Scribd
Upload
19 views30 pages

Solid State Notes

The document discusses the properties and classifications of solids, distinguishing between amorphous and crystalline solids based on their structure, arrangement of particles, and physical properties. It elaborates on the characteristics of various types of solids including molecular, ionic, metallic, and covalent network solids, as well as the concept of symmetry in crystal systems. Additionally, it covers crystallography laws and the significance of X-ray diffraction in studying crystal structures.

Uploaded by

santanusper3425
Copyright
© All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF or read online on Scribd
19 views30 pages

Solid State Notes

The document discusses the properties and classifications of solids, distinguishing between amorphous and crystalline solids based on their structure, arrangement of particles, and physical properties. It elaborates on the characteristics of various types of solids including molecular, ionic, metallic, and covalent network solids, as well as the concept of symmetry in crystal systems. Additionally, it covers crystallography laws and the significance of X-ray diffraction in studying crystal structures.

Uploaded by

santanusper3425
Copyright
© All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF or read online on Scribd
2ABid Skate ( der sear) => = The Subs neces Which hove definite shope ama volume - Solids differ from ove called Solid. Nquid and aos with -vespect to hardness . density, melting Point, bsiling point , lusture, electrical conductivity amd thenmal conductivity > Types of solidex+ © Arorprous solids (ifpeceftar Sr): Greek “ ornorphous” => - Pn amorphous no forn solid Consist of particles) of - The arrongement of omorphous solid is ivregulor Shope: consituent particles ( atoms, molecules ov jens) in only short range order In Short yamge order, a regular amd periodically repeating pattem is observed over short distamces only. such portions are Scattered amd in between the rant (S diserderd- - The structwe of amorphous solids is similor to that of liquid- ~ Aworphous solids become soft over a ange of temp. amd com be ‘moulded amd converted into various shapes. = Pmorprous solids become Crystalline at some temp = Amorphous Solids fave a tendency to flow Cveny Slow) like liquids , Therefore these ave colled pseudo Solids CGyTSM) or supey cooled liquids.(aifeattdtr xa) = Amorphous Solids are isotropic Games) In natre- Cg :- Gloss , -yubber, plastic, quarts glass , amorphous silicon etc. ® cystaltine solids( am):+ — A cxgstoiline solid consists of orge no. of smell crystals. — cvystals having 0 definite gesrnetyical Shope amd the arrangement of constituent porticles is orderd= = The avcangement of constituent particle in cyystalline solids is Nery long remgeoxder Ghich Means thet there is 0 regular pattem of aveangernent of particles which repeats itself Periodically over the Crystal. — castaiine silids hove sharp yneiting potmis. ~ Cestalline solids are amisotropic Cfsuntite) in nature. €g:- Caystollime Nach ama quorts, ~LTestrony ond Anisotropy :+ — when prysical properties like electrical cond., thermal cend-, ‘mechanical strength, wel vactive Index etc: of the substance are some in ali Same, then the Substance are said to be isotropic ama this pro is called isotropy: a) = when physicel properties of the substance core different in different divections. then it (is Called amisotropy. divection ave v ¢ Difere es b/s _@yokalin’) pa_Emorghowsy solid emits Caystalline solids Amorphous Shope = Greometvical shape = Trregulor shape we: —Sharp Wp. Soften over a Yamge of temp when cuk with a Sharp tool, they cut inte two pieces with irregular Cleavage property — When cut With o sharp - tool, they split inte too pieces ama rhe newly generated Surtaces ave Sur Face plain amd smooth + Heat of fusion — definite heat of fusion = donot have dente heat of fusion Anisotropy nature — Anisotropic in yatuve — Isotropic in nature oxder in awangement — Long