How French Works

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Written by Chris Dawson for use in conjunction with

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 Table of contents
PART ONE - HISTORY
1 The origins of French ......................................................................................... 1
Introduction - The influence of Gaulish - The influence of Latin - The influence of
Frankish - Charlemagne - The influence of Old Norse - Dialectization and the rise
of Francien - French in the 20th century - French in the world
2 English and French ........................................................................................... 15
Introduction - The Roman and Anglo-saxon invasions - The influence of Celtic -
The influence of Anglo-Saxon - The Viking invasions - The Norman invasion -
The re-emergence of English - The mutual influence of English and French

PART TWO - SENTENCE STRUCTURE

3 The clause and clause elements ....................................................................... 25
What is grammar ? - The relationship between meaning and grammar - The clause
and its constituent elements - Parts of speech - Diagramming phrase structure
4 Simple and complex sentences......................................................................... 29
Simple sentences - Multiple sentences - Subordinate clauses
5 The verb phrase ................................................................................................ 33
Verb phrases and head verbs - Auxiliaries - Verb constructions - Verbal
agreements
6 The noun phrase ............................................................................................... 37
The noun phrase and head noun - Determiners - Modifiers

PART THREE - SPELLING AND SPEECH

7 Markings and pronunciation........................................................................... 39
Accents - Punctuation - Enchaînement and liaison - Elision - Stress - Intonation
8 Vowels and consonants..................................................................................... 45
Vowels - Consonants
9 Written v spoken French ................................................................................. 49
General characteristics of spoken language - Formal French - Informal language - Slang

PART FOUR - THE SPHERE OF THE VERB

10 Verb forms ......................................................................................................... 57
Time - Mood - Voice
11 The present indicative ...................................................................................... 61
Formation - Use

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12 Past participles .................................................................................................. 65
Formation - Preceding direct object rule with avoir verbs - Exceptions to p.d.o.
rule - Verbs taking être - Pronominal verbs - Use in the passive - Agreement with
subject pronoun
13 Using past tenses ............................................................................................... 69
Formation of the perfect - Formation of the past historic - Formation of the
imperfect - Use of perfect tenses : the perfect and past historic - Use of the
imperfect - Use of the pluperfect
14 The future and conditional .............................................................................. 73
Formation of the future - Formation of the conditional - Use of future tenses - Use
of the conditional
15 The passive and alternatives ............................................................................ 77
Formation - On constructions - Pronominal verbs and faire - The impersonal
passive
16 Infinitives ........................................................................................................... 81
Definitions - Tense - Uses
17 Present participles............................................................................................. 85
Formation - Verbal use - Use as a gerund - Adjectival use - Translating the English
-ing form
18 Pronominal (reflexive) verbs ........................................................................... 89
Definition - Word-order and agreement of pronominal verbs - Uses of pronominal
verbs
19 Impersonal constructions ................................................................................. 93
Definition - Constructions that always take il - Constructions taking il or ça / ce -
Ce v il
20 Semi-auxiliaries. ................................................................................................ 99
Expressing would - Expressing should - Expressing could - Expressing may -
Expressing might - Expressing ought to - Expressing must
21 Subjunctive (1) - formation............................................................................ 103
Present subjunctive : regular formation - Present subjunctive : irregular formation -
The perfect and imperfect subjunctive
22 Subjunctive (2) - use in completive (que) clauses ........................................ 105
Definition - The indicative in completive clauses - The subjunctive in completive
clauses - Use in main clause to express commands, wishes etc. - Table of verbs
causing the indicative / subjunctive
23 Subjunctive (3) - use in other clauses ........................................................... 109
Use in relative clauses - Use in adverbial clauses
24 Subjunctive (4) - other aspects ...................................................................... 113
Sequence of tenses - Verbs that can take either the subjunctive or indicative

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PART FIVE - THE SPHERE OF THE NOUN
25 Nouns ................................................................................................................ 115
Classes of noun - Gender of nouns - Plural of nouns - Capitalization of nouns
26 Qualificative adjectives .................................................................................. 119
Definition - Agreements - Placement - Adjectival nouns
27 Articles (1) - use of articles............................................................................. 123
Definitions - The definite article le, la, les - The indefinite article un, une, des - The
partitive article du, de la
28 Articles (2) - omission of articles ................................................................... 129
After negatives - Before names of professions etc. - Before nouns in apposition -
Before preceding adjective - Before noun complements introduced by de or à -
After the preposition de - In lists
29 Personal pronouns (1) .................................................................................... 133
Definition - Subject pronouns - Object pronouns - y, en
30 Personal pronouns (2) .................................................................................... 137
Order of object pronouns - Le used as a neutral pronoun - Disjunctive or stressed
pronouns
31 Possessives ........................................................................................................ 141
Definitions - Possessive adjectives - Possessive pronouns - Other ways of
expressing possession
32 Demonstratives ................................................................................................ 145
Definitions - Demonstrative adjectives - Demonstrative pronouns
33 Relative pronouns (1) ..................................................................................... 147
Definitions - How relative pronouns work - Restrictive and non-restrictive relative
clauses - Difficulties in finding the right relative pronoun - Qui - Que - After
prepositions except de
34 Relative pronouns (2) ..................................................................................... 151
Dont - De qui / duquel - Où - Agreement - Ce + relative pronoun - Flow chart
summary
35 Using indefinites (1) - French indefinites .................................................... 155
Definitions - Autre - Tel - Plusieurs - Différent - Chaque, chacun(e) - Tout
36 Using indefinites (2) - some, any ................................................................... 157
Expressing some - Expressing someone - Expressing something - Expressing
somewhere - Expressing sometimes and sometime - Expressing somehow -
Expressing any - Expressing anyone, anybody - Expressing anything - Expressing
anywhere

PART SIX - ADVERBS AND PREPOSITIONS

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37 Adverbs + adverbial phrases ......................................................................... 163
Definitions - Function of adverbs and adverbial phrases - Adverbs formed using
-ment - Adjectives used as adverbs - Other ways of forming adverbial expressions -
Position of adverbs - Miscellaneous translation problems
38 Prepositions (1) ................................................................................................ 167
Introduction - Expressing to - Expressing for - Expressing at - Expressing of -
Expressing from - Expressing on
39 Prepositions (2) ................................................................................................ 171
Expressing in - Expressing by - Expressing with - Expressing out of - No
preposition in English

