Chapter II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

This chapter explores various related literature and studies

that would be useful in the completion of this current study

providing basis and support for research.

Beauty Standards

Beauty standards in society tell people how they should

look. However, with the integration of media in today’s society,

there is more pressure for people, especially young females, to

look a certain way and have a specific body type. Beauty

standards are the ideals and perceptions of beauty that society

and culture place on people. They determine what is considered

“beautiful” and can include height and weight, facial

proportions, and body shape.1 Previous researches note that these

standards may contribute to the growing body image issues for

various reasons.

Consequently, beauty standards are a set of values applied

to the appearance of both men and women to be regarded as

1
French, M. (2024). What is the connection between beauty standards and
mental health?. Medical News Today. Retrieved on October 26, 2024 at
[Link]
health#
beautiful and handsome in order to rightly fit in the community.

These standards are concerned with people’s skin, hair, clothing,

and other parts of the body.2 Setting a certain standard for

beauty not only affects the well-being of an individual but

affects the individual as a whole. These standards pushes them to

their limits which strains their well-being and perception of

themselves. Another study noted that beauty standards have always

been extremely prevalent throughout human history, and today they

drastically affect everyday interaction, the media, and the

commercial world. Also, in an article, it argued that beauty

standards are set by a human nature to seek reproductive health

in others, but also explains that people tend to “deceive” others

by using clothing, makeup, and other methods to seem more

attractive.3 Focusing on evolutionary standpoint, it failed to

address the impacts of non-evolutionary influences, such as

cultural or social standards.

Beauty standards have evolved significantly over time and

differ across cultures and societies. These standards are often

influenced by a variety of factors, including media

2
Raaziya, S. (2023). Dominating Beauty Standards: 4 Reasons Why High
Beauty Standards are Dangerous. Retrieved on October 26, 2024 at
[Link]
beauty-standards-4-reasons-why-high-beauty-standards-are-dangerous

3
Yarosh, D. (2019). Perception and Deception: Human Beauty and Brain.”
Behavioral Sciences (Base, Switzerland) vol.9,4 34. doi:10.3390/bs9040034
representation, historical context, and socio-economic

conditions. In the media representation and beauty standards, the

media plays a crucial role in shaping and perpetuating beauty

standards. Research indicates that exposure to idealized images

in the media can influence individuals' perceptions of beauty and

their own body image4. Studies have shown that repeated exposure

to these images can lead to body dissatisfaction and the

internalization of unrealistic beauty ideals.5

In its historical context, beauty standards are not static

and have changed throughout history. For instance, during the

Renaissance period, fuller figures were considered the epitome of

beauty, reflecting the socio-economic status and health.6 During

the Victorian era, a pale complexion and a fuller figure were

considered signs of beauty and wealth. Contrarily, the Roaring

Twenties celebrated a more boyish and slender silhouette for

women. The post-World War II era saw the rise of curvaceous

figures epitomized by icons like Marilyn Monroe, which again

shifted to a preference for slimmer bodies during the late 20th

century. These shifts reflect broader socio-economic and cultural

4
Thompson, J. K., & Heinberg, L. J. (1999). The Media's Influence on Body
Image Disturbance and Eating Disorders: We've Reviled Them, Now Can We
Rehabilitate Them?Journal of Social Issues, 55(2), 339-353.
5
Levine, M. P., & Piran, N. (1999). Reflections on the Role of Prevention
in the Link Between Sociocultural Factors and Eating [Link]
Disorders: The Journal of Treatment & Prevention, 7(4), 298-310.
6
Kushner, R. F. (1990). Historical Perspectives of Body Weight and Weight
[Link] of the American Medical Association, 264(5), 591-595.
changes. In contrast, the 20th century saw a shift towards

thinner body ideals, influenced by the rise of fashion models and

Hollywood celebrities.7 Also, in the sense of cultural

diffrences, beauty standards vary greatly across different

cultures. In some cultures, features such as lighter skin,

straight hair, and slim bodies are idealized, often due to

colonial history and Western influence.8 Conversely, other

cultures may celebrate curvier figures or darker skin tones,

reflecting their unique cultural heritage and values. 9 These

cultural differences highlight the variability and complexity of

beauty standards around the world.

