It is applied simultaneously to all clocked logic gates in the system.

 Inputs S and R affect the latch only during the active level of the clock.

4.1.3 Clocked NOR-Based SR Latch

Figure 14: Gate-level schematic of the clocked NOR-based SR latch

If CK = 0:
The AND gates output 0 regardless of S and R, so the SR latch maintains its current state.

If CK = 1:
The values of S and R propagate to the NOR-based SR latch, potentially altering its state.

If S = R = 1 during CK = 1:
Both outputs of the latch go to 0 momentarily. When CK returns to 0, the state becomes
indeterminate, depending on circuit delay mismatches.

To illustrate the operation of the clocked SR latch, a sample sequence of CK, S, and R
waveforms, and the corresponding output waveform Q are shown in figure below:

Figure 15: Sample input and output waveforms illustrating the operation of the clocked NOR - based
SR latch circuit.

The circuit is level-sensitive during CK = 1.

 Even narrow spikes or glitches in S or R during CK = 1 can trigger a change in state if the pulse
width exceeds loop delay.

4.1.4 CMOS Implementation Using AOI Gates

Figure 16: AOI-based implementation of the clocked NOR-based SR latch circuit

Uses AND-OR-Invert (AOI) gates for compact design.

Reduces the total transistor count compared to using two AND2 and two NOR2 gates.
Offers better noise margins and lower static power dissipation.

4.1.5 Clocked NAND-Based SR Latch (Active-Low Inputs)

Figure 17: Gate-level schematic of the clocked NAND-based SR latch circuit, with active low inputs

Inputs S, R, and CK are all active low.

If CK = 1: Inputs have no effect on the output (latch holds state).

If CK = 0: Inputs S and R determine the next state:

– S = 0, R = 1 ⇒ Q = 1 (Set)
 – S = 1, R = 0 ⇒ Q = 0 (Reset)

Implemented using an OAI (OR-AND-Invert) structure.

4.1.6 Clocked NAND-Based SR Latch (Active-High Inputs)

Figure 18: Gate-level schematic of the clocked NAND-based SR latch circuit, with active high inputs,
and Partial block diagram representation of the same circuit.

Inputs S, R, and CK are all active high.

CK = 1, S = 1, R = 0 ⇒ Set

CK = 1, S = 0, R = 1 ⇒ Reset

CK = 0 ⇒ Latch holds current state.

Higher transistor count compared to the active-low version.

4.2 Clocked JK Latch

4.2.1 Introduction
All simple and clocked SR latch circuits discussed earlier suffer from a common drawback: they
have a not-allowed input combination.

When both inputs (S and R) are activated simultaneously, the circuit enters an indeterminate
state.

This issue can be resolved by adding feedback paths from the outputs to the inputs,
resulting in a new type of latch called the JK Latch, as shown in figure below.
 Figure 19: Gate-level schematic of the clocked NAND-based JK latch circuit
4.2.2 JK Latch: Structure and Working Principle

Figure 20: All-NAND implementation of the clocked JK latch circuit

The JK latch enhances the basic SR latch by eliminating the forbidden input condition.

It consists of an all-NAND gate structure with active-high inputs.

The J and K inputs correspond to the Set and Reset inputs of the SR latch, respectively.

The latch responds to inputs only when the clock (CK) is active (CK = 1).

It preserves its state when the clock is inactive (CK = 0).

4.2.3 Input Conditions and Output Response

The input conditions and output responses can be summarized in following truth table:

Table 5: Truth table of JK latch

J K Qn+1 Operation
 0 0 Qn Hold (no
change)
1 0 1 Set
0 1 0 Reset
1 1 Qn Toggle
4.2.4 Detailed Truth Table of JK Latch
The above conditions are detailed in following table:

Table6:DetailedTruthTableofJKLatch

J K Qn Qn S R Q n+ 1 Operation
0 0 0 1 1 1 0 Hold
1 0 1 1 1
0 1 0 1 1 1 0 Reset
1 0 1 0 0
1 0 0 1 0 1 1 Set
1 0 1 1 1
1 1 0 1 0 1 1 Toggle
1 0 1 0 0

4.2.5 Toggle Mode and Clock Timing Constraint

While the JK latch resolves the undefined state issue of the SR latch, it introduces a new
potential problem:

– If J = K = 1 during an active clock pulse (CK = 1), the output toggles continuously.
– To avoid this, the clock pulse width must be less than the input-to-output
propagation delay.
– This ensures that only one toggle occurs per clock pulse.

If this timing constraint is met, the JK latch toggles its state only once per clock cycle when J =
K = 1.

This behavior is illustrated in figure below.

 Figure 21: Operation of the JK latch as a toggle switch

When the JK latch operates exclusively with J = K = 1, it functions as a Toggle Switch.

Each active clock pulse causes the output to change state (i.e., from 0 to 1 or from 1 to 0).

4.2.6 NOR-based JK Latch Implementation

Figure below shows an alternative implementation of the clocked JK latch using NOR gates.