amge order — Short vomge order of Constituent porticles Zlossification of Cegstaling sohas:> - or the basis of Toture of intermoleculay fovces- © Molecular solid: = The constituent particles of molecular solids ave molecules. © Non- poloe Meleculae solids +> — In these Solids, the atoms oF ynolecules ove held by wealc dispersion foxes o« london forces. ~ These Solids are soft and Non- Conductoys of electricity, ~ These solids have loo mp. Gnd are im liquid State or gaseous State at ‘room temp ome pressuve- eg. Ary, He, Ha, Ch sa , Solid COs Cary fee) , ice ete © Polar Molecular solids :» = In these solids, +he molecules ove held by velatively stronger dipel dipsle Interaction. - These solids are soft amd non- conductors of electricity ~ These solids have higher mp. than non-polar molecular solids amd most of these ave gaseous or liquids Under yoom temp. amd pressure. eg Solid 50,, Solid Nip ete. © Hyteagen_toondend molecular solids : — In these solids, the molecules ove held by Strong hydrogen bend oma contain polar covelent fonds bla amd F,0,o* N atoms. These ave non-conducter of electricity: - These are volatile liquids or Soft solids. eg 0 (ice) etc. ~ The constituent particles of jenic solids ore ions (catisn amd anion) — Cations ond amions ave bound by strong electrostatic force. = Toric colids ave hard ama brittle = These solids have high m-p- These ave non-Conductor of electricity in solid State but conduct eletialy in yroitm — Metols ove collection of ye ions summunded by sea of free e~ — These are good conductor of electricity. — Show Metaliic lusture and Colour. — highly malleable ana ductile. ® Covalent ov Network solids: — Mese are crystalline solids of | non-metals bonded +rrough covolent bond - ‘ — These colids ave hard amd byttle- ~ These solids Nave high mp amd even decompose before rating. @q- Diamond , Grophte , Silicon Covbide etc. Prmmnelry_in = Three main crystal system >> Symmetry in crystal system ove as follows:- © Plone of symmetry (: aer) @ Avis of symmetey ( arnfiria oat) © centre of symmetry Caaftfir ex) © Plane of symmetry z> — plane of symmetry is an imaginary plame Which can divide o crystal In te two parte such rot sone is the exact mivvor image of each other. Rectanguler oF symmetry Siegert plane ot ayrmmeby Rg- plane of symmety in Cubic Crystat ~ An ovis of symmehy is a line obout which the exjstal mag be votaled such that i+ presents the same appearance move than once during the complete revolution. ~ Toe fold oxig oF died Onis s+ When similar appecrance repeated after [80” amgle ~ Trwee fold ovis ov triod onis:> cohen similor appearance repeated after 120° angle. - fous fold aris oF tetvad ovis s+ when similar appearance repeated after gor omgle. ~ 8% fold oxic ox hevad oxic s+ tohen/ similar oppearance repeated after 60° umple. 1- fold oxis o> if the sumilae appearance of ao owgptal (s vepeated on rotation Aneough om angle of 36c" , ovound am Imoginay oris, then the axis is Called N-fold axis. u Uv Two fold axis Three 4:13 ans D-cent_of symmetry +» o= — Centre ef symmatyy of a crystal is such a point thet any line dram through TE iniercects the surface of the crystal at equal distance in both divector % amg caystel Ynoy have ong number of plames or axes of symmetry but Te hes only ene centre ct symmetry, Cente of symmeby in cubic exgsed ZHtements of symmety of a _cystol i? - The total no. of planes, axes amd cenhe of symmetvies possess bys ceystal is termed as elements of symmetry. Example :- Cubic crystal of Naci hes 23 elements of syrmmetey © Plane of Symmetry @ Rectangular plane of symmety := ‘| . 