PART SEVEN - NOTIONS AND FUNCTIONS

40 Negating ........................................................................................................... 175
Uses of non - Ne - Position of negative adverbs - Negative adverbs as subject of
sentence - Articles after negatives - Ne ... que - The expletive ne
41 Asking questions ............................................................................................. 179
Definitions - Total interrogation - Partial interrogation
42 Expressing comparison .................................................................................. 183
Definitions - Comparative and superlative adjectives - Comparative and
superlative adverbs - Other points
43 Making commands and exclamations .......................................................... 187
Formation and use of the imperative - Using pronouns with imperatives -
Pronominal verbs in the imperative - Alternatives to the imperative - Making
exclamations
44 Reporting ......................................................................................................... 191
Reporting speech - Reporting descriptions - Reporting questions
45 Expressing quantity (1) .................................................................................. 195
Numbers - Fractions - Numerals - Distance, dimensions - Price - Pronunciation -
Dates - Verbal agreements
46 Expressing quantity (2) .................................................................................. 201
Approximation, proximity - High / low values - Increasing, decreasing and
equivalent values - Expressing values, equivalence
47 Expressing time and duration (1) ................................................................ 205
Adverbials of time - Adverbs and preposition phrases : notions - Miscellaneous
points
48 Expressing time and duration (2) ................................................................ 209
Conjunctions and prepositions - Participles
49 Expressing time and duration (3) ................................................................. 213
Depuis - Pendant - Depuis que / pendant que - La première fois que
50 Expressing place and position ...................................................................... 217
Description -

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51 Expressing cause ............................................................................................. 221
Conjunctions - Prepositions - Verbal expressions - Participles and adjectives -
Juxtaposition
52 Expressing result ............................................................................................. 225
Conjunctions - Adverbial phrases - Verbs - Juxtaposition
53 Expressing opposition and concession.......................................................... 229
Conjunctions - Expressing whatever, however, whoever, wherever - Prepositions -
Adverbial phrases
54 Expressing hypothesis and condition ........................................................... 235
Si clauses - Other conjunctions - Other ways of expressing condition
55 Expressing goal ............................................................................................... 239
Finite clauses - Nonfinite clauses - Verbal expressions
56 Creating emphasis .......................................................................................... 243
Definitions - Stressing nouns and pronouns using dislocation - Stressing nouns and
pronouns using extraction - Stressing possessives - Stressing demonstratives -
Stressing adverbial phrases - Stressing verbs - Emphasizing two elements
57 Writing essays.................................................................................................. 247
Introduction - Detailing and illustrating - Making a judgement - The mechanics of
the argument
58 Writing letters ................................................................................................. 261
Layout - Curriculum vitae - Other aspects
59 Making phone calls ......................................................................................... 267
Telephone services in France - General vocabulary - Looking for a number -
Phrases for making a call - Phrases for receiving a call - Problems with the line

List of constructions taking à, de or no preposition ......................................... 271

List of false friends ............................................................................................... 277
Glossary of grammatical terms .......................................................................... 285
Reference books .................................................................................................... 295
Verb tables ............................................................................................................ 298
Index to verb tables .............................................................................................. 310
Index ... .. ................................................................................................................ 315

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 Acknowledgements

The help of the following is gratefully acknowledged :

Members past and present of the Department of Languages, especially Philip Morey,
Jean Bartholomew, Cemi Belkacemi, Sharon Handley, Mike Crompton, Carmen
Herrero, Chris Jones, Noel Lacey, Gill Wooldridge.

Other Faculty / University members : Joff Pincher, Ezra Rushen and Paul Rushton
(Manchester Institute for Information Delivery) ; Kevin Tinsdale (Teacher Support
Group) ; Fiona Fahlin (Management and Business) ; and Ian O'Toole, Jason Lee and
Robert Ready (Media Services). Also, members past and present of Information
Systems.

Special thanks go to Pascal Lecler, formerly editor on the Oxford-Hachette English-

French Dictionary, and Ron Linton (Management and Business), who undertook
extensive proofreading.

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 Unit 1 - The origins of French
Units 1 and 2, aimed at general French learners, contain a brief survey of the principal historical
and linguistic phenomena that have helped shape French and English. These units have two
fundamental aims. First, through demonstrating the relevance of such knowledge to the student’s
language experience, to stimulate a greater interest in and capacity for learning about language,
something which can in turn contribute to the development of linguistic competence. And second,
in highlighting areas of similarity and difference in the two languages, to give students a clearer
idea of the nature and extent of learning required when approaching French from an English
speaker's perspective.

For further information on the origins of French and English, see the relevant sections of the
Reference books list at the back of this book. This list may also be treated as a select bibliography
for the units.

1 Introduction
French is part of a group of languages known as Romance languages (also
including also Italian, Spanish, Portuguese and Romanian) because they are 6000 BC –
3000 BC
descended from Latin, the language of the ancient Romans. This contrasts with
English, which is classified as a Germanic language (also including German, Dutch, Danish,
Norwegian, Swedish etc.). The two other principal language groups in Europe are Slav (Russian,
Polish, Czech, Bulgarian etc.) and Celtic (Welsh, Scots Gaelic, Irish, Breton etc.).

Although there are great differences between these language groups, they all nevertheless derive
from the same family of languages called Indo-European languages, also including languages such
as Hindi, Urdu and Bengali. These languages are thought to have originated around the Black Sea
(modern-day Ukraine) around 6000 BC, before population movements, possibly for environmental
reasons such as climate change or exhaustion of pastures, caused the dispersion throughout Asia
and Europe during the millennium 4000 BC – 3000 BC. Because of this dispersion, subgroups of
Indo-European languages began to develop in isolation, causing the formation of the various
groups mentioned above.

French owes its existence to a number of ancient languages. These include:

• Gaulish, the language of the Celtic peoples (of which the fictional Asterix the Gaul was
one) who inhabited primarily the territory of what is now modern-day France, prior to the
Roman invasions.
• Latin, the language of the invading Romans.
• Frankish, the language of the Germanic peoples who occupied this territory after the fall of
the Roman Empire, and who gave France its name.
• Old Norse, the language of the Vikings, who occupied many of the coastal and in-land
navigable areas of northern France before being granted the area now known as Normandy
(meaning “Land of the Norsemen”).