Figure 22: Gate-level schematic of the clocked NOR-based JK latch circuit

This version, as opposed to the all-NAND realization, presents the following advantages:

– The circuit employs a CMOS realization with an AOI (AND-OR-Invert) structure.

– The AOI-based design results in a lower transistor count.
– Consequently, the circuit becomes more compact and efficient.

The AOI realization of JK latch is shown in figure below:

 Figure 23: CMOS AOI realization of the JK latch

This implementation is especially favorable in VLSI designs where area and power efficiency
are critical.
VLSI Design and Testing
Introduction

1.1 Introduction to VLSI Design Styles

Integrated circuit (IC) design can be described using three main design domains:

1. Behavioral Domain – Describes what the system should do.

2. Structural Domain – Describes how the system is logically constructed.
3. Physical Domain – Describes how the system is physically implemented.

Each domain provides significant design flexibility:

1. In the behavioral domain, designers can choose between sequential or parallel

algorithms.
2. In the structural domain, decisions include logic families, clocking strategies, and circuit
styles.
3. In the physical domain, implementation options range from chips to boards and
cabinets.

These domains are organized hierarchically into several levels of abstraction:

1. Architectural or functional level

2. Register Transfer Level (RTL)
3. Logic level
4. Circuit level

Each level provides multiple implementation options and supports a variety of design styles.

Here, we are mainly going to focus on popular design styles, and structured hierarchical
design.

1.2 Design Flow Approaches

1. Contemporary Design Flow(Figure a):

Follows a step-by-step approach through abstraction levels.

Requires verification of equivalence between each level (e.g., from behavior to RTL, RTL
to logic).
VLSI Design and Testing
1 Introduction

2. Ideal Design Flow(Figure b):

Fully synthesizes the system from a high-level specification.

Minimizes manual intervention and verification efforts.

PROBLEMSPECIFICATION

ARCHITECTUREDEFINITION

SIMULATE&COMPARE PROBLEMSPECIFICATION

BEHAVIORALCOMPILER
LOGICDESIGN

BEHAVIORALDESCRIPTION

SIMULATE&COMPARE
STRUCTURALCOMPILER

STRUCTURALDE-
CIRCUITDESIGN SCRIPTION(CIRCUIT)

PHYSICALCOMPILER

SIMULATE&COMPARE
PHYSICALDESCRIP-
TION(LAYOUT)

LAYOUT
FAB

EXTRACTSIMULATECOMPARE

FAB (b):
Ideal
VLSI Design and Testing 2 Design Styles
(a): Current

Figure 1: Current and ideal design approaches

2 Design Styles
2.1 Introduction
A good VLSI design system should provide consistent descriptions across:

All three design domains: behavioral, structural, and physical

All relevant levels of abstraction

The effectiveness of a design system can be measured using various design parameters:

Performance — speed, power, functionality

Size of die

Time to design and ease of use

Ease of test generation and overall testability

Design is a process of making trade-offs to achieve acceptable results across all these parameters.
Therefore, the tools and methodologies selected for a particular chip depend on:

Required performance specifications (e.g., speed or power)

Economic factors (e.g., die size and yield)

Designer preferences or familiarity (subjective factors)

Given the complexity of silicon-based system design, the role of VLSI design aids is to:

Reduce design complexity

Ensure the designer achieves a working product

2.1.1 Simplifying Design Through Constraints and Abstractions Constraints help

automate the design process, reducing manual effort

Abstractions help manage complexity by hiding lower-level details

Ideally, the choice of methodology is economically driven, provided all styles are available.

Key considerations:

Functionality determines which methods are suitable

Some styles may be unsuitable due to layout inefficiencies

VLSI Design and Testing
Die cost is estimated after choosing the style

The fastest method to achieve that cost-effective design is preferred

VLSI Design and Testing 2 Design Styles

2.2 Structured Design Strategies

One of the main goals of the Mead and Conway approach to VLSI design was to empower
system designers to implement high-performance systems directly in silicon.

To achieve this, it is essential to reduce the complexity of IC and system-level design. This is
especially important because:

– Expert industrial teams require man-years to complete chip designs.

– Expecting novice or academic teams to match this effort without simplification is
unrealistic.

Adapting Software Design Methods

The field of software engineering has developed effective strategies for managing large, complex
systems. These can be:
Adapted or re-adapted to the VLSI design domain

Used to make the IC design process more accessible to novices

Utilized by experts to manage growing complexities — especially with circuits having millions
of devices

2.2.1 Hierarchy

Hierarchy is a fundamental strategy used in structured VLSI design. It involves:

Dividing a complex module into submodules

Repeating this subdivision recursively until each submodule is simple enough to be easily
understood and implemented
This strategy is similar to practices in software design, where:
Large programs are decomposed into smaller components

Eventually yielding simple subroutines with well-defined functions and interfaces

Parallel Hierarchy in VLSI Design Domains

Recall that VLSI design can be described in three main domains:
1. Behavioral

2. Structural

3. Physical
Hierarchy can be applied in parallel within each domain:
Behavioral domain: An adder may be represented by a subroutine describing its operation
VLSI Design and Testing 2 Design Styles
Structural domain: A gate-level connection diagram specifies how it is built logically

Physical domain: A layout section describes its actual physical structure

Consistency Across Domains

As larger structures are built from smaller ones (e.g., combining multiple adders), this hierarchical
approach can be extended in all three domains. Throughout this process:
Domain-to-domain comparisons are essential to ensure that each representation
(behavioral, structural, and physical) is consistent with the others

2.2.2 Modularity

Modularity is a key principle in structured VLSI design. It complements hierarchy by dividing a

system into a set of submodules that are easier to understand, manage, and implement.