6 68 B ® Diagenas plone of symmetry: @ @ © 6 6 6 6 * "ag an meee 7 a (EY) inetades 2 faces) A Cinclueds 2 comers) © two fold onis — © pane a z Stee te oe 3 | © Centre of symmatry Be oe (ED BD Ep ciretucds 2 cag) @ cove of spmemeby— 1 Toth > Ss is+ a = 23 o ed ¢ and unit cells | 2 -Space lattice _ow = A regulor three Crystal lattice CBxfon arene ur yer urreres): > dimentisnel arrangement of points ox povticles in space ts called space lattice ox crystal lattice. = Foch point in a lattice js called lattice pomt ov fattice site. - Each point in a cyystal lattice -vepresents one constituent particle hich may be on atom, am fon or ja! molecule. < Jattice point S 3 Sig- space lattice ov stal lertice $ Fg umit cell > Uvit cell A Umit cell is the smallest repeating umit In space lettice which When xepeated over amd over ogoin results Substunce. in a crystol of the given a) a — The three edges of 0 unit cell are represented by O ,b ama Cc. These edges May or may not be perpendicular ~ The amgles b/0 the edge Pairs ave -vepresenkd by of, P omd TY. ~ Knowing the umit cell dimensions the tneoritical density (f) of a cystal Cam be Cakuleted from the xelation- 0M r Ww where N= no. of rmoleatles Jatom/ ions M= Mploy mass V~ Vol of umic shell - Tn i848, Auguste Brovais showed that there con be only in which similee points can be arranged In thee dimentional space. - The Crystals belonging to the cubic System hove thee Kinds of Bravais lattices depending upon the Shope oF unit cell. © Simple ov primitive cubic lattice ++ = Fn this cubic lattice, — toto! no. of atums M4 different ways points ove only ot the comers of uit cell. im simples cubic > Jettice @ 4 ~ Calkulati on:- A Tetol no-of atoms in primitive cubic lattice 5 tA cme e siveple cubic 8 lattice =1 tach comer otom is Showed b/w 8 Cubic lobtice @-the_Face centyed Cubic lattice + ~ In this cubic lattice, the points ove at the Comers as well as ot the centve of each of the Six faces of the Curve. - Tetol no. of atoms tn face centered cubic lettice > 4 akulats oc, eat comers) 5 = & 3 diy 6 (at faces) +: 1 Face centered Cubic lattice = *e Total atoms + By an atom aot face is shored Whe 4u00 cubic lattice @_ Body _centered cublec - In this cubic lottice, points ave at the comers as well as in the body Centre of each cube- ~ Tekel mo of atame in body centered cubic lattice + 2 Colculation oY 8 (at comers) x4e = 4 Cody center) = 1b a fig: Body centered cubic lattice iia Te > (eras Lattice 7 AT andl te) tet Gey fy 7 Vem ered men So | in I fl 7 nad at et pat uN VV Y Yel Snore ees eto Ferment amp A teY| na i i) — eee siieeaa nes, J Aaven_empstal systems» — 32 point que amd \t space lattice ore divided into perpendicular 2-fold axes One 4-fold axis ‘One 2-fold axis One I-fold axis One 6-fold axis One 3-fold axis Seven crystal Sysiem a=B=7=90° a=B=7=90° =7=90",f # 90° arBeye 9” ZAaws ot crys tollography (frzzer fram 3; firey) :> © baw of constancy of Interfaciel amgles Carenrmam aha ar fear aor fret) @ Law of Rational Indices C ufta apaaig jarans for) ® law of constancy of eymmetyy ( anti feucar ant rm) ® low of constancy _of interfacial angles: Steno , 1669 = Wis is also called Fixst law of » crystallogropy, ~ Recording +o this low,” the anges between the conves ponding faces of a crystal of the substance are olwoys the same the ‘method of preparation ox source of the exystal. Of © Fig:- Interfacial angles of cust ivvespective of @Dtoaw of Rational Indices :» — Pecowding to this law, intercepts of any face of a crystal along the Caystall ogropbic oxes are either equal 40 the umtt inienept (a,b,c) oe Some simple whole no. multiples. of them - 9 Na ,wh , Wc ete where 1 ,n' Nn" ete ave whole no. = thvee yophic oxiS > OX , OY and OZ Hig Cayptallogropic axes - lek ABC be © Umit plane. The umit intercepte Will gma law of tational then be a,b ond c. inatces. ~ According to obove law, +e intercepts of amy face such as KLM on the some three axes ill be Simple Ushole no. multiples of a,b and c respectively ore a set of @ given plane in a ceystol . = The wmillee indices of a face of ‘integers Ch/k.t) which ave used to describe cyystel ave inversely the intercepts of that face on various > Determination of il proportional to oxes. ndtces ;9 @ Prepare o three colunm table with the umit cell oxes at tHe top of he columns ® Enter in each column the intercept Cexpresed as a multiple oF ab and c) of the plane with these @ Teert all numbers anes. ® clear