2 The influence of Gaulish

The influence of Gaulish on the development of modern French via Latin is
confined in the main to place names (for example Rheims gets its name from 3000 BC
onwards
"Remis", home of the tribe known as the "Remi", and this is true for many
French towns ending in -s); principal rivers such as the Seine, Loire and Rhône; and certain words
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 UNIT 1 - THE ORIGINS OF FRENCH
relating to features of daily life in a rural community, such as mouton (sheep), charrue (plough),
bruyère (heather) and chêne (oak). Of course there is a Celtic language related to Gaulish that is
still spoken today, and that is Breton. However, this does not stem directly from Gaulish, but from
the language of the Celtish Britons, many of whom fled to the North-West part of Gaul between
430 and 600 AD in the wake of the Anglo-Saxon invasions of Britain, hence the name Bretagne or
Britanny.

Another Celtic influence can be found in the system of counting. French

Why do the
originally used numbers such as deux vingts (40), trois vingts (60), trois vingts French say
et dix (70), quatre vingts (80), quatre vingt et dix (90), six vingts (120) and so quatre-vingts?
on. This system came directly from Gaulish, and is akin to the Welsh number
system involving numbers such as deugain for forty and trigain for sixty, and the antiquated
English system involving two score and three score etc. Modern French has retained soixante-dix,
quatre-vingts, and quatre-vingt dix. Where Germanic influence was stronger such as Belgium and
Switzerland French speakers say septante and nonante, and huitante is used in Switzerland.

3 The influence of Latin

It is from Latin that French derives the most. France was originally occupied
by the Romans in two waves. The first invasions occurred between 124 BC and 124 BC –
400 AD
118 BC where the Romans took control of South-Eastern France, whilst
between 58 BC and 52 BC Julius Caesar undertook the conquest of the remaining Northern and
Western parts of Gaul. The most significant aspect of Latin influence on French lies in the area of
vocabulary. The majority of the most commonly used words in French today - including the
grammatical words like articles, auxiliaries and prepositions, and the most common nouns,
adjectives and verbs - can be traced in an unbroken line of descent from Latin. For example, à
derives from the Latin ad; de from de; et from et; où from aut; aimer from amare; faire from
facere; avoir from habere; livre from liber; porte from porta; tu, nous and vous from tu, nos and
vos; bon from bonus; and bien and mal from bene and male. Beyond this core vocabulary, the great
majority of words in the broader French lexicon stem from Latin, although many of these words
were adopted or coined at later stages in the development of French.

Latin did not only have an influence on the words making up the French Why does
language, but also on the way in which these words worked. Broadly speaking French have
there are two ways in which languages can indicate the role that words are agreements?
playing in a given sentence. One is through using word endings and
agreements (called “inflections”), so that an ending on a noun tells us whether it is the subject or
object of a sentence, or an ending on an adjective tells us the noun it refers to, and so on. The other
way, typical of English, is through relying on word order and prepositions, so that nouns directly
following the verb are generally direct object, and so on. The system that we see in French today
has its origin in Latin, even if it has been hugely simplified. Latin had a highly complex system of
inflections involving six cases:

nominative – subject genitive – possession

vocative - for addressing a person dative – indirect object i.e. to, from
accusative - direct object ablative - by, with

There were also five declensions (sets of endings for each case), and three genders (masculine,
feminine and neuter). In Old French (the term used for French during the period 840–1400) the
number of cases had been reduced to two: nominative (including the vocative) and oblique (a
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 UNIT 1 - THE ORIGINS OF FRENCH
merger of accusative, genetive, dative and ablative functions). The number of declensions and
genders remained the same. For example, the word for wall in Old French was murs and it
followed the first masculine declension:

singular plural
nominative murs mur
oblique mur murs

Because the nominative endings for each declension were very different from
each other whilst the oblique endings were quite similar, people tended for Why does
French use s
simplicity to use the oblique endings for both nominative and oblique cases. As in the plural?
such, the oblique inflection pattern, containing an s in the plural, became the
standard paradigm for most nouns, while the nominative inflection pattern for the most part fell into
disuse, hence the s plural in modern French. Certain masculine proper nouns such as Georges and
Jacques, however, retain an s in their singular form, characteristic of the nominative / vocative case
because proper nouns were most commonly used as a vocative (i.e. a term of address). By contrast
in most contexts in modern French proper nouns do not take an s in the plural, e.g. les Dupont, deux
Renault. In the case of some common nouns both the nominative and oblique forms were retained
and each became a separate word, for example: sire, seigneur; copain, compagnon; gars, garçon;
and the pronoun on and homme.

Irregular plurals generally arose for phonetic reasons. With words such as cheval ending –l, for
example, the final –l was often transformed into a –u giving the plural –us, e.g. chevaus. During the
Middle Ages copyists replaced –us endings with –x as a shorthand, but the u pronunciation
retained. In time the abbreviative purpose of the –x was forgotten, the letter u was re-established
behind the x (wrongly interpreted as the letter x) giving the modern plural –aux as in chevaux.

Like nouns, adjective endings also have their basis in Latin. The development Origin of
of adjective endings follows a similar pattern to noun endings, the oblique adjective
forms of the first and second-declension adjectives involving the addition of -e agreements
in the feminine and -s in the plural surviving into modern French. The third
declension did not originally involve the addition of any ending in the feminine, but in the later
Middle Ages it came into line with the first and second-declension paradigm for reasons of
simplicity. However, in certain words the old third-declension case still survives, as in grand-mère
or in the name Rochefort.

As far as gender is concerned, modern French masculine and feminine words Why are all
generally derive their gender from Latin, although in certain cases gender has French nouns
changed. Nouns in Latin, in common with Germanic and other ancient masculine or
languages, had three genders, masculine, feminine and neuter. This gender is feminine?
said to be "grammatical", because it is ascribed regardless of any notion of
biological gender. For example, the Latin word tabula, like its French equivalent une table, is
feminine even though there is no natural reason why this should be so. Grammatical gender stems
from the language of the Indo-European peoples, who considered certain inanimates such as earth,
moon and fire to have dynamic force. Such inanimates were made masculine or feminine according
to their cultural beliefs on natural gender qualities, while inanimates not considered to possess such
dynamism were made neuter.