Characteristics of a “Well-Formed” Module

The concept of a “well-formed” module varies, but we can borrow principles from structured
software design. A well-formed module should have:
A well-defined interface — In software, this is an argument list with types. In VLSI, it
includes:

– Position and name of external connections – Layer type and size

– Signal type (input/output, power/ground)

A clearly defined function — The module’s purpose must be unambiguous.

Modularity benefits both the designer and the design system by:
Clarifying and documenting the design strategy
Enabling automated checking of module attributes

Supporting team-based design, where multiple designers work on different parts of the chip

Programming Analogies in VLSI Design

Structured programming relies on three basic constructs:
1. Concatenation

2. Iteration

3. Conditional selection
These have parallels in IC design:
Concatenation → Cell abutment: IC cells are placed adjacent to one another, with connections
formed on shared boundaries.
VLSI Design and Testing 2 Design Styles
Iteration → Arrays of cells: One- or two-dimensional arrays of identical cells (e.g., memory
arrays).

Conditional selection → Programmable Logic Arrays (PLAs): Logic behavior is defined by the
placement of transistors in an array.

Parameterization and Modularity

When these programming constructs are combined with parameterization (e.g., setting sizes or bit
widths via parameters), the design becomes highly modular, reusable, and scalable.

2.2.3 Regularity

Regularity is another key principle in structured VLSI design. It refers to the repeated use of
uniform structures to simplify the design, verification, and manufacturing processes.

Example: Iterative Arrays

The formation of arrays of identical cells, such as those used in memory or arithmetic units, is a
basic form of regularity. It leverages repetition to reduce complexity.

Regularity Across Design Levels

Regularity can be applied at various levels in the design hierarchy:

Circuit Level:

– Use of uniform transistor sizes and types instead of individually optimized devices.

Logic Module Level:

– Use of identical gate structures throughout the design.

Architecture Level:

– Replication of identical processor elements or functional units in large systems.

Data-path Construction:

– Modules may differ internally by function, but share a common interface structure (e.g.,
power, ground, clock, buses).

Benefits of Regularity
Simplifies design and layout

Improves manufacturability and yield

Facilitates verification and testing

Supports correct-by-construction design methodology

VLSI Design and Testing 2 Design Styles
Aids formal verification methods

2.2.4 Locality

Locality is a design principle that supports modularity and hierarchy by reducing interdependence
between modules.

Encapsulation and Information Hiding

When a module has a well-characterized interface, the internal implementation details become
irrelevant to external modules. This technique, known as information hiding, reduces complexity
by:

Isolating design changes to individual modules

Minimizing external impact from internal changes

Encouraging self-contained module development

This concept mirrors software engineering practices, where the use of global variables is
discouraged to preserve locality and reduce side effects.

Implications for Physical Design

Physical design should avoid overlapping connections with a module’s internals to preserve
its integrity.

Module interaction should be limited to defined interfaces only.

Placement Strategy
Modern design approaches often favor:

“Wires first, then modules” — global wiring paths are planned before module placement,
ensuring shorter and more efficient interconnections.

This is in contrast to older methods of “place modules, then route”, which can result in
congested or suboptimal wiring.

Benefits of Locality
Reduces global interconnections

Improves layout efficiency

Enhances reusability and maintainability

Enables scalable and systematic VLSI design

VLSI Design and Testing 2 Design Styles

2.3 Handcrafted Mask Layout

Handcrafted mask layout refers to custom, unconstrained layout techniques where the designer
manually creates the physical layout at the mask level.

2.3.1 Characteristics
Traditional and still widely used, especially by semiconductor vendors.

Involves direct layout of functional subsystems at the physical level.

Typically handled by designers with specialized knowledge in logic design, circuit behavior,
and fabrication processes.

2.3.2 Evolution of Layout Techniques

Early methods: Cutting RUBILITH and drawing on MYLAR.

Intermediate stage: Digitization of drawn layouts.

Modern methods: Interactive graphical layout editors.

2.3.3 Advantages

Allows optimization at the transistor level.

Can result in high-performance and area-efficient layouts.

2.3.4 Challenges
Time-consuming and complex, especially for VLSI circuits with millions of transistors.

Requires significant manual effort and expertise.

Lack of constraint can lead to inconsistencies between:

– Behavioral description
– Structural specification
– Physical layout

Before the development of circuit extraction tools, validating the layout was difficult.