Socio-economic conditions also play a role in shaping beauty

standards. In times of economic prosperity, there may be a

preference for more extravagant and luxurious beauty ideals. In

contrast, during economic downturns, simpler and more attainable

beauty standards may be favored.10 During times of economic

prosperity, beauty ideals often include signs of affluence and

luxury, such as well-groomed appearances and fashionable attire.

7
Garner, D. M., Garfinkel, P. E., Schwartz, D., & Thompson, M. (1980).
Cultural Expectations of Thinness in [Link] Reports, 47(2),
483-491.
8
Glenn, E. N. (2008). Yearning for Lightness: Transnational Circuits in
the Marketing and Consumption of Skin [Link] & Society, 22(3),
281-302.
9
Popenoe, R. (2004). Feeding Desire: Fatness, Beauty, and Sexuality Among
a Saharan [Link].
10
Mackenzie, S. (1988). The Political Economy of [Link]'s Studies
International Forum, 11(5), 465-471.
In contrast, economic downturns may lead to more practical and

attainable beauty ideals. This correlation between economic

conditions and beauty standards underscores the influence of

societal factors on perceptions of attractiveness. Additionally,

adherence to societal beauty standards can have significant

psychological and social implications. Individuals who do not

conform to these standards may experience lower self-esteem,

social exclusion, and mental health issues.11 The pressure to

conform to societal beauty standards can have severe

psychological consequences. Body dissatisfaction, eating

disorders, and low self-esteem are commonly associated with the

internalization of unrealistic beauty ideals12. Additionally,

beauty standards can affect social interactions and

opportunities. Studies have shown that individuals who meet

societal beauty standards often receive preferential treatment in

various areas, including hiring, promotions, and social

relationships. This phenomenon, known as "lookism," underscores

the societal bias towards physical appearance. Conversely, those

who align closely with beauty ideals may receive social benefits,

such as increased popularity and perceived competence.13 Hence

this paper particularly aims in addressing what possible

11
Grabe, S., Ward, L. M., & Hyde, J. S. (2008). The Role of the Media in
Body Image Concerns Among Women: A Meta-Analysis of Experimental and
Correlational [Link] Bulletin, 134(3), 460-476.
12
Swami, V. (2015). Cultural Influences on Body Size Ideals: Unpacking the Impact of Westernization and
[Link] Psychologist, 20(1), 44-51.
perceptions does the respondents of the study have in terms of

the set beauty standards, particularly in the country.

Subsequently, the impact of globalization on beauty

standards has played a significant role in homogenizing beauty

standards across different cultures. The global reach of Western

media has led to the widespread adoption of Western beauty

ideals, often at the expense of local beauty standards. This

convergence has sparked debates about cultural imperialism and

the loss of cultural diversity in beauty perceptions.14 However,

there is also a growing movement towards celebrating diverse

beauty standards and challenging the dominance of Western ideals.

Furthermore, the note on beauty standard varies from country

to country, region to region, and culture to culture. It is a set

of characteristics seen as aesthetically pleasing, and what makes

someone “beautiful”.15 What is considered as conventionally

attractive can vary from region to region. In the Philippines,

the notion on having fair and milky complexion is one of the

perceived beauty standards. This results to the promotion of

13
Langlois, J. H., et al. (2000). Maxims or Myths of Beauty? A Meta-

Analytic and Theoretical [Link] Bulletin, 126(3), 390-423.

14
McClintock, A. (1995). Imperial Leather: Race, Gender, and Sexuality in the Colonial [Link].
15
Ligutom, J. (2021). Beauty Standards and Colorism. The Project Lotus.
Retrieved on October 26, 2024 at
[Link]
beauty and whitening products as people wants to be

conventionally beautiful. In line with this perceptions, the

researchers wants to conduct a research in order to know the

perceptions of the respondents of the study about beauty

standards.