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 UNIT 1 - THE ORIGINS OF FRENCH
Three genders existed for a time in Old French, but the smaller number of neuter words generally
became assimilated into a masculine or feminine framework. The usual tendency was for neuter
words to become masculine (a trend that existed in French even before the development of Old
French). Thus the singular neuter word bràcchium meaning arm became bras, which is masculine
in modern French. Occasionally however words were taken from plural neuter words ending -a,
which by analogy with existing feminine words ending -a became feminine. Thus the plural neuter
word bràcchia meaning stroke became brasse which is feminine in modern French.

It has been mentioned that modern French is no longer characterized by the

Why did the
case systems prevalent in its ancestors Latin and Old French. The reason for case system in
this is the fact that the Old French case system was extremely uneven. With French
second-declension masculine words there were clear differences between the disappear?
nominative and oblique forms, but with first-declension feminine words there
were no such differences. Because of this, speakers began increasingly to rely on word-order rather
than on inflection to dictate a word's function in a sentence, with the result that the case system fell
into disuse. For example, inversion of subject and verb was much more common in Old French and
only occurs in modern French in more formal contexts after words such as encore, à peine and
peut-être. As such French developed into a language where, as in English, word-order plays an
important grammatical function.

Another significant import from Latin was the articles. Latin did not originally
have any words for expressing the, a and so on, but with the weakening of the Origin of the
articles in
case system, more explicit expression was needed. As such the demonstrative French
illi (meaning that) was used in front of nouns, which soon lost its first syllable
to produce li, la, ancestors of today's le, la. The indefinite article derived from the number unus
meaning one, and originally worked like a normal adjective, even having a plural form. This latter
form has now disappeared, but can still be seen in words such as quelques-uns, les uns, d’aucuns.

In Old French, rather like in English today, the definite article was only used to express specificity,
i.e. whether a noun such as a book was the book or merely a book, and so on. As Old French
developed, however, nouns began to lose their inflections indicating gender, whilst the final s
indicating the plural began to disappear in spoken language. As a result, the definite article in
French began to take on the additional grammatical role of indicating gender and number where
there was no semantic reason for an article, as in la beauté, les chiens (beauty, dogs). As regards
partitive articles, these arise from the tendency of Old French to use the preposition de to indicate
"a certain quantity of something" e.g. Je mange de pain (= I eat some bread). When articles took on
the additional grammatical role mentioned above, de changed to del (=de le) which for phonetic
reasons became du e.g. Je mange du pain (although the original de is retained after negatives, e.g.
Je ne mange pas de pain).

The modern adverb form ending -ment derives from the practice of adding the
suffix -mente (the ablative form of mens meaning "mind") to an adjective, e.g. Origin of
adverbs
viva + mente = "with a lively mind". Since mens is feminine the adjective used ending -ment
took the feminine form. This remains the process for forming -ment adverbs
today, e.g. vif Þ vivement, even if in some cases there is a variation of spelling for reasons of sound
(e.g. courant Þ couramment and not *courantement) or simplicity (e.g. vrai Þ vraiment and not
*vraiement).

The negative adverb ne stems from Old French nen deriving from Latin non,
Origin of ne …
and could originally be used to negate a verb on its own, i.e. without the use of
pas etc.
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 UNIT 1 - THE ORIGINS OF FRENCH
a negative word such as pas. This tendency still survives with verbs such as savoir and pouvoir e.g.
Je ne peux vous dire = I cannot tell you. The word ne was eventually reinforced with a range of
nouns such as pas, point, goutte, mie, grain (step, spec, drop, crumb and seed) which were
originally used in a relevant context i.e Il ne mange mie (= He doesn't eat a crumb). Eventually
these various reinforcers lost their original meaning, and a pressure arose for one form to become
generalized. The form that emerged ahead its rivals was pas, which was that used in the area
including Paris, whose dialect would become standard language of France.

4 The influence of Frankish

When in the 5th century AD the Roman Legions retreated from the Western 400 AD –
territories in order to defend Rome, the remaining population was left 771 AD
defenceless. All over what is now Western Europe loose coalitions of
Germanic tribes, seeking better land and themselves under pressure from the Huns in the East,
moved in to fill the vacuum. France was occupied primarily by three sets of Germanic tribes. The
Visigoths, who settled in the South and South-West, and who established their capital in Toulouse.
The Burgundians, who settled in South-East France (hence the name Burgundy) and who
established their capital in Lyon (the Roman capital of Gaul). And most significantly as far as the
development of modern French is concerned the Franks, who settled in the northern half of France
and who established their capital in Paris.

The word Frank is a Germanic word deriving from the Norse word frekkr meaning brave and free.
The Latin translation Franci appears for the first time in the 2nd century AD describing the people
living in a area that is now Holland and the Rhineland area of Germany, an area that is referred to
by St Jerome in the 4th century as Francia from where the word France is derived.

Prior to their invasion of northern Gaul the Franks, although not part of the Roman Empire, had had
many dealings with the Romans. Many had enrolled as merceneries within the Roman legions,
whilst others had settled within Gaul and established themselves as farmers. As such, by the time of
the Germanic invasions during the 5th century AD the Franks were broadly speaking acquainted
with their language and respectful of their culture. For this reason and the fact that in most of Gaul
they were greatly outnumbered by the Gallo-Roman population, the Frankish invaders took on the
Latin-based language of the latter and it is this language that would develop into modern French.
By contrast those areas where the Franks settled in great concentration, such as modern-day
Holland, Northern Belgium and Luxemburg, remained Germanic speaking.

There are many reasons why it was the Franks who of the three Germanic peoples who invaded
Gaul played the most important role in the development of French. First, as has been mentioned,
there were many Franks already settled in France by the time of the Germanic migrations during
the 5th century AD. By constrast the Visigoths did not settle exclusively in South-West France, for
some migrated to Northern Spain (the Cat from Catalonia derives from the word Goth). Even more
important was the military successes of the Frankish king Clovis (AD 465-511), who after victories
against the Gallo-Romans and the Visigoths established a kingdom loosely approximating to
Roman Gaul. For many people an important figure in the development of French nationhood, many
later French kings would take his name in its contracted form of Louis.