2.3.5 Modern Tools

Circuit extraction tools can now analyze the mask-level layout and reconstruct the equivalent
circuit.

Ensures consistency and aids in verification and simulation.

VLSI Design and Testing 2 Design Styles

2.4 Gate Array Design

Gate arrays have gained widespread popularity as an LSI/VLSI implementation medium. This is due
to a combination of factors including:

Readily available vendors,

Availability of robust design tools,

Compatibility with TTL designs, enabling system designers to migrate from board-level to
silicon implementations with minimal effort, Cost-effectiveness for certain classes of ICs.

The constrained physical layout of gate arrays allows the development of bounded design tools.
While this does not necessarily reduce the complexity of the tools themselves, it makes the design
space more manageable.

2.4.1 Structure of Gate Arrays

Gate arrays are characterized by a regular array of identical sites, with each site consisting of a set of
circuit elements. In CMOS technology, these sites typically include multiple nMOS and pMOS
transistors.

Examples of Site Structures:

Six-Transistor Site: Contains 3 nMOS and 3 pMOS transistors. Gates are connected in common,
and source/drain terminals are connected as shown in the schematic.

Figure 2: Six-Transistor Site

Layout View: A physical layout corresponding to the six-transistor site, showing metal and
polysilicon routing.
VLSI Design and Testing 2 Design Styles

Figure 3: Six-Transistor Site:Layout View

Four-Transistor Site: Includes two nMOS and two pMOS transistors. One n-p pair has a
common gate connection; the other pair has separate gate signals. This configuration easily
implements transmission gates and inverters, useful for latches.

Figure 4: Four-Transistor Site

Static Latch Site: Six transistors are ratioed specifically to implement static latches. This site is
one of two cells used in a memory-logic gate array.
VLSI Design and Testing 2 Design Styles

Figure 5: Static Latch Site

Metal-Programmable Site: Features a continuous array of transistors with functionality

defined entirely by metal interconnects, similar to the CMOS cell array method.

Figure 6: Metal-Programmable Site

2.4.2 Advantages of Gate Arrays

Predefined Topology: Enables wafer stockpiling up to a certain fabrication step (usually

metallization).

Post-Fabrication Personalization: Final logic is defined by customizing metal layers,

significantly reducing mask and fabrication cost.
VLSI Design and Testing 2 Design Styles
Reduced Time-to-Market: Design turnaround is faster since only a fraction of the usual mask
cost (typically 1/8 to 1/4) is incurred.

2.4.3 Disadvantages and Trade-offs

Wasted Area: All transistors are pre-fabricated; unused transistors occupy valuable chip area.

Fixed Placement and Configuration: Limits the achievable optimization in area and
performance.

Memory/Logic Ratio Constraints: Vendors must estimate suitable ratios of RAM/ROM to

logic blocks in advance.

2.4.4 Typical Gate Array Floorplan

Arrays of sites are separated by routing channels.

Directional routing rules are applied:

– Metal layers typically run horizontally.

– Polysilicon or other routing layers run vertically.

I/O cells surround the logic core and are mask-programmable.

Figure 7: Typical Gate Array Floorplan

VLSI Design and Testing 2 Design Styles
Example Cell: CMOS Site Structure
A typical 6-transistor CMOS site can implement a variety of 3-, 2-, or 1-input logic gates.
Routing:

– Metal connections internal to the cell are used for logic.

– External connectivity uses vertical metal and horizontal polysilicon runners.

Figure 8: Typical 6-transistor CMOS site

2.4.5 Design Considerations
Designers must address the following during gate array implementation:
Transistor sizing.

Routing channel width,

Placement and routing of discretionary wiring.

2.4.6 Design Flow Example: IGC-20000D

VLSI Design and Testing 2 Design Styles

START
Customer
Createschematicdiagrams;
Definepreliminarytestvectors;
Verifycorrectfunctionality
Customer/Intersil
Phase1 TranslatetoIGC20000CMOSmacros;
Design EncodedinTEGAS;
Translation Performpre-layoutsimulation
Revisions
Intersil
Performpreliminaryplacementonarray;
Recommendschematic
changeswhererequired

Intersil
Performfinalplacement
andautomaticrouting
Intersil Customerapproval
Calculateinterconnection-relateddelays;
Phase2 Performpost-layoutTEGASsimulation
Design
Implementation Customer
Providecompletetestvectors

Intersil
Createpatterngeneratortape

Intersil
Fabricatemasksandwafers;
Phase3
Performwaferprobe;
Fabrication
Assemblepackages;Test;Shipprototypes

Figure9:Gatearraydesignflow
Customer provides a logic schematic and test vectors.

Logic is verified using test vectors.

Logic schematic is converted to CMOS gate-array macros.

Initial simulation is performed.

Cells are placed and automatically routed.

Necessary revisions are sent to the customer.

Once finalized, a full simulation including parasitics is done.