froction to obtain hk ame 1 Exomple;- Calculate the miller indices of crystal planes Which cut through — the crystal oves ot A) 20, a, € E> 2a,“ Soutien G) 20, 3b, a) 2a © ©® rntercepe: 2 3 1 (| ratercept Recipeocals Ett xc Reciprocals x Clear fraction a 2 6 Clear Fraction. Hence re wiley indices ove (326) | Heme Hu miller indices ave (322) 2 tater planes _epacing_in a costal a a - Interplaner distance (dia) Tn a is given by- hk. » miller indices aoc > cel) dimensions $0 that For oxthothombic syste arb4Fe = constancy of symmetry +» Any crystot has 3 elements of a © te law of © plane of syrmmetry ( aynf hie ar) ® Axis of eymmety ( af ® Centre of symmetry Carnfit Bee) ~ for move detail , phase see i symmetry tn cxystel system (fecerai 2am Se Ray _Difleraction Coan firma) + — The germon physicist “Love” in 93, Suggested the possibility of differaction of x- ways by crystals. because the Wavelength of x-vay was of about -Seme_oxdey at the interatomic distene in o crystal. ~ WH. Brogg used Hhis technique for NaCi Crystal. This observation has proved that X-Ray differaction technique is highly Useful in determining Shuctures ond dimensions of exystels as wei as in the study of a Yo. of properties of x-Ray themselves. othe Bragg equation: o-@. = According te Bragg, Unlike reflection of Gedinary VighP . the veflection of yy con toke place only at Certain amgles Which ave determined bg We Gove length of x-Ray omd tne distance b/w the plames in the a sea eae eAuation which give a simfle velation ship 6/49 wave length of “Roy , the i distance tn the crystat oma omple_of vellection (5 know as the Gragy equation, oo Deivetien_ot Brogy_equotien:+ = Consider fig = The distonce blu parallel plane in the cuyptel structure = d — Suppose a beam of x-Ray falls on the crystal ot glancing omg 6°) ond veflected from the Upper plane ok the Same ang 6. while others will be obsorbed amd get reflected From the Successive layers - Figs X-Ray reflection From crystal layers planes will orly When the difference im path length is om ‘integral number sf wove length. path difference = 1> ~ Te waves reflected by different be in omother phose with one where 1 1,2,4,4._.. To determine the path difference of x-Ray AOD ond BNE , draw perpendiculars ol amd OM te the incident amd reflected beams. the path difference fs equal to LN +NM In AOLN Sing = 18 ON In OMN Sime ON = tren Sine= EX ee dSin@ =LN amd figi- X-Ray reflection from cays singer Net or dsin9= NM therefore path difference LN+NM~< 24 sine - ae poth diflerene = 1A This is Colled Bragg equotion. Knowing ©, ond A, d com be Colculated. | 2 Setexmination of crystal Structure z+ \ Dtaue's method +> In this method, a sample of caystel is mounted on a Stand with ceystal ovis perpendicular to x ay beam o A beam of X-Ray after {eee pasting fesm slits is allowed to — Sigs Ray Laue method iD fall Upon the Caystal Atter diffraction, x-Roy falls en phetogyophic plate which records the Tntensities oma positions of diffracted -oys- The Soy Is Used t find inieeplamay distances. Wis melhed is very useful to find out symmehy of consktuent particles with the help of photo grofhic plate ‘This Method is not useful to find unknown lattice rrometers because [Bovelengin) Connot ve identified uimg specific spot im te photo grophic fle’ OQPowder Method :> ~ The pooder cuystal with si © called Debye - Scherrey me thed 2xOsg Wethed is Widely used Particularly for Fowser le Structure. = —tim - The powder consist mony §) rystal hich ave _sviented in ol possible dixectiom.. as a “result o—aa-fiay ‘etewn xvoy ove scattered Fram an sete of plame “gr The powder meted — In tnis Mettod , powder sample is Kept in the thin glass cylinder. oma Nawos beam of *-Yay isi) allowed te fall on the powder — The diffracted x-*oy strike oO (stip of the form of 0 Greuley axe. — In His diveck ns Methed , yotation of not Necessary because powder Gorm already Contasn microcrystals arranged in all possible Photo grophie film arranged in sample is he is Used fer calculotin

You might also like