The three Germanic settlements would each give rise to its own distinct group
What were the
of French dialects, and two of these would vye with each other for political and langue d’oil
cultural hegemony well into the Middle Ages. The dialects of the Frankish and the langue
Kingdom came to be known as the langue d'oil, (oil being the word for yes in d’oc?

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 UNIT 1 - THE ORIGINS OF FRENCH
this dialect) and it is these forms of French that would give rise to modern French. The dialects of
South and South-Western France came to be known as the langue d'oc, (oc being the word for yes
in this dialect) and in the Middle Ages had an cultural prestige stretching well beyond the borders
of France as the language of troubadour poetry.

One of the major differences between the two groups of dialects lies in their degree of
germanicization. Parts of the langue d'oc region had been conquered much earlier than the rest of
Gaul, and as such were more heaviliy romanized. This, combined with the fact that the Visigoths
were much more thinly spread than were the Franks meant that langue d'oc dialects were less
influenced by Germanic. The langue d'oil region by contrast was less Romanized and contained a
far higher concentration of Germanic settlers. As such the Frankish language was to have a
significant influence on the northern form of Gallo-Roman, and thereby on the development of
modern French.

One aspect of modern French that has been influenced by Frankish is the
Origin of
aspirate h form, that is where h is treated like a consonant even though it is not aspirate h
pronounced. The common way of pronouncing the letter h prior to the Frankish form
invasion was as a vowel, as in l'heure. When the Franks came, they pronounced their words
beginning with h with an audible release of breath as in modern English. Over time, however, the h
sound became weaker and weaker until it was no longer pronounced, although preceding words
continued to behave as if the h were a consonant. This is why modern French has two h forms: the
aspirate form, which for the most part indicates Frankish origin, such as la haine, le héron, la
honte, and the unaspirate form, which generally indicates non-Frankish origin, such as l'homme,
l'heure, l'honneur. The origins of the aspirate h form is also the reason why when French borrows
words beginning with h from English, the h is aspirated, as with le hitparade, le hockey, le hall.

Another Frankish import into Gallo-Roman at the time was the letter w. A number of words
beginning with a w were adopted, but as the Gallo-Romans did not have a w sound, these were
replaced with gw and finally g. This is why some Germanic words in English begin with w (as in
wager, war and the name William) have equivalents in French that begin with g (gage, guerre and
the name Guillaume).

Another indirect way in which the Franks influenced French was through word Effect of
stress. The Frankish language, rather like modern English, was characterised Frankish word
by a stress pattern whereby one particular syllable was stressed whilst the stress on
remaining syllables were unstressed. This contrasted with the Gallo-Roman French
language of the time which, like modern French, does not have syllable stress.
This can be illustrated by comparing the English word agriculture, where the first syllable is
stressed and the others unstressed, with the modern French word agriculture, where all syllables are
broadly speaking stressed equally. After the invasion of the Franks, Gallo-Roman for a time began
to take on the stress pattern of Frankish. As a result a word such as pedem (foot) took on syllable
stress, taking on the pronunciation 'pee-dem'. As time went on, however, stressed vowels tended to
become dipthongs (that is to say, two-vowel sounds) whilst unstressed vowels tended to become a
neutral uh sound, or even disappear altogether. Thus the first syllable of pedem became 'pi-ay'
whilst the second disappeared altogether, forming the word which would become the modern
French pied. A similar process happened with the word tela meaning cloth. The first syllable of tela
became 'ay-ee' which then contracted to 'wa', whilst the second disappeared altogether giving the
modern French toile.

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Another Frankish influence on the development of French lies in the position Why do some
of adjectives with regard to nouns. Whilst in modern French the tendency is to adjectives in
place adjectives after the nouns (e.g. une fleur blanche) except with certain French come
very common adjectives (une longue histoire), in Old French the situation was before the
much more fluid, with many adjectives coming before the noun. Given that noun?
Germanic languages tend to place adjectives before the noun (e.g. a white flower), it seems likely
that it is due to Frankish influence that French does not place adjectives exclusively after the noun.
This view is reinforced by the fact that many common place names in Northern Europe where the
Germanic influence was strong contain prepositive adjectives (Neufchâtel, Neuveville,
Francheville), but in more southerly areas where Germanic influence was weaker they contain
postpositive adjectives (Châteauneuf, Villeneuve, Villefranche).

5 Charlemagne
In the year 771 the Frankish monarch Charlemagne (whose name derives from
the Latin Carolus Magnus meaning "Charles the Great") united many of the AD 771 - 814
territories that were formerly part of the Roman Empire in what became known as the Carolingian
Empire. By that time the spoken Gallo-Roman language was quite different from classical Latin,
the latter being virtually unintelligible to the great majority of people. Although a Germanic
speaker, Charlemagne had a great respect for Latin born of its association with ancient Roman
culture and the Church, and because of this wished to see it restored to its classical form. To this
end, he employed scholars from all over his Empire, the most famous being the English monk
Alcuin, to write and teach classical Latin. Among the most significant achievements was the
duplication of some of the great works of Ancient Rome and Greece, many of which now only
survive from these copies. Another achievement was his commissioning of a series of lexicons
listing words in Gallo-Roman and Classical Latin, making important classical Latin texts such as St
Jerome's Latin Bible more accessible. With this renaissance in scholarship came a reformation of
writing convention called Caroline minuscule whereby words were written in a clear lower-case
script and were clearly separated from each other. It also instituted the convention of beginning
sentences with a capital letter.

A significant consequence of this was the creation of a "Latinizing tendency", that is to say the
tendency to introduce into the popular language words stemming directly from classical Latin
alongside those introduced into the language via the Roman invasions. This gave rise to the
phenomenon of doublets, that is two words of differing meanings with the same etymology. For
example:

Inherited through Gallo-Roman Imported from classical Latin

frêle (weak) fragile (fragile)
hôtel (hôtel) hôpital (hospital)
poison (poison) potion (potion)

Another consequence of this was the introduction of a large number of abstract nouns stemming
directly from Latin. For example:

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Adjective (via Gallo-Roman) Noun (via classical Latin)

proche (near) proximité (nearness)
certain (certain) certitude (certainty)
entier (full) intégrité (fullness)
mûr (mature) maturité (maturity)

From an English point of view, this certainly adds to the complication of learning French when one
considers the ease with which English can create nouns out of adjectives by adding the suffix -ness
or –ty.