VLSI Design and Testing 2 Design Styles
Final chip is manufactured and tested with customer test vectors.

Meaning of Intersil and TEGAS

Intersil: A semiconductor manufacturing company known for analog and mixed-signal ICs. In
the diagram, “Intersil” refers to the internal design or fabrication team responsible for tasks like
macro translation, simulation, placement, routing, and chip fabrication.
TEGAS: A design and simulation environment, possibly proprietary or domain-specific. TEGAS
is used for pre-layout and post-layout simulation of CMOS designs to verify functionality before
and after physical implementation.

2.5 Standard Cell Design

Standard cell design is a method of VLSI implementation using a library of predefined logic and
circuit cells.

These cells enable efficient digital system design and are modular in nature, similar to TTL-
based gate arrays.

Designers familiar with ITL (Integrated TTL Logic) databooks can easily relate to this
approach.

2.5.1 Types of Standard Cells

Standard cells vary in complexity:

SSI (Small Scale Integration): Basic gates and latches.

MSI/LSI (Medium/Large Scale Integration): More complex modules such as ROMs, RAMs,
and PLAs.

2.5.2 Availability and Commercial Adoption

Initially, standard cell systems were available only in large companies.

Over time, commercial tools have made standard cell design accessible to broader markets,
facilitating faster and more affordable custom chip design.

2.5.3 Mask Requirements

Standard cell design typically requires a full mask set.

However, design trade-offs can be introduced to reuse chips for various applications.

For example, personalizing a ROM or control PLA block allows flexibility in functionality
without redesigning the entire chip.

2.5.4 Comparison with Gate Arrays

VLSI Design and Testing 2 Design Styles
Table 1: Comparison between Standard Cell and Gate Array Design

Feature Standard Cell Design Gate Array Design

Flexibility Cells can be placed anywhere on the chip Uses a fixed base array of cells
Customization Full customization of all mask layers Only upper layers are customized
Performance Generally higher due to optimized layout Lower performance

2.5.5 Floorplanning and Layout

A typical floor plan for a chip designed with standard cells is shown in figure below:

Figure 10: Typical standard cell floor plan

Standard cell chips use a structured floorplan:

Cells are placed in rows separated by routing channels.

Rows are arranged in columns.

Larger functional blocks (e.g., RAMs) are positioned for optimal interconnect with surrounding
logic.

MSI cells often have a fixed height and variable width to accommodate logic complexity, as
illustrated in figure below:

Figure 11: Standard MSI cells format

VLSI Design and Testing 2 Design Styles
2.5.6 Hierarchical Design Approach
Modern standard cell systems support hierarchical design:
Primitive cells are grouped into functional blocks.

Functional blocks are further grouped to define the complete chip.

Enables better design reuse, scalability, and modularity.

2.5.7 Skeleton Cell Layout

A skeleton view of a standard cell is shown in figure below:

Figure 12: Standard cell skeleton

Power rails typically run horizontally using the first metal layer.

I/O connections are routed vertically using polysilicon or second metal layer.

I/O access styles can vary depending on the cell library and are illustrated in figure below:

Figure 13: I/O access styles

2.5.8 Advantages of Standard Cell Design
High performance due to optimized layout and routing.

Reuse of verified, modular cell libraries.

Scalability to both small and large VLSI systems.

2.6 Symbolic Layout Methods

In earlier sections, we discussed several techniques to reduce the complexity of IC (Integrated
Circuit) design tasks.
VLSI Design and Testing 2 Design Styles
These techniques included:

Hierarchy

Regularity

Modularity

Locality

Building upon these ideas, there is now a growing interest in symbolic layout methods. These
approaches aim to simplify the lower-level details of IC design by:

Hiding process design rules

Capturing structural and physical domain information in a looser, more abstract format

Essentially, symbolic layout creates a representation similar to an “assembly language” in

software, offering:

Simplified low-level design at the bottom of the design hierarchy

Ease of use for system designers, without needing to handle the detailed process-specific
layout rules

Key Points:

Symbolic layout methods focus on abstraction to speed up and simplify IC layout tasks.

They represent structural and physical properties symbolically rather than with strict
geometrical precision.

Designers work at a higher level of abstraction, improving productivity while hiding

complex fabrication constraints.
VLSI Design and Testing
3 Testing

3 Testing
3.1 Introduction
In LSI (Large Scale Integration) and VLSI (Very Large Scale Integration) design, an important
consideration is the testing of circuits.

Testing must be incorporated during the design phase itself and should proceed concurrently
with architectural development.

It must not be delayed until fabricated parts are available.

3.1.1 Testing Combinational Circuits

Figure 14: Combinational testing

Figure shows a combinational circuit with n inputs.

To test this circuit exhaustively, a sequence of 2n input combinations, known as test vectors,
must be applied.

Each input combination must be observed to fully verify the behavior of the circuit.

3.1.2 Testing Sequential Circuits

Figure 15: Sequential testing

VLSI Design and Testing References
By adding m storage latches to the combinational circuit, it is converted into a sequential circuit.