Self-esteem

Self-esteem is how we value and perceive ourselves. It is

based on our opinions and beliefs about ourselves, which can feel

difficult to change.16 Self-esteem is how a person thinks and

feels about their own qualities and characteristics. A person who

has positive thoughts about their qualities and characteristics

has high self-esteem. On the other hand, a person with negative

thoughts about their qualities and characteristics has low self-

esteem. Low self-esteem can impact people of all ages, including

children. However, young adults tend to have lower self-esteem

than older adults, and women tend to have lower self-esteem than

men.

Beyond these trends, many different circumstances, thoughts,

and beliefs can impact self-esteem throughout life. A person

16
What is Self-esteem. Retrieved on October 26,2024 at
[Link]
problems/sel-esteem/
could have general low self-esteem, or low self-esteem in all

areas. It is also possible to have low self-esteem in only some

areas, though low self-esteem can carry over into other areas as

well. Self-esteem can be impacted by different areas of a person

and their life, and self-esteem affects all areas of life.17 In

case of the physical appearance, body image, and weight, these

are all linked to self-esteem. Low self-esteem in these areas

impacts many teens and adults. More positive body image is

associated with higher self-esteem and decreased risk of harmful

effects such as eating disorders. Higher weight is associated

with more negative body image, lower self-esteem.

Self-esteem is generally defined as an individual's overall

sense of self-worth or self-respect. It is a crucial component of

one's self-concept, encompassing beliefs about personal

attributes and abilities.18 Rosenberg (1965) is one of the

pioneers in defining self-esteem as a person's evaluation of

their own worth. It is how you view your self-worth.19

Several theories have been proposed to explain the

development and maintenance of self-esteem. Maslow's hierarchy of

17
What is Self-esteem and How to Improve it. Retrieved on October 26, 2024
at [Link]
Farooq Jan, M. R., Khan, I., & Khan, S. (2014). The Self-
18

Esteem: A Review of [Link] of Academic Advancement

and Social Sciences, 2(1), 1-10.
19
Ibid18
needs includes self-esteem as a fundamental human need,

suggesting that individuals strive to achieve a sense of

accomplishment and recognition.20 Social identity theory posits

that self-esteem can be derived from personal traits (personal

self-esteem), relationships with significant others (relational

self-esteem), and relationships with larger groups (collective

self-esteem).21 Self-esteem is influenced by a variety of

factors, including genetic predispositions, family dynamics, peer

relationships, and cultural context. Research has shown that

positive feedback from significant others and achievements can

enhance self-esteem, while negative feedback and failures can

diminish it. Additionally, socio-economic status and educational

background play a role in shaping self-esteem. Self-esteem is

commonly measured using self-report questionnaires, such as the

Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (RSES).22 The RSES assesses global

self-worth by measuring positive and negative feelings about the

self1. Other scales, such as the Coopersmith Self-Esteem

Inventory and the Self-Perception Profile for Children, are also

widely used in research. Self-esteem is closely linked to

psychological well-being. High self-esteem is associated with

20
Du, H., King, R. B., & Chi, P. (2017). Self-esteem and
subjective well-being revisited: The roles of personal,
relational, and collective [Link] ONE, 12(13, e0183958.
21
Ibid20
22
Ibid18
greater life satisfaction, positive affect, and resilience in the

face of stressors.23 Conversely, low self-esteem is linked to

mental health issues such as depression, anxiety, and eating

disorders. Self-compassion, which involves treating oneself with

kindness and understanding, has been found to be a strong

predictor of stable self-esteem and mental health.

Furthermore, self-esteem can fluctuate throughout the

lifespan. During childhood and adolescence, self-esteem tends to

be more unstable due to the developmental changes and social

comparisons. In adulthood, self-esteem generally stabilizes,

although it can still be influenced by life events and

transitions.24 Research has shown that self-esteem tends to

decline in older adulthood, possibly due to physical and

cognitive changes. Various interventions have been developed to

enhance self-esteem, including cognitive-behavioral therapy

(CBT), self-compassion training, and positive psychology

interventions. These interventions aim to improve self-

perception, challenge negative self-beliefs, and promote self-

acceptance1. Studies have shown that these interventions can lead

23
Children’s Aid Society. (2018). Self-Esteem Literature

[Link]’s Aid Society

24
Ibid18
to significant improvements in self-esteem and overall well-

being.