When Charlemagne died in 814 there was an increasing conflict between the AD 814 - 843
various regions of the Carolingian Empire. When Charlemagne's son, Louis the
Pious, died in 840 there was civil war between his three sons. The year 842 saw the signing of the
Strasbourg Oaths, a defensive pact between two of his sons Louis the German and Charles the
Bald against their brother Lothair, which is the earliest surving written document in the French
language. This was followed by the Treaty of Verdun in 843 which divided the Empire into three
parts. The reigning Emperor Lothair was given the kingdom of Italy plus Francia Media, a
collection of Frankish lands to the west of the Rhine including much if what is now Holland,
Belgium and eastern France. This was renamed Lotharingia after its ruler, from which the name
Lorraine is derived. Louis the German became ruler of Francia Orientalis, the Frankish lands of
Germanic speech to the east of the Rhine. The Latin name soon fell into disuse in favour of the
Germanic word Tiutschland, or "Land of the Germans", hence the German word Deutschland.
(The term Allemagne comes from Allemani, the name of another Germanic tribe who settled in
what is now Alsace). Finally Charles the Bald was given control of Francia Occidentalis,
containing much of what is now western and central France. Given the name changes of the other
two parts of the former empire, the occidentalis became redundant, and was contracted to Francia,
from which the name France is derived.

6 The influence of Old Norse

During the mid-800s Northern France was subjected to a series of raids by the AD 850 - 911
Vikings, seafaring warriors from Scandinavia, occurring in the northern coastal
areas of France and in inland towns such as Rouen and Paris that could be accessed by river. In 911
the Treaty of St Clair sur Epte was signed granting the raiders, who came to be known as
“Norsemen”, the territory that became known as Normandy. Their chief, Rollo made Rouen his
capital and is widely considered to have been the first Duke of Normandy.

For reasons both of numbers and the fact that the invaders were predominantly males, the Vikings
quickly intermarried with the local population and soon began speaking French instead of Old
Norse. As such the influence of Old Norse on French is relatively small, confining itself in the main
to two areas:
• Place names – those of Norman origin include those ending –bec (meaning stream), -fleur
(meaning bay), and -tot (meaning farm).
• Certain specialist nautical terms such as cingler (= to sail) and ris (=reef), but also a small
number of common terms such as vague (= wave).

7 Dialectization and the rise of Francien

During the Roman Empire the spoken form of Latin was broadly the same as in
AD 987 - 1200
any part of the Empire, be it in what is now France, Spain or Italy. The effect
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of the Germanic invasions that brought about the fall of the Roman Empire was to create a strong
tendency towards linguistic fragmentation or "dialectization". This was in part because of the
number of different Germanic languages that were influencing the spoken Latin of the time.
Another important factor was the fact that Europe had changed from a highly centralized form of
administration to a system of feudalism, where communities had very few dealings outside of the
territory of their local feudal overlord, and still fewer outside their broader geographical region. Not
only did this lead to dialectization throughout the former Empire, but also within the various
Romance-speaking countries. As such there were a range of different forms of Gallo-Roman, so
that someone from Paris would be virtually incomprehensible to someone from Limousin, who
would be equally incomprehensible to someone from Burgundy, and so on.

The language that became the standard spoken and written language in France,
Emergence of
was the dialect spoken in the Ile de France (that is, Paris and the surrounding Francien as
area) called Francien. (This region was referred to as an "island" because it lies dominant
near the confluence of three rivers, the Seine, the Oise and the Marne; it was dialect
referred to as France at the time because it was the oldest Frankish settlement
in the territory.) There are various reasons why Francien became the dominant dialect in France.
The Ile de France had a large population compared with other regions, and it was economically and
agriculturally rich. In 987 the Duke of the tiny kingdom of France was elected king by his peers,
that is to say he became the feudal overlord of the territories in the former Gaul, but not the direct
ruler of them. From around 1100 onwards the Kings of France began to hold court in Paris. This
court became a source of literary patronage, giving to Francien a considerable literary prestige.
One particular type of French poetic narrative, which related the adventures and loves of legendary
or idealized heroes, became extremely popular throughout Europe. Such narratives came to be
known as Romances after the language family to which French belonged, from which the modern
French word roman meaning novel comes, and the English word romantic. Further adding to
Francien's prestige was the establishment of the Sorbonne and other educational and legal bodies in
Paris around this time. Finally, Francien was geographically at the centre of the Northern Langue
d'Oil region, and thus served as a lingua franca or language of expedience between other northern
dialects which were not always mutually comprehensible.

Over the next few centuries the influence of Latin began to wane and people
began to write administrative documents in their own dialect rather than Latin. 1500 - 1600
onwards
As France became more of a centralized nation the existence of different written dialects led to
confusion and ambiguity in adminstrative texts. In response to this, in 1539 François I passed the
decree of Villers-Cotterêts making it compulsory for all official administrative documents to be
written in French, that is the dialect of Francien. During this time French began to take on more and
more words from other languages, as the vernacular language lacked the more specialist vocabulary
necessary for it to perform its new role as administrative language of the nation. Furthermore
French was being increasingly used in scholarly texts (for example, Jacques Cartier’s geographical
writings and Nostradamus’ astrological writings were written in French), further necessitating the
import of new words.

But the ascendancy of French did not just occur for administrative or academic reasons but for
cultural reasons as well. With the Renaissance at its height, ancient Greece and Rome became
models for all the burgeoning new European states, and the idea of a strong and versatile national
language – like Greek and Latin before it – became paramount. During this time the expansion of
the vocabulary of French became a question of national prestige. New words arrived from Latin
(agriculteur, fidèle and gratuité), Greek (académie, enthousiasme and sympathie), Spanish
(anchois, bizarre and camarade) and Arabic (chiffre, zéro, tasse, jupe). But the greatest number of
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words during this period were imported from Italian (the fact that Catherine de Medici was for a
long time Regent of France create a fashion for things Italian). Italian imports included artisan,
balcon, banque, cabinet, concert and passager. Also this period saw the appearance of the first
French grammar book - John Palsgrave’s Esclarcissement de la langue françoyse - in 1530.
Despite its French title the book was, ironically, written in English.