In a sequential circuit, the output depends not only on the current inputs but also on the
previous state.

Consequently, an exhaustive test now requires 2n+m input combinations.

3.1.3 Practical Illustration of Testing Complexity

Williams [1] highlights the impracticality of exhaustive testing through an example:
Consider a network with:

– N = 25 inputs
– M = 50 storage elements

The total number of required test patterns:

2(25+50) = 275 ≈ 3.8 × 1022

If test patterns are applied at a rate of 1 microsecond per pattern, the total time needed
would exceed one billion years (109 years).

Exhaustive testing is completely impractical for complex LSI and VLSI circuits. Thus, efficient
testing strategies must be adopted.

References
[1] Williams, “Testing techniques for LSI and VLSI circuits,” 1983.

3.1.4 Important Areas of Testing

Three key areas are critical for effective testing:

1. Test Generation:

Concerned with creating a minimal number of tests required to verify the circuit’s
behavior.
Aims to achieve maximum coverage of internal nodes efficiently.

2. Test Verification:

Focuses on measuring the effectiveness of the generated tests.

Commonly evaluated through fault simulation, where faults are inserted intentionally to
check if the test set detects them.

3. Design for Test (DFT):

VLSI Design and Testing References
Involves designing the circuit in such a way that testing becomes simpler and more
manageable.
Proper DFT reduces the effort and complexity involved in test generation and test
verification.

3.1.5 Sources of Test Inputs

Test inputs can originate from two major sources:

1. Designer-Supplied Tests:

Test vectors provided by the designer to verify the circuit’s functionality.

Example: A variety of programs that run on a microprocessor (if the microprocessor is the
device under test).

2. Manufacturer-Supplied Tests:

Applied by the manufacturer before shipping the product.

These tests aim to verify a high percentage of internal good nodes, ensuring product
reliability.

3.2 Fault Models

In digital circuit testing, fault models are used to represent physical failures in a simplified
logical form.

These models help in generating test vectors and understanding the effectiveness of tests.

3.2.1 Stuck-At Fault Model

One of the most widely used fault models is the Stuck-At fault model.

In this model, a gate input or output is assumed to be stuck at logic ‘0’ (S-A-0) or stuck at logic
‘1’ (S-A-1).

When an input sequence is applied to a circuit, the fault coverage is defined as the percentage
of S-A-0 or S-A-1 faults that can be detected by that sequence.

Limitations of Stuck-At Fault Models

Not all physical faults can be captured using S-A models.

Many faults arise from short circuits or open circuits, which alter the circuit behavior in ways
not modeled by S-A-0/1.

Figure drawn below illustrates this with examples:

– Short S1 behaves like a S-A-0 fault at input A.

– Short S2 changes the actual logic function of the gate.
VLSI Design and Testing References
Hence, it is necessary to model faults at the transistor level, where the complete structure is
visible.

For example, in a CMOS NAND gate, the intermediate node in the series n-transistor path is
hidden at the schematic level.

Figure 16: Faults in CMOS

3.2.2 Switch-Level Faults in CMOS

Test generation should consider faults at the switch level, including possible shorts and opens.
Although switch-level modeling is more accurate, most test systems still use Boolean logic
models.

3.2.3 Sequential Behavior from Faults in CMOS

A unique issue in CMOS is that certain faults may convert a combinational circuit into a
sequential circuit.
For example, a 2-input NOR gate with a stuck-open transistor may retain part of its previous
state.

If the n-transistor connected to A is stuck open:

F = A + B + A · B · Fn

If the n-transistor connected to B is stuck open:

VLSI Design and Testing References

F = A + B + A · B · Fn

Here, Fn is the previous state of the output.

If a p-transistor is missing, the output node may remain arbitrarily charged until discharged,
causing unreliable behavior.
VLSI Design and Testing References
3.2.4 CMOS Fault Modeling for Test Generation

Due to such behavior, researchers have proposed new fault models and test generation
techniques.

One such method is the use of the D-algorithm for logic-level test generation.

Logic Model Representation

Figure 17: Logic fault model for CMOS

Figure (a) shows a CMOS gate at the circuit level.

Figure (b) shows the corresponding logic model, composed of:

– A p-tree and n-tree representing the pull-up and pull-down networks.

– A B-block, which captures output behavior as per input states.
VLSI Design and Testing References

The table below shows the characteristics of B-block:

Table 2: B-block output behavior
S1 S0 Output Y
1 1 X(unknownorbiased)
1 0 1
0 1 0
0 1 0
0 0 m(memorystate)

The m-state indicates memory behavior (retains previous output).

The X-state is unpredictable and may lean towards 0 or 1 depending on logic and fabrication.
VLSI Design and Testing References
VLSI Design and Testing References

Mapping Circuit Faults to Logic Faults

Table below shows how faults in the CMOS circuit map to logical fault models.