In relation to the study, the researchers want to find out

how beauty standards affects the self-esteem of the respondents

as to how they perceive beauty.

Body Image

Body image is a multidimensional construct that encompasses an

individual's perceptions, thoughts, and feelings about their own

body.25 It includes both the evaluative aspect (satisfaction or

concern with appearance) and the centrality of body image to an

individual's identity. Historically, much of the empirical

research has focused on body image from a deficit lens,

particularly as a risk factor for poor mental health and

psychopathology, including eating disorders and other mental

health concerns. Several theories have been proposed to explain

the development and maintenance of body image. Social comparison

theory suggests that individuals evaluate themselves in relation

to others, which can lead to body dissatisfaction if they

Huguenin, F. M., Almeida, V. A. R., Rodrigues, M. V. F.,

25

Ferreira, M. E. C., & Morgado, F. F. R. (2024). Body image of

university students: a systematic review of the characteristics
of [Link]: Reflexão e Crítica, 37, Article
number: 22.
perceive themselves as less attractive. Objectification theory

posits that societal standards of beauty lead to the

internalization of these standards, resulting in body

surveillance and body shame.26 Cognitive-behavioral models

emphasize the role of cognitive distortions and negative self-

talk in the development of body image concerns. Body image is

influenced by a variety of factors, including genetic

predispositions, family dynamics, peer relationships, and

cultural context. Research has shown that positive feedback from

significant others and achievements can enhance body image, while

negative feedback and failures can diminish it.27 Additionally,

socio-economic status and educational background play a role in

26
Rodgers, R. F., Laveway, K., Campos, P., & Berbert de Carvalho,
P. H. (2023). Body image as a global mental health
[Link] Prisms: Global Mental Health, 10, e9.
27
Merino, M., Tornero-Aguilera, J. F., Rubio-Zarapuz, A.,

Villanueva-Tobaldo, C. V., Martín-Rodríguez, A., & Clemente-

Suárez, V. J. (2024). Body Perceptions and Psychological Well-

Being: A Review of the Impact of Social Media and Physical

Measurements on Self-Esteem and Mental Health with a Focus on

Body Image Satisfaction and Its Relationship with Cultural and

Gender [Link], 12(14), 1396

shaping body image. Body image is commonly measured using self-

report questionnaires, such as the Body Image Questionnaire (BIQ)

and the Body Shape Questionnaire (BSQ). These scales assess

various aspects of body image, including satisfaction with

appearance, body dissatisfaction, and the impact of body image on

daily functioning.28 Other scales, such as the Multidimensional

Body-Self Relations Questionnaire (MBSRQ), are also widely used

in research. Body image is closely linked to psychological well-

being. High body image satisfaction is associated with greater

life satisfaction, positive affect, and resilience in the face of

stressors29. Conversely, low body image satisfaction is linked to

mental health issues such as depression, anxiety, and eating

disorders. Self-compassion, which involves treating oneself with

kindness and understanding, has been found to be a strong

predictor of stable body image and mental health1. Body image can

fluctuate throughout the lifespan. During childhood and

adolescence, body image tends to be more unstable due to

developmental changes and social comparisons.30 In adulthood,

body image generally stabilizes, although it can still be

influenced by life events and transitions. Research has shown

that body image tends to decline in older adulthood, possibly due

28
Ibid27
29
Ibid 25
30
Ibid25
to physical and cognitive changes.31 Various interventions have

been developed to enhance body image, including cognitive-

behavioral therapy (CBT), self-compassion training, and positive

psychology interventions. These interventions aim to improve

self-perception, challenge negative self-beliefs, and promote

self-acceptance1. Studies have shown that these interventions can

lead to significant improvements in body image and overall well-

being.

These various studies will help the researchers establish

basis for their study and lay foundations for the current study.

These will serve as the base for the development of the current

study.

31
Ibid25