If Francien was now the dominant dialect both legally and culturally, this did not stop it borrowing
from other dialects. For example, the words abeille, auberge, casserole and salade come from
Provençal; crabe, cable, crevette and falaise come from Normand; avalanche and chalet come
from Savoyard; bijou comes from Breton; boulanger and cauchemar come from Picard-Walloon;
buerre and poêle come from Lorrain; and choucroute and quiche come from Alsacien.

It was also during the 16th century that accents began to appear. With the recent
invention of the printing press, printers looked for ways of eliminating The birth of
accents
ambiguity and redundant letters. The solution to these problems was the use of
accents and other markings. For example, in 1530 the cedilla was introduced as a means of making
it clear that the c was soft before a, o and u (up till then printers had used -ce-, -ss-, -ch- or just -c-).
And in 1531 the e acute was introduced on final syllables of words, and the apostrophe also made
its appearance. It was also during this period the e acute began to be used to replace superfluous
consonants, as in école which was formerly written (but not pronounced) eschole. It was not until
the 1700s, however, that internal consonants disappeared to be replaced by acute or circonflex
accents. For example, mesme became même, and teste became tête.

The second half of the 1500s was characterized by major political instability
due principally to religious conflict and a series of weak monarchs. In some 1600s – an era
of linguistic
ways as a reaction to this, the 1600s was characterized by a highly regimented regulation
social structure centered around an absolute monarchy. This regimentation was
parallelled by an enthusiasm in literature and the arts for the classical values of simplicity and
austerity. One first manifestation of this as far as the French language is concerned was the work of
the grammarian Malherbe, who sought to add clarity to the language of the Royal Court by ridding
it of archaisms, neologisms and words borrowed from other dialects or languages. Just as
influential was the grammarian Vaugelas whose Remarques sur la langue Françoise (1647) sought
to rationalize and simplify the French language, and was referred to by many of the great writers of
the period who undertook revisions of their works as a result. Most influential of all was the
Grammaire de Port-Royal which evoked the authority of both logic and usage as a means of
returning simplicity and elegance to the language. Another manifestation of this linguistic
regimentation was the founding by Cardinal Richelieu in 1635 of the Académie Française. This
body was set up to regulate the development of the French language as a means of fostering
national identity and political unity. Over the years the Académie produced a series of publications
such as dictionaries through which it codified the spelling, vocabulary and grammar of the new
language.

It was also during the 1600s that the past historic and the imperfect subjunctive began to disappear
from use in spoken French on account of their complexity. The past historic (the passé simple or
the “simple past”, so-called because it is made up of one verb) was replaced by the perfect (the
passé composé or “compound past”) which was much easier to form. And the imperfect
subjunctive was replaced by the present subjunctive, creating a sequence of tenses that goes against
expectation for the English speaker: J’étais contente qu’il soit (rather than fusse) là – I was pleased
that he was there. Both forms are still used in written French today, but only in very formal or
literary contexts.
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Although the decree of Villers-Cotterêts ensured the use of written French (i.e. 1700 – 20th C
Francien) in official documentation throughout France, it remained the case
that most people could not understand French and still fewer could speak it. In 1790 it is estimated
that out of a population of 25 million people, about a quarter could not speak French and another
quarter could only speak it a little. During the French Revolution the revolutionary government
attempted to get rid of the 30 or so local dialects in favour of French in order to eradicate the
vestiges of feudalism and achieve national unity. This they attempted to achieve through the
creation of compulsory French-language schooling, French newspapers and the compulsory use of
French in local government. A lack of qualified teachers meant that it was not until 1832 that the
first primary schools were introduced but even then it was not until the 1880s that universal
compulsory primary schooling was achieved. It was also in 1832 that the government decreed that
the spelling and grammar stipulated by the Académie Française was compulsory for public exams,
official documents and to obtain state employment. It is as a result of this that there has arisen in
France a far more prescriptive attitude towards grammar and vocabulary than exists in England, an
attitude that informs some of the legislation relating to the French language that has been passed in
recent years.

Despite the introduction of primary schooling most people continued to use regional dialects during
the 19th century. It was not until the First World War that the tide began to turn away from regional
dialects and towards the national language. Because of the appalling losses experienced during the
first battles, units originally formed along regional lines were reformed, taking in soldiers from
every part of France. As a result soldiers tended to use French to communicate, and this trend
continued in post-war life. With fathers speaking French at home, draconian punishments for
children who used dialects at school and the development of mass media and publishing, it was not
long before French achieved the universal status that it enjoys today.

8 French in the 20th century

If it was during the 20th century that French was fully established as the national language of
France, it was ironically during the same century that there occured a dramatic decline in its
international influence. From around the time of Louis XIV to the beginning of the 20th century
French was very much viewed as the language of international communication within European
and European-influenced countries. This situation probably arose out of a number of factors
including the consistant political power that France enjoyed during this time, its geographical
position at the heart of Europe, its strong historical relations with all the major Western nations, its
immense cultural prestige, both in terms of the arts and in terms of "cultured living " (food, wine,
fashion, furniture etc.), aspects that were important to the international diplomatic set. Various
factors, most notably the dominance of the United States in international politics, commerce,
technology and popular culture, have meant that it is now English and not French that is the
dominant international language. However, in many ways French still retains its role as an
international language of communication, being an official language in most of the major
international organisations such as the United Nations, the European Union, NATO and UNESCO.

For some it is not just internationally that French is under threat, but also
within France itself, on account of lowering grammatical and orthographic Legislation in
standards, and the relentless incursions of English. In order to combat this defence of
perceived decline the Haut Comité pour la défense de la langue française was French
established in 1966, following in the tradition of linguistic regulation established with the founding
of the Académie Française. Perhaps its most significant action has been the establishment in 1976

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of the loi Bas-Lauriol which greatly restricted the use of foreign language in a wide range of
official documents and public media, most notably advertising, radio and television. This was
reinforced in 1994 by the Loi Toubon, which among other things restricted the transmission of
English-language music to 40% of daily airplay. In 1984 the Haut Comité became the
Commissariat général de la langue française and continued the regulatory work by offering official
French terms to replace imported English ones, such as commercialisation for marketing, and
logiciel for software. On a grammatical and orthographic level the regulatory mantle has passed to
the Minister of Education, who has the power to decree on these matters via Tolérances published
in the Journal officiel de la République française.