Table 3: Equivalent Faults Mapping

MOSCircuitFault EquivalentLogicCircuitFault
AS-A-0/1 AS-A-0/1
BS-A-0/1 BS-A-0/1
CS-A-0/1 CS-A-0/1
ZS-A-0/1 ZS-A-0/1
P1short G3,AS-A-0
P1open G3,AS-A-1
N1short G1,AS-A-1
N2open G1,AS-A-0

3.3 Design for Testability

Testing is an essential step in ensuring that fabricated digital circuits function correctly.

Designing for testability enhances fault detection and diagnosis, making circuits easier to test
and maintain.

3.3.1 Key Concepts

Two important concepts in testability are:
VLSI Design and Testing References
Controllability: The ability to set and reset every internal node in the circuit to a known logic
value via the inputs.

Observability: The ability to observe the state of any internal node, either directly at the
outputs or indirectly through other observable nodes.

Given a circuit structure, tools such as SCOAP (Sandia Controllability/Observability Analysis

Program) are available to calculate the controllability and observability metrics of internal nodes.

3.3.2 Approaches to Design for Testability

There are three main approaches to designing circuits that are testable: 1.

Ad Hoc Testing

Involves manual techniques or guidelines.

Examples: avoiding asynchronous logic, simplifying state machines, and inserting test
points manually.
Advantage: Quick to apply.
Limitation: Not scalable or systematic for complex designs.

2. Structured Design for Testability

Uses well-defined methods and design styles to simplify testing.

Common techniques include:
– Scan Design: Flip-flops are connected into a scan chain to facilitate controllability
and observability.
– Level-Sensitive Scan Design (LSSD).
Enables automated test pattern generation and improved fault coverage.

3. Self-Test and Built-In Testing

Also known as Built-In Self-Test (BIST).

Circuit includes extra hardware to test itself without full reliance on external test
equipment.
Components include:
– Test Pattern Generator (e.g., Linear Feedback Shift Register — LFSR)
– Output Response Analyzer (e.g., Signature Analyzer) Allows efficient testing in the
field.

3.4 Ad Hoc Testing

Ad hoc testing refers to a collection of informal and practical techniques used to make circuits
easier to test, especially by reducing the complexity of test generation.
VLSI Design and Testing References
These methods aim to prevent the combinational explosion that can occur when testing large
digital systems.

Key Techniques
Partitioning Large Sequential Circuits:

– Large circuits, such as long counters, are split into smaller blocks.
– Each block can then be tested using fewer test vectors.
– Example: A 16-bit counter might be partitioned into four 4-bit counters.
Adding Test Points:

– Insert test points to improve controllability and observability.

– Helps expose internal faults by allowing access to hidden nodes.
Using System Bus for Testing:

– In bus-oriented systems, the bus can be reused for transferring test patterns and
capturing test responses.
– Efficient for testing multiple modules connected to the same data bus.
Testing Bit-Sliced Systems:

– Bit-sliced systems use modular logic slices (e.g., 4-bit ALUs chained to build larger
words).
– These can be tested using methods derived from testing Iterative Logic Arrays (ILAs).

3.4.1 Iterative Logic Arrays (ILAs)

ILAs are regular, modular structures composed of identical logic cells connected in a fixed pattern.
They are commonly used in arithmetic circuits and bit-sliced architectures.
C-testable ILA:

– Can be tested with a constant number of input patterns, regardless of array size.
– Reduces test vector count significantly for large arrays.
I-testable ILA:

– Ensures that the response of each cell is identical.

– Enables testing using equality circuits that compare cell outputs.
CI-testable ILA:

– Combines both C-testability and I-testability.

– Highly testable and efficient in terms of test generation.

Example: Testable ILA Cell

VLSI Design and Testing References

Figure 18: Bit-slice testing

An example of a modified ILA for I-testability involves a cascaded 1-bit counter cell, to which
two extra gates are added.

These gates enable control and observation of the cell’s operation during testing.

Such modifications allow the entire ILA to be tested using minimal test patterns and simple
comparison logic.

3.5 Structured Design for Testability

Structured design for testability involves systematic methods that ensure a circuit is easily testable,
based on the fundamental principles of controllability and observability.

Level-Sensitive Scan Design (LSSD):

Figure 19: LSSD testing

One of the most widely used structured approaches is Level-Sensitive Scan Design (LSSD),
originally developed by IBM.
VLSI Design and Testing References
This method utilizes specially designed latches known as Shift Register Latches (SRLs).

In normal mode, SRLs function as standard storage elements within the sequential circuit.

In test mode, all SRLs are connected in series to form a scan chain, allowing data to be shifted
through the latches.
Testing Procedure Using LSSD:
1. Shift in a known pattern to initialize all SRLs (achieving controllability).

2. Allow the circuit to operate for one clock cycle, propagating values through the combinational
logic.

3. Capture the output into the SRLs.

4. Shift out the captured results for analysis (achieving observability).

Advantages:
Simplifies test generation, since the combinational portion can be tested separately using
Automatic Test Pattern Generation (ATPG) tools. Improves fault coverage in large
sequential designs.

Drawbacks:
Increased circuit complexity due to additional logic in the latches.
Additional I/O pins may be required for scan control and data.
Physical placement challenges, as latches across the chip must be chained into a scan path.

Static Latch Implementations:

Various versions of static latches used in LSSD are shown in figures (a) to (d) below. These are based
on the basic static-D latch.
In Figure (a), input D is the normal data input, and input I comes from the preceding latch in
the scan chain.
A 2-input multiplexer selects between normal data and test input.
In Figure (b), the same function is implemented with reduced speed but simpler design.
Figures (c) and (d) show optimized layouts, increasing transistor count from 10 to 14.

Trade-off: Designers must weigh the increased area, power, and possible speed penalties against the
benefits of enhanced testability.

Structured design for testability trades off complexity and area for efficient test access and fault
detection.
VLSI Design and Testing References

Figure 20: LSSD implementations

VLSI Design and Testing References
3.6 Self-Test and Built-In Test
Built-in test (BIT) techniques are used to enhance testability by embedding test generation and
response evaluation circuitry within the chip itself. This allows for at-speed testing and reduces
dependence on external Automatic Test Equipment (ATE).
The following are some key types of Built-In Test techniques used in VLSI systems:

1. Signature Analysis and Cyclic Redundancy Checking (CRC)

One common method of implementing BIT is through signature analysis or cyclic redundancy
checking, which uses a Linear Feedback Shift Register (LFSR), as shown in figure below:

Figure 21: A linear feedback shift register

The LFSR is initialized, and the resulting register value becomes a function of:

– the number of latch inputs,

– their values,
– and the transformation polynomial of the analyzer.

A correct circuit produces a known signature. A faulty circuit will produce a different signature.

2. BILBO: Built-In Logic Block Observation

The BILBO structure combines signature analysis with LSSD to form a compact and flexible test
element. It is shown in below.

A 3-bit register with associated logic can operate in multiple modes depending on control
inputs C0 and C1:

Table 4: BILBO modes

Mode Control Function
A C0 = 1, C1 = 1 Parallel register
B C0 = 0, C1 = 0 Scan register
C C0 = 1, C1 = 0 Signature analyzer or PRSG
Reset C0 = 0, C1 = 1 Register reset
VLSI Design and Testing References

Figure 22: BILBO circuitry

A complete BIT structure using BILBO is illustrated in figure below:

Figure 23: BILBO usage

3. Design for Autonomous Test

This technique partitions the circuit into small modules using multiplexers and tests them
exhaustively without requiring fault models or test generation algorithms.

Figure (a) shows a circuit with inserted multiplexers.

Figure (b) presents the circuit in normal operation.

Figure (c) shows the circuit configured to test module A.

VLSI Design and Testing References

Figure 24: Multiplexer segmenting for autonomous test

Additional test hardware includes:

– Pattern generator (LFSR),

– Signature analyzer, – Test control logic.

Limitation: This method is ineffective for stuck-open faults.

4. Stuck-Open Fault Detection

To handle stuck-open faults, the circuit shown in figure below introduces a Charge/Discharge
(C/D) unit at the gate output.
VLSI Design and Testing References

Figure 25: C/D circuitry

The test sequence involves:

– Asserting TEST,
– Strobing the C/D control line high and then low.

Correct outputs respond by toggling, while stuck-open lines remain charged or discharged.

5. Syndrome Testing
Syndrome testing is an exhaustive method where all possible input patterns are applied and the
number of logical 1s in the output is counted.

This count (the “syndrome”) is compared with that of a fault-free circuit.

Required components:

– Pattern generator,
– Output counter,
– Comparison circuit.

6. Other Techniques
Additional BIT approaches include:

Double or Triple Modular Redundancy with majority voting logic.

Use of on-chip ROM-based stimulus generators.

VLSI Design and Testing References
Self-test and BIST techniques reduce dependency on external testers and improve test coverage in
complex VLSI systems.

3.7 Layout for Improved Testability

Key Concept:
Physical layout influences the testability of VLSI circuits. Proper layout techniques can reduce the
likelihood of faults such as shorts and opens.

Observations by Galiay (GaCV80):

Study based on fabricated nMOS circuits.

Most common failures:

– Shorts in the metal layer – Opens in the metal layer

– Shorts in the diffusion layer

Implications:
Specific layout rules can improve testability.

These rules are likely technology-dependent.

A different set of guidelines may be needed for CMOS technologies.

Research Direction:
Further research is needed to explore layout-level strategies for improved testability, especially for
newer technologies like CMOS.

3.8 Summary — Testing

Main Idea:
Design decisions should consider testability from the outset, as testing becomes harder and more
costly if added later.

Design Techniques:
Incorporate test structures early in the design cycle.

Be aware of trade-offs: testability may affect:

– Chip area
– Speed/performance

Example:

A data-path approach might be easier to test than a random logic approach, with only minor
area differences.
Conclusion:
VLSI Design and Testing References
Embed testability early in the design process.

Choose architectures that balance functionality and ease of testing.