It would be wrong, however, to assume from this tendency towards linguistic regulation that the
French language is in any respect developmentally static, insular or inflexible. French remains open
to foreign - especially English – borrowings. Indeed it often adapts its English borrowings in such a
way as they become purely French words, that is they no longer have meaning in their original
language, e.g. parking (= car park) and rugbyman (= rugby player). But far more new words are
created from French's own resources through processes such as prefixation, e.g. déindustrialiser (=
deindustrialize) and suffixation, e.g. perceuse (= drill) or changing meaning e.g cohabitation (=
cohabitation). Indeed English loan words can be given French suffixes to create words that are
wholly French e.g. gadgetisation, gadgétophile; or else French words coined to replace English
words can spawn new words lacking in English, e.g. logiciel, coined to replace software, has led to
progiciel (= software package) and didacticiel (= teaching software), whilst informatique (=
computing) has produced bureautique (= office automation), productique (= industrial automation)
and télématique (= telematics). Furthermore, French has a significant capacity for creating
compound words e.g. porte-savon (= soap holder), rond-point (= roundabout), tournevis (=
screwdriver) and mise en cause (= implication), a quality more commonly associated with English
and other Germanic languages. Indeed modern French, led by the media and advertising, is taking
on a syntactic flexibility akin to English, for example using transitive verbs intransitively e.g. Le
chocolat, j'adore! (= I adore chocolate!) or vice-versa e.g. parler football (= to talk football) or
using a range of juxtapositions such as pause café (= coffee break), tarif étudiant (= student price)
or responsable formation (= training manager).

9 French in the world

France is of course not the only country in the world where French is spoken.
French in
There are four other countries in Europe in which French has shared official Europe
status: Belgium, Switzerland, Luxemburg and Italy. Belgium came into being
in 1830 after a long history of being governed by other nations such as the Spanish, Austrians,
French and Dutch. Belgium itself comprises two main groups, the Flemish who inhabit Flanders
where the official language is Flemish, a variation of Dutch; and the Walloons who inhabit
Wallonia where the official language is French. The capital Brussels is officially bilingual, but is
largely French-speaking. Overall there are some 4 million native French-speakers in Belgium.
Despite this small number, Belgium has significantly contributed to French's international profile
through its colonial history and its role as one of the major centres of the European Union. French
is one of the three official languages of Switzerland, along with German and Italian, and is spoken
by about 1.3 million people. The largest French-speaking city in Switzerland, Geneva, is host to a
number of international organisations, including the United Nations and the International Red
Cross.

French is also the official language of Luxemburg, although most citizens are trilingual, speaking
Luxemburgish (a dialect of German) in informal contexts, French and German. Here too the

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presence of a major European centre, the European Parliament, serves to maintain the profile of
French as an international language. A further European outpost of French is in the Val d'Aoste
region of North-West Italy, where French remains an official language. Although most people
speak Italian as a first language, French is still part of people's cultual identity, and children are
often taught to speak it from a very young age.

There is in fact a part of the United Kingdom where French has co-official status - the Channel
Islands (Jersey, Guernsey and Sark). Known in French as the Iles Anglo-Normandes, these were
part of the Duchy of Normandy prior to the 1066 invasion, and were consequently French-
speaking. After the Norman Conquest they came under the authority of the English crown, a
situation that has not changed in spite of the fact that mainland Normandy passed back to the
French crown during the late Middle Ages.

France's colonial past has meant that there is a large number of French-
French outside
speakers outside of Europe. France's first wave of colonial expansion lasted of Europe
from the early 1600s to the mid 1700s and involved the colonization of parts of
America, India and West Africa. The second lasted from 1830 to the 1920s, involving both France
and Belgium, and involved the colonization of parts of Africa and the Middle and Far East. The
result of this is that there are now more than 112 million people who count French as their first
language (another 60 million people use French as an occasional language), serving to rank French
ninth in the world in terms of language use. Of the nearly 50 million native French speakers outside
of Europe, the greatest proportion are to be found in Central and West Africa where French is in
many cases the official language. The highest concentration of French speakers are to be found in
the Maghreb (Algeria, Morocco and Tunisia) although many speakers are also to be found in
countries such as Ivory Coast, Cameroon, Senegal, Zaïre, Togo, Congo, Burkina Faso and Mali. In
the Indian Ocean there are significant numbers of French speakers in Madagascar, Mauritius and
the Réunion (which is a Département d’Outre Mer or DOM, meaning that it is administered like a
metropolitan département).

French is also widely spoken in Canada where it is the co-official language with English. Overall
6 million people are native speakers, of which 5 million live in Quebec. Differences with standard
French pronunciation include infin for enfants, p'tsi for p'tit, and dziue for dieu. There are also some
300 000 French speakers in Louisiana (named by French settlers after Louis XIV). These speak one
of two dialects, colonial French (in New Orleans and the plantations along the Mississippi) and
Cajun (whose speakers are the descendants of the first French settlers in Canada called Acadians).
In South America French is spoken in the DOM French Guyana. There are also French speakers in
the West Indies (Haiti, and the DOMs Guadeloupe and Martinique) and in Oceania (New
Caledonia and French Polynesia which are Territoires d’Outre Mer or TOMs, meaning that they
are administered like a colony). In the Middle East Lebanon remains the one country with a
significant French presence, on account of the fact that a great proportion of the political
establishment have received a French education. Finally in Asia French has prestige among the
intellectual elites in Cambodia and Laos, but has declined in recent years in Vietnam.

Most of these above states belong to an international organisation called La Francophonie open to
any nation or indeed region with a significant French-speaking population. Although the term dates
from the 19th century, the current organisation dates from 1970 with the creation of the Agence de
coopération cuturelle et technique francophone. The project was given added momentum with the
holding of the first international summit meeting in Paris in 1986, and the subsequent summits,
held biannually since 1987, have seen more and more states and regions taking part. Although the
member countries of La Francophonie differ greatly in terms of size, geography, wealth and
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ethnicity, they all share a belief in the cultural and economic importance of maintaining and
furthering the status of French within the world.

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